Engineering physics, 22PHYE12/22

Physics for Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream

Module-2

Quantum free electron theory

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory.

1. Energy levels/values of the conduction electrons are quantized.

2. Distribution of electrons in various allowed levels takes place according to Pauli’s exclusion
principle.

3. Conduction electrons travel freely in a constant potential inside the metal, but stay confined
within the boundaries.

4. Attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ion or repulsion between electrons
themselves is ignored.

Fermi energy and Fermi factor.

Fermi energy: In a metal having N atoms, there are N allowed energy levels in each
band. In the energy band the energy levels are separated by energy differences. It is characteristic
of the material. According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, each energy level can accommodate a
maximum of two electrons, one with spin up and the other with spin down. The filling up of
energy levels occurs from the lowest level. The next pair of electrons occupies the next energy
level and so on till all the electrons in the metal are accommodated. Still number of allowed
energy levels, are left vacant. This is the picture when there is no external energy supply for the
electrons.

The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature (0K) is called the
Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level. It is denoted by 'Ef'

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Fermi factor:

At a given temperature, the probability of filling a given energy level with electrons is called the
Fermi-factor. Or

Under thermal equilibrium, the probability of occupancy of electrons at a given energy level is
called the Fermi-factor.

The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady
temperature T is given by

1
f (E)  ( E  EF )

e kT
1

f(E) is called the fermi factor.

Variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy

Consider a Fermi factor

1
f (E)  ( E  EF )

e kT
1

The variation of Fermi-factor is as discussed below.

1. E < EF ; T = 0K:

E  EF 1 1
In this case =-∞  f(E) = 
or f(E) = =1
kT e 1 0 1

It simply means that all the energy levels below Fermi level are occupied at 0 K.

2. E > EF ; T = 0K:

E  EF 1 1 1
In this case = ∞  f(E) = or f(E) = = =0
kT 
e 1  1 

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That is, all the energy levels above Fermi level are empty at 0 K.

3. T > 0 K :

Here, for E << EF f(E) = 1

for E >> EF f(E) = 0 and

1 1
for E = EF f(E) = = = 0.5
e 1 11
0

At ordinary temperatures, electrons get a small energy of the order of 0.025eV. Only those
electrons which lie near the Fermi level can absorb this energy. Hence the distribution alters only
the Fermi level.

Fermi Temperature (TF)

Fermi temperature is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free
electrons in a solid becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K.
It means When T = TF, k TF = EF0
But for all practical purpose, EF0 = EF
Therefore, kTF = EF or
TF =

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Fermi velocity (VF)

The velocity of electrons which occupy the Fermi level is called the Fermi velocity VF
EF =

VF =

Effective mass of electron m*

Due to the periodic potential of the ions in a metal, the mass of an electron effectively alters. The
apparent mass of electron inside a metal is called the effective mass of electron, m*.

Expression for electrical conductivity from the quantum mechanical considerations

ne 2  F

m*v F

This is the expression for conductivity of a metal on basis of sommerfeld’s quantum free electron
theory.

Dielectric Properties of Materials

Dielectrics are insulators, they do not have free electrons, and they do not conduct
electricity. They affect the electric field in which they are placed.
A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance is called electric dipole.
The product of the magnitude of one of the charges and the distance between them is called the
dipole moment.

Polarization: When an electric field is applied to dielectric material, there is displacement of

charged particles leading to formation of dipoles and hence dipole moment which is called
polarization of dielectric.

Dielectrics are of two types: 1) Polar dielectrics 2) Non polar dielectrics

1) In a polar dielectric molecule the centers of positive and negative charge distributions are
separated by a small distance. They act like tiny poles and posses permanent electric dipole
moment.
In the absence of external field, the dipoles are oriented randomly, it results in a net zero
dipole moment for the material.
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2) In non polar dielectric molecule the centers of positive and negative charge distribution
coincide. It has no permanent dipole moment. In the presence of an external field the
charge distribution are separated by a small distance and acquire dipole moment. It is the
induced dipole moment.
The relation between electric intensity E and the electric flux density D for an isotropic
material is given by
D= E
Where =8.854x F/m dielectric constant of air or
vacuum.
is the relative permittivity of the materials.

