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Department of Electronics Engineering
LAB MANUAL
Semester-II
Principles Of Communication Engg.

Department of Electronics &
List of Experiments
Sr. No. Experiments Name

To Study of Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation Technique.
1
To Study of Frequency Modulation and Demodulation.
2
To Study of Sampling theorem
3
To Study and implementation PAM Modulation and Demodulation
4
5 To Study the Time Division Multiplexing of PAM Signals.
6 Study of line codes.
7 Binary modulation: Amplitude shift keying and Frequency shift keying.
8 Binary modulation: Frequency shift keying.
9 Binary phase shift keying.
Student Name :
1
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Principles Of Communication Engg.

Experiment No: 1
To Study of Amplitude Modulation and

Demodulation Technique
Experiment No. 1
2
1. Aim: To Study amplitude modulation and demodulation Technique.
2. What you will learn by performing this experiment?

 The basic principles of communication.
 The principles of amplitude modulation.
 The analog communication circuit board and the balanced modulator.
3. Apparatus Required:
Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

No.
1. Amplitude Modulation & De modulation ACL-AM & ACL-AD
transmitter kit.
2. C.R.O 20MHz
3. Connecting cords & probes. -
4. Power Supply 240V, 50Hz
4. Theory:
Modulation is defined as the process of changing some characteristics of a signal, known as the
carrier signal, in proportion with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, also called as
information signal or baseband signal.
When the carrier signal is continuous in nature such as fixed frequency sinusoidal signal, the
process of modulation for analog information signal is known as analog modulation, also known
as continuous wave (CW) modulation.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is the process of varying the amplitude of a relatively high
frequency carrier signal in proportion with the instantaneous value of the information
(modulating) signal.
The modulating signal is given by the expression :
Vm (t) = Vm cos(2πfmt)
where :
Vm(t) is the instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Vm is the maximum amplitude of modulating signal in volts
fm is the modulating frequency in Hz
Carrier voltage Vc(t)= Vc cos(2πfct)
Where:
Vc(t) is the instantaneous value of the carrier signal
Vc is the maximum amplitude of carrier signal in volts
3
fc is the carrier frequency in Hz

The amplitude modulated voltage is given by
V= ( Vc+Vm cos2πfmt) cos2πfct
V= (1+Vm/Vc cos2πfmt) Vc cos2πfct
Modulation Index :
The ratio of the maximum amplitude of the modulating signal (Vm) and the maximum amplitude
of the carrier signal (Vc) is known as the modulation index for AM wave.
Modulation index is given by :
m=
The modulation index. Ma can be computed by displaying the AM envelope on an oscilloscope

and then measuring the maximum and minimum peak – to- peak values for the envelope voltage
and it is given by :
m=
Where :
Vmax = Vc + Vm
Vmin = Vc - Vm
Thus, from measured values of maximum and minimum voltage levels of AM envelope, the
modulation index can be computed.
Block Diagram:
4
Modulation
Fig 1. Block diagram of Amplitude Modulation.

Demodulation
Fig 2. Block diagram of Amplitude Demodulation.
Fig 3. Modulating Wave
5
Fig 4. Carrier Signal
Fig 5. Under Modulation (m<1)
Fig 6. Perfect Modulation/100% Modulation (m=1)
Fig 7. Over Modulation (m>1)
6
5. Circuit Diagram:
Modulation:
Fig.8 Block Diagram for AM
7
Demodulation:
6. Procedure:
 The circuit wiring is done as shown in diagram.
 Connect the power supply with proper polarity.
 Set the function generator Level about 0.5Vpp; Freq. about 1 KHz.
 Set VCO level about 1 Vpp; Freq. about 450 KHz, switch on 500 KHz.
 Balanced Modulator1: carrier null completely rotated.
 Connect the CRO Probe and observe the Amplitude modulated waveform at output of
balanced modulator1 and demodulated waveforms at the output of envelop detector.
 Take the readings of Vm, fm, fc, Vmax and Vmin.
 Calculate the modulation index by using the formula and verify them
 Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
8
7. Observation Table:
For All circuits.
M
Sr. Vmax Vmin
No.
1 1.2 0.8 0.2 m<1
2 1.4 0 1 m=1
3 1.1 -0.7 4.5 m>1
Table No.1
8. Plots / Graphs
9
Fig. 11 Am Modulation and Demodulation Waveforms
9. Observed Waveforms on CRO :
10
Fig.12. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m < 1
Fig.13. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m = 1
11
Fig.14. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m >1
12
Fig.15. AM Demodulation
10. Precautions :
 Connections should be proper and tight.
 Switch on the supply after completing the circuit.
 Observations should be done carefully.
11. Conclusion : Thus we have studied the Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation
We can conclude that in amplitude modulation, the carrier frequency is constant; value of
thecarrier amplitude varies depending on the amplitude of the modulating signal. For m<1 i.e.
under modulation, AM signal is proper envelope & no information is lost. If m>1 i.e. over
modulation, AM signal get distorted and information is lost.
12. QUIZ / Viva Questions:
 what is modulation ?
 what is amplitude modulation ?
13
 explain AM with mathematical expression ?

 sketch the block diagram of AM waveform and AM spectrum ?
 Give the significance of modulation index?
 What are the limitations of square law modulator?
 Compare linear and nonlinear modulators?
 Compare base modulation and emitter modulation?
 Explain how AM wave is detected?
 What is the condition of for over modulation?
13. References:
1. http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/rf-technology-design/am-amplitude-modulation/what-
is-am-tutorial.php
2. http://wits.ice.nsysu.edu.tw/course/pdfdownload/99CS/Comm-03-Amplitude
%20Modulation.pdf
3. http://www.daenotes.com/electronics/communication-system/AM-amplitude-modulation
4. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/IITMADRAS/Principles_Of_Communication/pdf/Lecture19-
20_AM_DSB-SC.pdf
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
14
Principles Of Communication Engg
Experiment No : 2
To Study of Frequency Modulation and

Demodulation
Experiment No. 2
1. Aim: To Study of Frequency Modulation and Demodulation.