Electric Polarization and Dielectric susceptibility χ

Consider a dielectric material of area A subjected to an external electric field E. ‘t’ is the
thickness of the slab +q & -q be the induced charges.

The total dipole moment of the material = (charge) x (distance of separation)

 =qxt

The dipole moment per unit volume is called the polarization P.

Total dipole moment of the material qt q

i.e., P   C/m 2
Volume of the material tA A

Thus magnitude of polarization is equal to the induced charge density. But polarization P is
directly proportional to the applied field E.

i.e., P  E

P= E

where  is called dielectric susceptibility.

Relation between polarization P and Dielectric constant (r):

Consider a dielectric slab placed between the two plates and subjected to external electric
field . σ be the charge per unit area of the plates.

By Gauss theorem --------------------(1)

Because of polarization of the slab, a field is established within the slab. This field is opposite
to that of .
The resultant field -------------- (2)
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If is the charge/unit area on the slab surface, then similar to eqn. (1)
----------------------------(3)
From equations (1), (2) & (3)
 p
E 
0 0
--------------------(4)
i.e., [ P = charge/unit area; P = σP ; D = σ By Gauss law]
P  D   0 E -------------------(5)
But D= E
P   0 r E   0 E
 
P   0  r  1 E
P= E
where =( is dielectric susceptibility of the material.

Polarizability ( )
The dipole moment µ acquired by the dielectric atom or molecule is proportional to the
applied electric field E
i.e., µ  E

i.e., µ =  E

where  is the polarizability of the atom. Its unit is Fm2.

TYPES OF POLARIZATION: There are four different types of polarization. They are,

1) Electronic Polarization,
2) Ionic Polarization
3) Oriental polarization and
4) Space charge polarization.

1) Electronic polarization : There is displacement of positive and negative charges due to

applied external electric field. This leads to development of dipole moment. Thus
material gets polarized.
 0  r  1 
The electronic polarization e 
N
Where N is the number of atoms per unit volume.

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2) Ionic Polarization : There is displacement of adjacent opposite ions due to applied

external electric field. Depending on the location of ions there is increase or decrease in
displacement of ions. This leads to development of dipole moment of the material.

3) Orientation polarization : In the absence of the external field, the dipoles are oriented
randomly, the net dipole moment is zero. In the presence of the external field each of the
dipoles undergo rotation so as to reorient in the direction of the field. Thus material
develops electrical polarization. It is the temperature dependant and decreases with
increase of temperature.
2
It is given by  0
3kT
µ-permanent dipole moment,
k-Boltzmann constant, T- Temperature.

4) Space charge polarization: It occurs in multiphase dielectric materials where there is

change of resistivity between different phases. At high temperatures when the material is
subjected to electric field charges are settled at the interface due to sudden drop of
conductivity across the boundary. Opposite nature of charges are settled at opposite parts

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in the low resistivity phase. Thus the material acquires dipole moment in the low
resistivity phase. Space charge polarization is negligible in most dielectrics.

Expression for the internal field in the case of liquids and solids:
(One dimensional)

Internal or local field is the resultant of the applied field and field due to all the
surrounding dipoles on an atom of a solid or a liquid dielectric material.

Consider an array of equivalent atomic dipoles arranged parallel to the direction of the uniform
field E. Let ‘d’ be the inter-atomic distance and µ be the dipole moment of each dipole.

The total field Ei at x is the sum of the applied E and the field due to all the dipoles E
Ei  E  E (1)

is found as follows

The components of the electric field at P due to a dipole in polar form is given by

 cos
Er 
2 0 r 3

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 sin
and E 
4 0 r 3

where is the dipole moment

Since d=r & =00


Er  & E=0
2 0 d 3


 Field at x due to A1 = Er+E =
2 0 d 3


Similarly Field at X due to A2=
2 0 d 3

 
 The net field at X due to A1 & A2 is E1= 2 3 =
2 0 d  0 d 3


2 0 2d 
The net field at X due to B1 & B2 is E2= 3


2 0 3d 
The net field at X due to C1 & C2 is E3= 3

 The total field E at X due to all the dipoles is

E  = E1+E2+E3+..............................