 The basic concept of frequency modulation and demodulation.
 To generate and plot the frequency modulation and demodulation waveform.
15

No.
1. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation ACL-FM & ACL-FD
Transmitter Kit
2. C.R.O 20MHz
4. Theory:
The modulation system in which the modulator output is of constant amplitude, in which the
signal information is super imposed on the carrier through variations of the carrier frequency.The
frequency modulation is a non-linear modulation process. Each spectral component of the base
band signal gives rise to one or two spectral components in the modulated signal. These
components are separated from the carrier by a frequency difference equal to the frequency of
base band component. Most importantly the nature of the modulators is such that the spectral
components which produce decently on the carrier frquency and the base band frequencies. The
spectral components in the modulated wave form depend on the amplitude. The mathematical
expression of FM is given by as follows:
fi(t) = fc + kf x(t)
where:
fi(t) is instantaneous frequency
fc is unmodulated carrier frequency
kf is frequency sensitivity in Hz/volt
Block Diagram:
Modulation
16
Fig 1. Block diagram of Frequency Modulation.
Demodulation
Fig 2. Block diagram of Frequency Demodulation.
17
Fig 3. FM Waveforms.
5. Circuit Diagram:
Modulation
Fig 4. Block Diagram of FM Generation
18
Demodulation
Fig 6. Block Diagram of FM Generation
6.Observation:
Modulation Modulating Detected signal(Received)

Signal(Transmitted) Nature of
detected signal
Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Frequency
(Vp-p) (KHz) (Vp-p) (KHz)
2.4V(p-p) 1KHz 0.8V(p-p) 1KHz Perfect sine

Under wave
modulation
3.2V(p-p) 1KHz 0.6V(p-p) 0.98KHz Distorted sine

100% wave
modulation
Cannot Cannot Distorted,

19
Over 4.4V(p-p) 1KHz measure measure noisy wave

modulation
1. Procedure:
1. Carry out the connections as per the block diagram 3.3.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-FM while connecting this;
ensure that the power supply is OFF.
3. Connect the o/p of function generator OUT post to the modulation IN of REACTANCE
MODULATOR IN post.
4. Switch ON the power supply and Carry out the following presetting:
FUNCTION GENERATOR: sine wave (JP1); LEVEL about 1Vp-p;FREQ.about 1KHz.
REACTANCE MODULATOR Level about 2Vpp;
Observe the frequency of about 450 KHz we can set the frequency by varying TR6.
Connect the oscilloscope to the output of the modulator OUT post.
You obtain a waveform similar to the one of FIG.3.5.
The frequency deviation Δ F can be calculated as follows:
From the oscilloscope evaluate FM and Fm, detecting the periods of the respective sine
waves - The frequency deviation ΔF is defined as: ΔF= (FM – Fm)/2
The value of the modulation index mf is calculated by the relation mf = ΔF/f, where f is the
frequency of the modulating signal.
Then observe the FM signal as shown in FIG.3.6.
20
Figure 3.5: Frequencymodulated wave
Figure3.6: Frequency Deviation
2. Calculations:
3.
FM= 15 *0.2 = 3 * 0.5 = 666khz
fm= 16*0.2*0.5 1.6ms = 625 khz
ΔF =( FM- fm)/2 = 20.85 khz
M = ΔF/F = 20.85 khz/1khz = 20.85
21
8. PlotsGraphs
Fig.8. FM Modulation and Demodulation signals
22
9.Waveform Observed on CRO :
23
Fig 9. Frequency Modulation
Fig.10. FM Demodulation
24
10Precautions :

11. Conclusion: Thus we have studied the frequency modulation and demodulation.
As per the experiment performed we conclude that frequency of the carrier signal is
directly proportional to the instantaneous value of modulating signal.
 What is FM modulation ? Explain with mathematical expression.

 Define the terms : Frequency Deviation, Modulation Index.
 Explain the principle of operation for different modulators : Reactance modulator &
Varactor diode modulators.
 How many sidebands are there in FM?
 What is CCIR?
 What is the indirect method of FM generation?
 What is direct method of FM generation?
 What is VCO?
 Which are significant sidebands?
 How many types of FM there? Write their names?
13. References:
1. http://www.ece.umd.edu/~tretter/commlab/c6713slides/ch8.pdf
2. http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Bookshelf/Frequency-Modulation-Hund.pdf
3. http://www.njarc.org/books/Frequency%20Modulation%20%20RCA%20Review%20
%201948/Rca1948FrequencyModulationVol1_text.pdf
4. http://www.radio-electronics.com
25
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
26
Experiment No : 3
To Study of Sampling Theorem
Experiment No. 3
1. Aim: To Study of Sampling theorem.

 The basic principles of digital communications.
 Basic concepts of sampling.

No.
1. Sampling and reconstruction Trainer Kit. DCL-01
2. C.R.O 20MHz 27
4. Theory:
Pulse Modulation is used to transmit analog information. In this system continuous wave forms
are sampled at regular intervals. Information regarding the signal is transmitted only at the
sampling times together with synchronizing signals.
At the receiving end, the original waveforms may be reconstituted from the information
regarding the samples.
Sampling Theorem Statement:

A band limited signal of finite energy which has no frequency components higher than fm Hz, is
completely described by specifying the values of the signal at instants of time separated by ½ fm
seconds.
Fig 1. Block diagram of Sampling Process.

The sampling theorem states that, if the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds
twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the receiver
with minimum distortion.
Fs > 2fm is called Nyquist rate.
Where fs – sampling frequency
Fm – Modulation signal frequency.
If we reduce the sampling frequency fs less than fm, the side bands and the information signal
will overlap and we cannot recover the information signal simply by
low pass filter. This phenomenon is called fold over distortion or aliasing. There are two
methods of sampling.
28
(1) Natural sampling – In the analog-to-digital conversion process, an analog waveform is

sampled to form a series of pulses whose amplitude is the sampled waveform at the time
the sample was taken. In natural sampling the pulse amplitude takes the shape of the
analog waveform for the period of sampling pulse as shown in Fig 2.
Fig 2. Natural Sampling.
(2) Flat top sampling – After an analog waveform is sampled in the analog-to-digital
conversion process, the continuous analog waveform is converted into a series of pulses
whose amplitude is equal to the amplitude of the analog signal at the start of the
sampling process. Since the sampled pulses have uniform amplitude, the process is
called flat top sampling as shown in Fig 3.
Fig 3. Flat Top Sampling.
3) Sample and Hold- Sample & Hold circuit holds the sample value until the next sample is
taken.Sample & Hold technique is used to maintain reasonable pulse energy. The duty cycle of a
signal is defined as the ratio of Pulse duration to the Pulse repetition period. The duty cycle of
50% is desirous taking the efficiency into account.
29
Fig 4. Sample and Hold Waveform.
Reconstruction Circuit:-
The demodulation section comprises of a fourth order low pass filter and an AC amplifier. The
TL074 (U5) is used as a low pass filter and AC amplifier. The output of the modulator is given
as the input to the low pass filter. The low pass filter output is obviously less and it is fed to the
AC amplifier which comprises of a single op amp and whose output is amplified.
5. Circuit Diagram:
Natural Sampling
Fig 5. Block Diagram for Natural Sampling
Sample and Hold
30
Fig 6. Block Diagram for Sample and Hold.
Flat Top Sampling
Fig 7. Block Diagram for Flat Top Sampling.
6. Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as per diagram.

 Switch ON the power supply.
 Observe the outputs of sampling, sampling and hold, flat top output . By varying the
amplitude pot also observe the effect on outputs.
 Switch OFF the power supply.
7. Plots / Graphs
31
Fig 8. Waveforms for Natural Sampling ,Flat Top and sample and Hold
8. Waveforms Observed
32
Fig.9.-Wave form Obsered on CRO- Natural Sampling
Fig 10. Wave form Obsered on CRO- Sample And Hold
33
Fig.12 .Waveform Observed on CRO- Flat Top Sampling
9. Precautions

1. Conclusion : Sampling technique proved that demodulation signal can be reconstructed

only if sampling theorem fs ≥2fm is satisfied.
10.
 What are the types of sampling?

 State sampling theorem?
 What happens when fs < 2 fm?
 How will be the reconstructed signal when fs >= 2fm?
 Explain the operation of sampling circuit?
 Explain the operation of re-construction circuit?
 Who formalized the sampling theorem?
34
 What are the applications of the above theorem?

 Is the sampling theorem basis for the modern digital communications?
 Is the voice signal sampling of 8000 Hz, follows sampling theorem in Land line
Telephone Exchange.
10. References:
1. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Digi%20Comm/pdf-m-1/
m1l2.pdf
2. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/signals_and_systems/signals_sampling_techniques.htm
3. https://www.tutorialspoint.com
4. https://www.youtube.com
35
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Experiment No : 4
To Study and Implementation of PAM
36
Experiment No. 4
2. Aim: To Study and implementation of PAM
 The basic concept of pulse modulation Techniques.
 Students will learn different types of pulse analog generation and Detection
techniques like PAM, PPM and PWM.

No.
1. PAM Trainer kit DCL-08
2. C.R.O 20MHz
5. Theory:
Pulse modulation is used to transmit analog information. In this system continuous wave forms
are sampled at regular intervals. Information regarding the signal is transmitted only at the
sampling times together with syncing signals.
At the receiving end, the original waveforms may be reconstituted from the information
regarding the samples.
PAM
The pulse amplitude modulation is the simplest form of the pulse modulation. PAM is a pulse
modulation system is which the signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant of sampling. The pulses are then sent by
either wire or cables are used to modulate carrier.
The two types of PAM are i) Double polarity PAM, and ii) the single polarity PAM, in which a
fixed dc level is added to the signal to ensure that the pulses are always positive. Instantaneous
PAM sampling occurs if the pulses used in the modulator are infinitely short.
Natural PAM sampling occurs when finite-width pulses are used in the modulator, but the tops of
the pulses are forced to follow the modulating waveform.
37
Flat-topped sampling is a system quite often used because of the ease of generating the
modulated wave.
PAM signals are very rarely used for transmission purposes directly. The reason for this lies in
the fact that the modulating information is contained in the amplitude factor of the pulses, which
can be easily distorted during transmission by noise, crosstalk, other forms of distortion. They
are used frequently as an intermediate step in other pulse-modulating methods, especially where
time-division multiplexing is used.
Block Diagram:
Fig 1. Block diagram of PAM.
Fig 2. Modulated Signals
6. Circuit Diagram:
38
Fig 5. Block Diagram for pulse amplitude modulation and demodulation.
Observation table:
Sr. No
Modul;ating signal Detected signal

(Transmitted)
(Received)
Amplitude Frequency Amplitude Frequenc
1Vp-p 1KHz 0.6Vp-p 1KHz
PAM
7. Procedure:

39
 Observe the outputs of PAM,PWM and PPM modulation and demodulation one by
one . By varying the amplitude pot also observe the effect on outputs.
8. Plots / Graphs
Fig.11. Graph for PAM
8.Waveform Observed on CRO:
40
Fig 12.Waveforms Observed on CRO for PAM
9. Precautions :

10. Conclusion : In Pulse Modulation technique we conclude that amplitude of modulating

signal can be varied by varying the sampling frequency. In Pulse demodulation signal can
be reconstructed only if sampling theorem fs ≥2fm is satisfied.
 TDM is possible for sampled signals. What kind of multiplexing can be used in
continuous modulation systems?
 What is the minimum rate at which a speech signal can be sampled for the purpose of
PAM?
 What is cross talk in the context of time division multiplexing?
41
 Which is better, natural sampling or flat topped sampling and why?