  
2 0 2d  2 0 3d 
= + + + ……………………….
 0 d 3 3 3

  1 1 
= 3 
1  3  3  .................. 
 0 d  2 3 

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  1
= 
 0 d 3 n1 n 3

1.2 
1
E =   1.2
 0 d 3 n 1 n
3

1.2 
The internal field Ei = E + (4)
 0 d 3

1.2 e E
Ei = E +
 0 d 3

Where  = e E, e is the electric polarizability of dipoles.

The equation for internal field in three dimensions is given by
 
Ei = E +   p , where p is the dipole moment per unit volume for the material.

 0

 is internal field constant.

For cubic lattice internal field is called Lorentz field.

 p  1
ELorentz = E +   where  
3
 0 3

CLAUSIUS – MOSSOTTI RELATION:

Consider a dielectric material of dielectric constant r.

The dipole moment / unit volume= N
Where N is the number of atoms per unit volume,  is the dipole moment of each atom. If Ei is
the internal field and e is the electronic polarizability of atoms, then = eEi
The dipole moment / unit volume = N eEi

i.e., polarization p= N eEi

(1)

But where E is the applied field

(2)

We have
 (3)

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where  is the internal field constant

From Equations (1), (2) and (3)

1 1  1 1  1  3   r  1
    
N e  0   0  1 3   0   0  13 
0   2 
 r
N e   r  13 

 r  1  N e 

 r  2  3 0 

This is Clausius- Mossotti equation.

Attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ion or repulsion between electrons
themselves is ignored.

Solid, Liquid and gases Dielectrics

Solid dielectric materials are used in all kinds of electrical circuits and devices to insulate
different voltage levels. A good insulator should be of low dielectric loss, having high
mechanical strength, free from gaseous inclusions and moisture, and should also be resistant to
thermal and chemical deterioration. Solid dielectrics vary widely in their origin and properties.
They may be natural organic substances, such as paper, cloth, rubber, etc. or inorganic materials,
such as mica, glass and ceramics or synthetic materials like epoxy resin, plastics etc.

A liquid dielectric is a dielectric material in liquid state. Its main purpose is to prevent or rapidly
quench electric discharges. Dielectric liquids are used as electrical insulators in high
voltage applications, e.g. transformers, capacitors, high voltage cables,
and switchgear (namely high voltage switchgear). Its function is to provide electrical insulation,
suppress corona and arcing, and to serve as a coolant. Some examples of dielectric liquids
are transformer oil, perfluoroalkanes, and purified water.

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Examples of dielectric gases are Ammonia, Air, Carbon dioxide, Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen, Hydrogen etc.

After breakdown solid insulators get permanently damaged − Gaseous insulators fully recover
their dielectric strength after the applied electric field removed and − Liquid insulators partly
recover their dielectric strength after the applied electric field removed.

Applications of dielectrics in transformers

In general, dielectric fluids maintain electric fields, cool heated electrical components, and
provide electrical insulation. They are used in power transformers, capacitors and other
equipment where their specific properties are required. A power transformer is basically a tank
containing paper-wrapped conductors wound around a steel core and immersed in a dielectric
fluid. The dielectric fluid circulates through the tank by convection or auxiliary pumping. This
fluid picks up heat as it passes the transformer windings and core, and cools as it passes along
the surface of the tank or through radiators. External fans may move air across the radiators and
fins to force cool the fluid. Where a transformer nameplate has more than one kVA rating, the
self-cooled rating which appears first applies to use of that unit without pumps or fans.
Subsequent ratings are the forced-cooled ratings and are listed in the order of the forced cooling
methods listed on the nameplate. But the transformer dielectric does more than transfer heat.
Essentially, each winding turn, the primary and secondary voltage connections, the core and the
tank are at different voltage potentials. The dielectric provides the electrical insulation needed to
minimize current flow between these points where air alone would not provide adequate
insulation. Oil transformer dielectric fluids usually serve one other important purpose. Both
overly moist and excessively dry paper are poor electrical insulators. By saturating the paper
insulation wrapped around the windings, oil improves the paper’s insulating characteristics and
retards moisture penetration into the paper. Similarly, a power factor correction capacitor can be
a tank with internal components that include paper insulation immersed in a dielectric fluid. Or
the capacitor tank can contain tightly packed layers of plastic film and aluminum foil sheets
immersed in the dielectric fluid. Generally, the dielectric fluid in a capacitor serves the same
insulating function as the dielectric in a transformer. Even if a dielectric meets specification, a
severe electric surge can cause electrical breakdown and tank rupture. Contaminated dielectrics
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break down more readily. A severely contaminated dielectric can break down at normal
operating voltage and temperature. Gas bubbles, water, carbon particles and sludge are common
contaminants.