 Why a dc offset has been added to the modulating signal in this board? Was it essential
for the working of the modulator? Explain?
 If the emitter follower in the modulator section saturates for some level of input signal,
then what effect it will have on the output?
 Derive the mathematical expression for frequency spectrum of PAM signal.
 Explain the modulation circuit operation?
 Explain the demodulation circuit operation?
 Explain the demodulation circuit operation?
12. References:
1. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/IITMADRAS/Principles_Of_Communication/pdf/Lecture27-
29_DigitalModulation.pdf
2. http://goavendano.tripod.com/pulsemod.pdf
3 http://www.personal.psu.edu/axl17/242l9.pdf
4 http://www.axiomatic.com/pulse-width-modulation.pdf
42
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Experiment No : 5
To Study the Time Division Multiplexing

of PAM Signals
43
Experiment No. 5
1. Aim: To Study the Time Division Multiplexing of PAM Signals.
2. What you will learn by performing this experiment ?

 Time division multiplexing of PAM signals.
 Concept of multiplexing.

No.
1. PAM TDM Trainer kit DCL-02
2. C.R.O 20MHz
4. Theory:
The TDM is used for transmitting several analog message signals over a communication channel
by dividing the time frame into slots, one slot for each message signal. The four input signals, all
band limited by the input filters are sequentially sampled, the output of which is a PAM
waveform containing samples of the input signals periodically interlaced in time. The samples
from adjacent input message channels are separated by Ts/M, where M is the number of input
channels. A set of M pulses consisting of one sample from each of the input M-input channels is
called a frame.
At the receiver the samples from individual channels are separated by carefully synchronizing
and are critical part TDM. The samples from each channel are filtered to reproduce the original
message signal. There are two levels of synchronization. Frame synchronization is necessary to
establish when each group of samples begin and word synchronization is necessary to properly
separate the samples within each frame.
Besides the space diversity & frequency diversity there is a method of sending multiple analog
signals on a channel using “TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING & DEMULTIPLEXING”
Technique.
44
Block Diagram:
Fig 1. Block diagram of TDM PAM
Fig 2. Waveforms
45
5. Circuit Diagram:
Fig 3. Block Diagram of PAM TDM
6. Procedure:

 Observe the outputs of PAM TDM. By varying the amplitude pot also observe the
effect on outputs.
7. Plots / Graphs :
46
Fig.6.Graph for PAM- TDM waveforms
8.Waveforms Observed
47
Fig.7.Waveform Observed on CRO
8. Precautions :
 Connections Should be proper and tight.
9. Conclusion : Thus we have studied the PAM-TDM

Also Observe the waveform to multiplex PAM signal
 Explain block schematic of TDM?

 How TDM differ from FDM?
 What type of filter is used at receiver end in TDM system?
 What are the applications of TDM?
 What is multiplexing?
 Mention the types of multiplexing?
 What is the need for multiplexing?
 Compare synchronous and asynchronous TDM.
 Give the advantages of multiplexing.
 What is the major drawback of digital communication?
48
11. References:
1. http://midas.herts.ac.uk/helpsheets/tims/TIMS%20Experiment%20Manuals/Student_Text/Vol-
A1/a1-11.pdf
2. http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~em/cf03pdf/93%20TDM.pdf
3. http://www.eng.auburn.edu
4. https://www.allsyllabus.com
49
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Principles of Communication Engineering (PCE) Lab
Experiment No : 6
Study of Line codes.
50
Experiment No. 6
Study of Line codes

1. Aim: To study various line codes and their properties.
2. What will you learn by performing this experiment?
• To understand the various line codes and their properties

• To learn the applications of lines codes in communication.
Table1: List of required Apparatus / Equipment Specification

apparatus and
component. Sr. No.
1. Trainer kit 10001001101011(NRZ-L
format)
2. Frequency Amplitude 125khz, 5V
3. Power Supply +5V, +12V, -12V DC
voltage
4. C.R.O 30MHz Dual trace
5. Patch cords 15
6. CRO Probes 2
4. Theory:
A line code is a code chosen for use within a communications system for transmitting a digital
signal down a line. Line coding is often used for digital data transport. Some line codes are
digital baseband modulation or digital baseband transmission methods, and these are baseband
line codes that are used when the line can carry DC components.
Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to be transported, by a waveform that is
optimally tuned for the specific properties of the physical channel (and of the receiving
equipment). The pattern of voltage, current or photons used to represent the digital data on a
transmission link is called line encoding. The common types of line encodings are unipolar,
polar, bipolar, and Manchester encoding.
Desirable Properties of line codes:

1. Transmission bandwidth: should be as small as possible
2. Power Efficiency: For a given bandwidth and specified detection error rate, txd power should
be as low as possible
3. Error detection and correction capability : Desirable to detect and preferably correct
detection errors.
51
4. Favorable PSD: It is desirable to have zero PSD at f=0 and significant power in low
frequency component should be avoided
5. Self clocking or timing extraction :It should be possible to extract clock info from the signal.
6. Transparency : It should be possible to correctly transmit a digital signal regardless of the
pattern of ‘0's and ‘1’s .i.e long strings of 0’s or ‘1’s should not cause any problems in timing
extraction.
Types of Line codes
1. Unipolar -NRZ - On - Off signaling
Advantages: Easy to implement.
Disadvantages: 1. For a given txd power its is less immune to noise intake.
2. Requires twice as much power as polar signaling.
3.Not transparent - long strings of’0’s causes the absence of signal
and can lead to errors in timing extractions.
4. Exclusive transmitter bandwidth.
5. Non zero power spectrum., has a DC component at f=0
6. No error detection/correction capability
2. Polar NRZ - ‘1’ by pulse p(t) and ‘0’ by pulse -p(t).

Advantages: 1. Most efficient scheme from power requirement view point.
2. Transparent because there is always some pulse for a bit sequence.
Disadvantages: 1. Most of the power concentrated in lower frequencies.
2. Essential bandwidth is (fb/2),not the most bandwidth efficient.
3. No error detection or correction capability.
4.Has a non zero PSd at f=0.
5. No clock frequency component present
3. Unipolar-RZ - Unipolar signalling

Advantages: 1. Spectrum has a DC component and significant portion of power
occur at lower frequencies..
2. Bandwidth is not excessive.
Disadvantages: 1. Requirement of twice as much power (3 db) as polar signal.
3. It is not transparent.
4. AMI-RZ - Bipolar signalling

Advantages: 1. Spectrum has a DC null.
2. Bandwidth is not excessive.
3. Has a simple error detection capability
Disadvantages: 1. Requirement of twice as much power (3 db) as polar signal.
Rules for Some of the common Non-return to zero level. This is the
line codes include: NRZ–L standard positive logic signal format
used in digital circuits.
1 forces a high level 0 forces a low
52
level
NRZ–M Non-return to zero mark
1 forces a transition
0 does nothing
NRZ–S Non-return to zero space
1 does nothing
Unipolar -RZ Return to zero
1 goes high for half the bit period
0 does nothing
0 forces a transition
Biphase–L Manchester : Two consecutive
bits of the same type force a
transition at the beginning of a bit
period.
1 forces a negative transition in the
middle of the bit 0 forces a positive
transition in the middle of the bit
Biphase–M There is always a transition at the
beginning of a bit period.
1 forces a transition in the middle of
the bit 0 does nothing
Biphase–S There is always a transition at the
beginning of a bit period.
1 does nothing 0 forces a transition
in the middle of the bit
AMI-RZ The positive and negative pulses
alternate.
1 forces a positive or negative pulse
for half the bit period 0 does nothing
Manchester coding: In Manchester code each bit of data is signified by at least one transition.
Manchester encoding is therefore considered to be self-clocking, which means that accurate
clock recovery from a data stream is possible. In addition, the DC component of the encoded
signal is zero. Although transitions allow the signal to be self-clocking, it carries significant
overhead as there is a need for essentially twice the bandwidth of a simple NRZ or NRZI
encoding.
5. Connection Diagram:
53
Figure 2: Connection diagram of line coding.
6. Procedure:
1. Data is generated with the help of a data bit generator.
2. Connect power supply to the kit.
3. Connect CLOCK to the CODE CLOCK.
4. Connect DATA to the CODE DATA.
5. Connect one channel of the CRO to the CODE DATA and other channel to the coded output
NRZ-L to observe the waveforms.
7.Observations:
1.Observe the different waveforms at the coded output and decoded output on CRO.
2.Draw the waveforms for all line codes for the sequence 110010101110011 on a graph paper.
8 Waveforms:
54
Figure 3: Line coded signals.

Conclusion:
• • What is a lines code? Explain desirable properties of line codes.
• • Bring out the advantages of Manchester coding .
• • Name few codes which are widely used in communication.
• • What is disadvantage of NRZ codes?
• • What is the advantage of AMI-RZ code?
12. References:
1. Simon Haykin, “Communication System”, John Wiley and Sons, 4th Ed.
2. Taub Schilling and Saha, “Principles Of Communication Systems”, Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed
.
3. Amitabha Bhattacharya, “Digital Communication”, Tata McGraw Hill.
4. Lan A. Glover and Peter M. Grant, “Digital Communications”, Pearson, 2nd Ed.
55
5. John G. Proakis, “Digital Communications”, McGraw Hill , 5th Ed.

6. www.cse.iitk.ac.in/~dheeraj/cs425/lec03.html
56
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Experiment No : 7
Binary Modulation: Amplitude Shift

Keying.
57
Experiment No. 7
1. Aim: To study Binary modulation and demodulation Techniques: Binary Amplitude Shift
Keying
• To understand the various carrier modulation techniques.

• To understand the carrier modulation techniques by amplitude shift keying
and frequency shift keying and phase shift keying methods.
Table1: List of apparatus and components required.

Sr. No. Apparatus / Equipment Specification
1. Trainer kit (DCL 06) On board 8 bit variable
(NRZ-L format)
2. Carrier Modulation ASK, FSK, PSK
3. Power Supply +12V, -12V, +5V, GND
5. Patch cords 15
6. CRO Probes 
4 . Theory:
1. (ASK)
Amplitude shift keying (ASK) is the simplest digital modulation technique. In this modulation
method there is only one carrier which is switched ON/OFF depending upon the input binary
sequence to transmit symbol 0 and 1. The binary ASK system was one of the earliest form of
digital modulation used in wireless telegraphy. In a binary ASK system binary symbol 1 is
represented by transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude Ac and fixed frequency
fc for the bit duration Tb where as binary symbol 0 is represented by switching of the carrier for
Tb seconds. This signal can be generated simply by turning the carrier of a sinusoidal oscillator
ON and OFF for the prescribed periods indicated by the modulating pulse train. For this reason
the scheme is also known as on-off shift testing. The ASK signal can be generated by applying
the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator. The
resulting output is the ASK wave.
A binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) signal can be defined by
s(t) = A m(t) cos 2πfct, 0 < t < T
where A is a constant, m(t) = 1 or 0, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the bit duration. It has a
power P = A2/2, so that A = 2P.
58
Thus equation can be written as s(t) = 2P cos 2πfct, 0 < t < T = PT T 2 cos 2πfct, 0 < t < T = E T
2 cos 2πfct, 0 < t < T.
Binary Amplitude shift keying(BASK)

Amplitude shift keying (ASK) is the simplest digital modulation technique. In this modulation
method there is only one carrier which is switched ON/OFF depending upon the input binary
sequence to transmit symbol 0 and 1. The binary ASK system was one of the earliest form of digital
modulation used in wireless telegraphy. In a binary ASK system binary symbol 1 is represented by
transmitting a sinusoidal carrier wave of fixed amplitude Ac and fixed frequency fc for the bit
duration Tb whereas binary symbol 0 is represented by switching of the carrier for Tb seconds. This
signal can be generated simply by turning the carrier of a sinusoidal oscillator ON and OFF for the
prescribed periods indicated by the modulating pulse train. For this reason, the scheme is also known
as on-off shift testing. The ASK signal can be generated by applying the incoming binary data and
the sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product modulator. The resulting output is the ASK
wave.
Generation of BASK Signal :
Binary Amplitude Shift Keying