Types of Fluids

Following four liquid filled transformer categories:

• Oil-insulated

• Askarel-Insulated

• Nonflammable Fluid-Insulated

• Less-Flammable Liquid-Insulated.

Transformer oil is refined petroleum oil. It is typically referred to as mineral oil. It has high
dielectric strength and low viscosity. Because is offers little resistance to flow, it is an effective
heat transfer agent. Mineral oil has a flash point of not less than 293°F (145°C). Of all types of
transformers, mineral oil insulated units offer the greatest fire threat due to the severity of the oil
fire that can occur. With aging, impurities accumulate in the oil. Its resistance to breakdown from
voltage gradients decreases. It can sludge. Preventive and corrective measures include
reconditioning or reclaiming the fluid, and using additives.

Super Conductivity

Super conductivity is the phenomenon observed in some metals and materials.

Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911 observed that the electrical resistivity of pure mercury drops
abruptly to zero at about 4.2K .This state is called super conducting state. The material is called
superconductor .The temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called critical
temperature Tc.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:

All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies
with the temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to
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scattering of conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the
amplitude of lattice vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence
of resistance of metal (non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases
with temperature and reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is
due to impurities in the metal.

By Matthiessen’s rule

ρ = ρo + ρ(T)

Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’ is the residual resistivity and ‘ρ(T)’ is the
temperature dependent part of resistivity.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:

One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that electrical
resistivity of metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature. This zero resistivity
or infinite conductivity is known as superconductivity. Temperature at which transition takes
place is known as transition temperature or critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition
temperature, the substance is in the normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. Tc
value is different for different materials.

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“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop
to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and
threshold temperature is called “critical temperature.”

BCS Theory:

Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of

superconductivity based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS theory. It is a
quantum mechanical concept.

When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion core of
lattice, due to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its position, which is called
lattice distortion. The lattice vibrations are quantized in a term called Phonons. Now an electron
which comes near that place will interact with the distorted lattice. This tends to reduce the
energy of the electron. It is equivalent to interaction between the two electrons through the
lattice. This leads to the formation of cooper pairs. “Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons
formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon
field”. According to quantum mechanics a cooper pair is treated as single entity. A wave
function is associated with each cooper pair. This holds good over a large volume with finite
value for its amplitude. The wave function of similar cooper pairs overlaps. For one cooper pair
overlapping may extend over 106 other pairs. Thus it covers entire volume of the
superconductor. It leads to union of large number of cooper pairs. The resistance encountered
by any single cooper pair is overcome by combined action of other pairs in the union.

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When the electrons flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter
any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words conductivity becomes infinity
which is called as superconductivity.

In superconducting state electron-phonon interaction is stronger than the coulomb force

of attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice points. They travel freely
without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due to this they do not posses any
electrical resistivity.

Meissner effect:

A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its
body when it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnet. This
effect is called Meissner effect.

When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the
specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is
raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the
normal state.

The magnetic induction inside the specimen

B = µo (H + M)

Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the magnetization produced
within the material.

For T < Tc, B=0

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µ0 (H + M) = 0

M = -H

M/H = -1=

Susceptibility is -1 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.

Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the material.

Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting material. The
primary coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to ballistic
galvanometer (BG). When the key is closed the current flows through the primary coil and the
magnetic field is produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and the current flows
through the secondary coil which makes a deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current
is steady the magnetic flux and the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the
temperature of the specimen is decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a
deflection indicating that the flux linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the
expulsion of the magnetic flux from the specimen.

Effect of magnetic field:

Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength of the

magnetic field required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called critical field. It is
denoted by Hc(T).

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If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting material, ‘Tc’ is the critical temperature,
‘Hc’ is the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0oK.

They are related by

Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]

By applying magnetic field greater than Ho, the material can never become superconductor
whatever may be the low temperature. The critical field need not be external but large current
flowing in superconducting ring produce critical field and destroys superconductivity.

Isotope effect

Isotopes are also exhibit superconductivity. The critical temperature(Tc) depends upon isotopic
mass (M). They are related by

1
M 2 TC  constant .

Types of superconductors:

There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I superconductors and type-II
superconductors.

Type-I superconductors:

Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical field it
behaves as perfect diamagnet. If the external magnetic field increases beyond Hc the
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superconducting specimen gets converted to normal state. The magnetic flux penetrates and
resistance increase from zero to some value. As the critical field is very low for type-I
superconductors, they are not used in construction of solenoids and superconducting magnets.

Type-II superconductors
Type-II superconductors are hard superconductors. They exist in three states

1) Superconducting state
2) Mixed state
3) Normal state

They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it expels the magnetic
field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts
penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher
than Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely and becomes normal conductor. Type-II
superconductors are used in the manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic
fields above 10 Tesla.

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High temperature superconductors:

The term high-temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new family of
cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in 1986. The first high-
temperature superconductor, LaBaCuO, with a transition temperature of 30 K and in the same
year LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that
superconductors with Tc greater than 77K could be prepared, this temperature is greater than the
liquid helium temperature. YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered to have a Tc of 92 K.
Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K.
Thallium barium Calciu copper oxide (Tl Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium calcium
copper oxide(Hg Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with Tc=135K.
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper, and bear a
particular type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The number of copper
layers increases the Tc value increases. The current in the high TC materials is direction
dependent. It is strong in parallel to copper-oxygen planes and weak in perpendicular to copper-
oxygen planes.
Hight Tc materials are Type-II superconductors and they are brittle and don’t carry
enough current. The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of electron lattice as in
the BCS theory. Still it is not clear what does cause the formation of pairs. Research is being
conducting in this direction. The high temperature superconductors are useful in high field
applications. It can carry high currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They are
used in military applications, Josephson junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication,
submarines.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
20
 Engineering physics, 22PHYE12/22
Physics for Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream
Module-2

Applications of Superconductors:
Magnetically Leviated Vehicles (Maglev vehicles): Magnetically leviated vehicles are called
Maglev vehicles. The magnetic leviation is based on the principle of Meissner effect. The
magnetic field is produced by the superconducting
magnet and electric current. The superconducting
magnet is kept inside the vehicle and the electric
current is in the Aluminum guide way. The vehicle is on
the Aluminum guide way. The vehicle is provided with
retractable wheels. The vehicle runs on the guide way,
once it is leviated in air the wheels are retracted into the body. The height to which the vehicle is
leviated above guideway is about 10 to 15cm. While stopping, the wheels are drawn out and the
vehicle slowly settles on the guide way by running a distance.
Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)
A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is a very sensitive device for
measuring weak magnetic fields. It is capable of measuring magnetic fields as low as 5 aT
( 5×10-18 T). Due to their sensitivity, SQUIDs are widely used in research, biological studies and
other ultrasensitive electronic and magnetic measurements where faint signals cannot be sensed
using conventional measurement instruments.