• Output is S(t) = b(t).(Accos(ωc)t)
When b(t)= +1v S1(t) = (+1).(Accos(ωc)t)
= 0 v S 2(t) = 0
A binary amplitude-shift keying (BASK) signal can be defined by

s(t) = Ac. b(t) Cos 2π fCt, 0 < t < Tb
whereAc is a constant, b(t) = 1 or 0, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the bit duration.
It has a power Ps = (Ac) /2, so that A = √(2Ps ).
2
Thus equation can be written as S(t) = √(2Ps ) Cos 2π fCt, 0 < t < Tb
Importance of Bit Synchronizer:

Bit and Frame Synchronization techniques are used in order to ensure that signals transmitted from
one end of the communication can be correctly decoded by the other end of receiver. To achieve this
59
goal, certain timing information must be passed to the receiver such as where communication units
begin and end .
The Need for Synchronization: There are several points which make it clear why synchronization is
essential for serial transfer of digital data. The first problem is that sender and receiver clocks may
not run synchronous so that the sampling instant will shift from the beginning of the signal to the end
and may overflow. This is especially likely when there is no hint, where a data entity, may it be a bit
or byte or a complete packet starts and ends and when a long line of similar signals are transferred,
for example a row of logical 1 which would be encoded as a constant voltage of a certain value.
Another well-known problem of time dispersion is called inter symbol interference.(ISI). Signals
belonging to different symbols can be observed on the medium at the same time, leading to
interpretation errors at the receiver's end.
Synchronization techniques will guide the receiving system in determining where data entities start
and end and at which time interval the sampling result is least error-prone.
Coherent and Non Coherent Detectors
Coherent detection:
In Coherent detection, the receiver needs the carrier phase information of the transmitter to recover
the transmitted data at receiver side.
This phase information may be obtained from either a reference from the transmitter or could be
from a local oscillator (at the receiver side). But, the oscillators used at both the transmitter and
receiver needs to be phase locked; otherwise ,there is a phase difference between the Carrier signal
transmitted and the reference Carrier signal used at the demodulator. This phase difference must be
estimated and corrected. Hence , this carrier is regenerated at the receiver so that it maintains the
Phase reference.
Carrier phase information is needed for Coherent detection. Such Receiver use Correlator
( consisting of multiplier and integrator ) to detect and decide the transmitted data.
All the three modulation techniques , BASK, BPSK, BFSK use Coherent detection to recover the bits
with low probability of detection.
Advantage: Better bit error rate of detection.
Disadvantage : The Coherent receiver is more complicated and expensive.
Non Coherent Detection:

Non-coherent systems do not need carrier phase information for detection and use Matched filter and
envelope detector to recover the transmitted data at receiver end.
Only the demodulation techniques of BASK and BFSK use non coherent detection.
Advantage: This does not require expensive and complex carrier recovery circuit.
Dis advantage : But ,Lower bit error rate of detection results.
60
2. Circuit Diagram:
Figure1. Experimental kit schematic to perform ASK and FSK.
61
Figure2. Connection diagram of ASK modulation.
Figure3. Connection diagram of ASK demodulation.
62
3. Procedure:
1. Referto the figure 1 and carry out the following connections and switch settings:
2. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kit DCL-06 and switch it on.
3. Connect SERIAL DATA generated on board to CONTROL INPUT of
CARRIERMODULATOR.
4. Select ASK/FSK modulation using switch S1, the ASK/FSK LED will glow.
5. Observe the waveforms at SINE1, SINE2 and MOD OUT.
6. Connect ASK/FSK modulated signal MOD OUT to the ASK/FSK IN of the
ASK/FSKDEMODULATOR.
4. Observations:
Observe the ASK/FSK modulated waveform at the o/p of modulator and demodulated
waveform at the o/p of demodulator.
5. Waveforms:
6. Conclusion:
63
 Explain ASK modulation.

 Give one example of ASK modulation with application.
 Is ASK widely used in communication?
 What is disadvantage of ASK modulation?
 What is bandwidth of BFSK?
 How BFSK signal is generated?
8. References:
1 1. Simon Haykin, “Communication System”, John Wiley And Sons ,4th Ed
2 2. Taub Schilling And Saha, “Principles Of Communication Systems”, Tata Mc-Graw Hill,
Third Ed
1 3. Amitabha Bhattacharya, “Digital Communication”, Tata Mcgraw Hill
2 4. Lan A. Glover and Peter M. Grant, “Digital Communications”, Pearson, 2nd Ed.
3 5. John G. Proakis, “Digital Communications”, McgrawHill , 5th Ed.
6. www.ele.uri.edu/Courses/ele436/labs/ASKnFSK.pdf
64
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Experiment No : 8
Binary Modulation: Frequency shift

keying
65
Experiment No. 8
1. Aim: To study Binary modulation and demodulation Techniques: Binary Frequency Shift Keying
• To understand the various carrier modulation techniques.

• To understand the carrier modulation techniques by amplitude shift keying
and frequency shift keying and phase shift keying methods.
Table1: List of apparatus and components required.

Sr. No. Apparatus / Equipment Specification
1. Trainer kit (DCL 06) On board 8 bit variable
(NRZ-L format)
2. Carrier Modulation ASK, FSK, PSK
5. Patch cords 15
6. CRO Probes 
4 . Theory:
FSK:
In principle FSK can be implemented by using completely independent free-running oscillators,

and switching between them at the beginning of each symbol period. In general, independent
oscillators will not be at the same phase and therefore the same amplitude at the switch-over
instant, causing sudden discontinuities in the transmitted signal..
Frequency Shift Keying is the process generating a modulated signal from a digital data input. If
the incoming bit is 1, a signal with frequency f1 is sent for the duration of the bit. If the bit is 0, a
signal with frequency f2 is sent for the duration of this bit. This is the basic principle behind FSK
modulation. Basically a 555 timer is used as an Astable multivibrator, which generates a clock
pulse of frequency determined by the values of R and C in this circuit. This is divided by 2, 4, 8
and 16 using 74163 IC, and two of these outputs are used in a NAND logic gates circuit, to
generate a FSK modulated wave. To this NAND gates’ circuit a binary data sequence is also
supplied. The circuit operation causes a frequency f1 for bit 1, and f2 for bit 0. In the
demodulator circuit, the FSK modulated signal is applied to a high Q tuned filter. This filter is
tuned to the frequency of either 0 or 1. This filter passes the selected frequency and rejects the
other. The output is then passed through a FWR (Full Wave Rectifier) circuit and the output is
66
now above zero volts only. It is then passed through a comparator; if the input to the comparator
is greater than threshold value, the output is 1, else it is 0. This digital output of the comparator is
the demodulated FSK output.
DCL- 06
 The trainer comes with an onboard data simulator, which generates the NRZ-L
pattern depending on positions of 8-bit switch and the reference clock (256 KHz),
which enables the trainers to work in a stand-alone mode.
 Three carrier modulation options are available on the kit.
a) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
b) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
c) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
II) Binary Frequency shift keying (BFSK):

In principle ,BFSK can be implemented by using completely independent free-running oscillators,
and switching between them at the beginning of each symbol period. In general, independent
oscillators will not be at the same phase and therefore the same amplitude at the switch-over instant,
causing sudden discontinuities in the transmitted signal..
Frequency Shift Keying is the process generating a modulated signal from a digital data input. If the
incoming bit is 1, a signal with frequency f H is sent for the duration of the bit Tb. If the bit is 0, a
signal with frequency fL is sent for the duration of this bit. This is the basic principle behind FSK
modulation.
Generation of BFSK Signal
Binary Frequency Shift Key (Unipolar NRZ line code is used)
When b(t)= logic 1 = +1v SH(t) = AC Cos ωH t
= logic 0 = 0v SL (t) = AC Cos ωL t
Output is S(t) = (Ac Cos(ωH)t) + (Ac Cos(ωL)t) where fH =fc + Δf
fL= fc – Δ
67
Importance of Bit Synchronizer:

Bit and Frame Synchronization techniques are used in order to ensure that signals transmitted from
one end of the communication can be correctly decoded by the other end of receiver. To achieve this
goal, certain timing information must be passed to the receiver such as where communication units
begin and end .
The Need for Synchronization: There are several points which make it clear why synchronization is
essential for serial transfer of digital data. The first problem is that sender and receiver clocks may
not run synchronous so that the sampling instant will shift from the beginning of the signal to the end
and may overflow. This is especially likely when there is no hint, where a data entity, may it be a bit
or byte or a complete packet starts and ends and when a long line of similar signals are transferred,
for example a row of logical 1 which would be encoded as a constant voltage of a certain value.
Another well-known problem of time dispersion is called inter symbol interference.(ISI). Signals
belonging to different symbols can be observed on the medium at the same time, leading to
interpretation errors at the receiver's end.
Synchronization techniques will guide the receiving system in determining where data entities start
and end and at which time interval the sampling result is least error-prone.
Coherent and Non Coherent Detectors
Coherent detection:
In Coherent detection, the receiver needs the carrier phase information of the transmitter to recover
the transmitted data at receiver side.
This phase information may be obtained from either a reference from the transmitter or could be
from a local oscillator (at the receiver side). But, the oscillators used at both the transmitter and
receiver needs to be phase locked; otherwise ,there is a phase difference between the Carrier signal
transmitted and the reference Carrier signal used at the demodulator. This phase difference must be
estimated and corrected. Hence , this carrier is regenerated at the receiver so that it maintains the
Phase reference.
Carrier phase information is needed for Coherent detection. Such Receiver use Correlator
( consisting of multiplier and integrator ) to detect and decide the transmitted data.
All the three modulation techniques , BASK, BPSK, BFSK use Coherent detection to recover the bits
with low probability of detection.
Advantage: Better bit error rate of detection.
68
Disadvantage : The Coherent receiver is more complicated and expensive.
Non Coherent Detection:

Non-coherent systems do not need carrier phase information for detection and use Matched filter and
envelope detector to recover the transmitted data at receiver end.
Only the demodulation techniques of BASK and BFSK use non coherent detection.
Advantage: This does not require expensive and complex carrier recovery circuit.
Dis advantage : But ,Lower bit error rate of detection results.
9. Circuit Diagram:
69
Figure1. Experimental kit schematic to perform ASK and FSK.
Figure4. Connection diagram of FSK modulation.
70
Fig
ure5. Connection diagram of FSK demodulation.
5. Procedure:
1.Connect the circuit as per the connection diagram given in the manual of the trainer kits of BASK,
BPSK , BFSK.
2. Observe the waveforms of BASK /BFSK /BPSK Modulation on DSO .
6.Waveforms:
Draw those waveforms on graph paper for the sequence 11001010111001
71
7. Conclusion:
Binary modulation techniques ASK, FSK PSK have been studied as well as their modulated and
demodulated waveforms are observed.
1. Define bandwidth efficiency .What is bandwidth of BFSK , BASK, BFSK signals?

2. Give importance of bit synchronizer in digital modulation.
3. Give difference between coherent and non coherent detection.
4. Why carrier phase recovery is needed in binary receiver?
5. Why PSK is widely used than ASK?
 Explain ASK modulation.
 Give one example of ASK modulation with application.
 Is ASK widely used in communication?
 What is disadvantage of ASK modulation?
 What is bandwidth of BFSK?
 How BFSK signal is generated?
9. References:
1. Simon Haykin, “Communication System”, John Wiley And Sons ,4 th Ed.

2. Taub Schilling and Saha, “Principles of Communication Systems”, Tata McGraw
Hill, 3rd Ed. 3. Amitabha Bhattacharya, “Digital Communication”, Tata McGraw Hill.
4. Lan A. Glover and Peter M. Grant, “Digital Communications”, Pearson, 2nd Ed.
5. John G. Proakis, “Digital Communications”, McGraw Hill , 5 th Ed.
72
Student Name :
Roll No:
Year/Div./Batch:
Experiment No : 9
Binary Modulation: Phase Shift Keying
73
Experiment No: 9
1. Aim:To study Binary modulation: Phase shift keying
• To understand the carrier modulation techniques by phase shift keying method.