A SQUID is constructed of a superconducting loop containing one or more Josephson

junctions. There are two types of SQUID, the radio frequency (RF) SQUID consisting of only
one Josephson junction, and the direct current (DC) SQUID with two or more junctions. The RF
is cheaper in construction but less sensitive compared to the DC. A typical DC SQUID has two
parallel junctions inserted in a superconducting loop. Without a magnetic field, the input current
splits equally between the branches. This maintains an externally connected tank circuit at
resonance. Any external magnetic field causes a change in the resonant frequency in the tank
circuit, and a current imbalance that leads to a voltage across the Josephson junction. The voltage
is a function of the magnetic flux and can therefore be measured and used to calculate the
magnetic flux.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
21
 Engineering physics, 22PHYE12/22
Physics for Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream
Module-2

The superconducting materials used for low-temperature SQUIDs are pure niobium or
lead alloys. The device is cooled with liquid helium to maintain superconductivity. High-
temperature SQUIDs are made from high-temperature superconductors such as yttrium barium
copper oxide (YBCO) and cooled with the cheaper and readily available liquid nitrogen.
However, they are not as sensitive as the low-temperature models, but are good enough for
certain applications. A SQUID is very sensitive in detection of magnetic energy fields, as low as
100 billion times smaller in magnitude than the energy that moves a compass needle. This
extreme sensitivity makes them ideal for highly sensitive applications in research, biological
studies and medical tests where the magnetic fields present cannot be measured using
conventional instruments. For example, SQUIDS are used in measuring faint signals in the
human brain or heart by sensing the magnetic fields created by the neurological currents. Other
applications include the construction of highly sensitive gradiometers, magnetometers and
voltmeters. Ion currents arising in the neurons of the heart and the brain produce magnetic fields
outside the body that can be measured by arrays of SQUID (superconducting quantum
interference device) detectors placed near the chest or head; the recording of these magnetic
fields is known as magnetocardiography (MCG)

Two superconductors separated by a thin insulating layer can experience tunneling

of Cooper pairs of electrons through the junction. The Cooper pairs on each side of the junction

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
22
 Engineering physics, 22PHYE12/22
Physics for Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream
Module-2

can be represented by a wavefunction similar to a free particle wavefunction. In the DC Josephson

effect, a current proportional to the phase difference of the wavefunctions can flow in the
junction in the absence of a voltage. In the AC Josephson effect, a Josephson junction will
oscillate with a characteristic frequency which is proportional to the voltage across the junction.
Since frequencies can be measured with great accuracy, a Josephson junction device has become
the standard measure of voltage.

The wavefunction which describes a Cooper pair of electrons in a superconductor is an

exponential like the free particle wavefunction. In fact, all the Cooper pairs in a superconductor
can be described by a single wavefunction in the absence of a current because all the pairs have
the same phase - they are said to be "phase coherent" (Clarke). If two superconductors are
separated by a thin insulating layer, then quantum mechanical tunneling can occur for the Cooper
pairs without breaking up the pairs. Clarke envisions this condition as the wavefuntions for
Cooper pairs on each side of the junction penetrating into the insulating region and "locking
together" in phase. Under these conditions, a current will flow through the junction in the
absence of an applied voltage (the DC Josephson effect).

SQUID Applications Liquid-helium-cooled SQUIDs have been commercial products for two
decades. In the early stages, the primary uses for these devices were in laboratory
instrumentation. Generally speaking, technically trained users such as physicists and electrical
engineers used commercial SQUIDs as highly sensitive magnetic field detectors, voltmeters, or
null detectors for experiments that were already being conducted at cryogenic temperatures. The
two main biomedical applications are magnetoencephalography (MEG) and
magnetocardiography (MCG), in which the magnetometers measure magnetic signals generated
in the brain and heart, respectively. The SQUID system is contactless and may yield additional
or complementary information to the conventional electroencephalogram (EEG) or
electrocardiogram (ECG). There are a number of applications beyond MEG and MCG that make
use of SQUIDs. The combination of SQUIDs and superconducting magnets can be used as a
“magneto-ferritometer,” which is a specialized instrument used to monitor iron levels in the
liver. This is an important diagnostic tool for identifying a condition known as hemochromatosis,
which can be extremely serious if not detected.

Dr. Jnaneshwara DM
Associate. Prof.
Dept. of physics
SJBIT
23