No.
1. Trainer kit(DCL 08) On board 8 bit variable (NRZ-L
format)
2. Carrier Modulation ASK, FSK,PSK
4. C.R.O 0-20Mhz(dual channel)
5. Patch cords 15
6. CRO Probes 2
Table 1: List of apparatus and components required.
4. Theory:
Phase shift keying involves the phase change of the carrier sine wave between 0 and 180 in
accordance with the data stream to be transmitted. PSK is also known as Phase reversal keying.
PSK modulator is shown in figure 1. Functionally, the PSK modulator is very similar to the ASK
modulator. Both uses balanced modulator to multiply the carrier with the modulating signal. But
in contrast to ASK techniques, the digital signal applied to the modulator input for PSK
generation is bipolar i.e. have equal +ve and –ve voltage levels. The unipolar – bipolar converter
converts the unipolar data stream to bipolar data. At receiver, the square loop detector circuit is
used to demodulate the transmitted PSK signal. The demodulator is shown in figure 2. The
incoming PSK signal with 0 & 180 phase changes is first fed to the signal square, which
multiplies the input signal by itself. The phase adjust circuit allows the phase of the digital signal
to be adjusted w.r.t.the input PSK signal. Also its O/P controls the closing of an analog switch.
When the output is high the switch closes and the original PSK signal is switched through the
detector.
74
DCL- 06
The trainer comes with an onboard data simulator, which generates the NRZ-L pattern depending
on positions of 8-bit switch and the reference clock (256 KHz), which enables the trainers to
work in a stand-alone mode.
 Three carrier modulation options are available on the kit.
a) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

b) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
c) Phase Shift Keying (PSK).
5. Circuit Diagram:
75
Figure1. Experimental Kit Schematic to generate PSK signal.
76
Figure2. Connection diagram of PSK modulation.
Figure3. Connection diagram of PSK demodulation.
6. Procedure:
1. Refer to the figure 1 and carry out the following connections and switch settings:
2. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kit DCL-06 and switch it on.
3. Connect Carrier out data to IN1, and IN2 port
4. Select PSKmodulation using switch S1, the PSKLED will glow.

5. Observe the waveforms at SINE1, SINE2 and MOD OUT.
6. Connect PSKmodulated signal MOD OUT to the PSKIN of thePSK
77
DEMODULATOR.
7. Observations:
Observe the PSK modulated waveform at the o/p of modulator and demodulated
waveform at the o/p of demodulator.
8. Waveforms:
78
9. Conclusion:

 Explain PSK modulation?
 Give one example of PSK modulation with application?
 Why PSK is widely used than ASK?
 What is disadvantage of PSK modulation?
 What is the advantage PSK Modulation?
11. References:
3 1. Simon Haykin, “Communication System”, John Wiley And Sons ,4th Ed
4 2. Taub Schilling And Saha, “Principles Of Communication Systems”, Tata Mc-Graw Hill,
Third Ed
4 3. Amitabha Bhattacharya, “Digital Communication”, Tata Mcgraw Hill
5 4. Lan A. Glover and Peter M. Grant, “Digital Communications”, Pearson, 2nd Ed.
6 5. John G. Proakis, “Digital Communications”, McgrawHill , 5th Ed.
6. www.ele.uri.edu/Courses/ele436/labs/ASKnFSK.pdf
79
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Department of Electronics Engineering

Principles Of Communication Engg.

Sr. No. Experiments Name

6 Study of line codes.

7 Binary modulation: Amplitude shift keying and Frequency shift keying.

8 Binary modulation: Frequency shift keying.

9 Binary phase shift keying.

Principles Of Communication Engg.

To Study of Amplitude Modulation and

1. Aim: To Study amplitude modulation and demodulation Technique.

2. What you will learn by performing this experiment?

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

fc is the carrier frequency in Hz

Modulation index is given by :

The modulation index. Ma can be computed by displaying the AM envelope on an oscilloscope

Fig 1. Block diagram of Amplitude Modulation.

Fig 2. Block diagram of Amplitude Demodulation.

Fig 3. Modulating Wave

Fig 4. Carrier Signal

Fig 5. Under Modulation (m<1)

Fig 6. Perfect Modulation/100% Modulation (m=1)

Fig 7. Over Modulation (m>1)

Fig.8 Block Diagram for AM

For All circuits.

1 1.2 0.8 0.2 m<1

3 1.1 -0.7 4.5 m>1

Fig. 11 Am Modulation and Demodulation Waveforms

9. Observed Waveforms on CRO :

Fig.12. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m < 1

Fig.13. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m = 1

Fig.14. Observed Waveforms on CRO for m >1

12. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

 explain AM with mathematical expression ?

Principles Of Communication Engg

To Study of Frequency Modulation and

2. What you will learn by performing this experiment?

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

Fig 1. Block diagram of Frequency Modulation.

Fig 2. Block diagram of Frequency Demodulation.

Fig 4. Block Diagram of FM Generation

Fig 6. Block Diagram of FM Generation

Modulation Modulating Detected signal(Received)

2.4V(p-p) 1KHz 0.8V(p-p) 1KHz Perfect sine

3.2V(p-p) 1KHz 0.6V(p-p) 0.98KHz Distorted sine

Cannot Cannot Distorted,

Over 4.4V(p-p) 1KHz measure measure noisy wave

Figure 3.5: Frequencymodulated wave

Figure3.6: Frequency Deviation

fm= 16*0.2*0.5 1.6ms = 625 khz

ΔF =( FM- fm)/2 = 20.85 khz

M = ΔF/F = 20.85 khz/1khz = 20.85

Fig.8. FM Modulation and Demodulation signals

9.Waveform Observed on CRO :

Fig 9. Frequency Modulation

 Connections should be proper and tight.

12. QUIZ / Viva Questions:

 What is FM modulation ? Explain with mathematical expression.

Principles Of Communication Engg

To Study of Sampling Theorem

2. What you will learn by performing this experiment?

Sr. Apparatus / Equipment Specification

Sampling Theorem Statement:

fm= 160.20.5 1.6ms = 625 khz