12.

GPRS
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a new bearer service for GSM that greatly improves
and simplifies wireless access to packet data networks. GPRS applies packet radio principal
to transfer user data packets in an efficient way b/w MS & external packet data network.
GPRS Terminals

• Class A – MS supports simultaneous operation of GPRS and GSM services

• Class B – MS able to register with the n/w for both GPRS & GSM services
simultaneously. It can only use one of the two services at a given time.
• Class C - MS can attach for either GPRS or GSM services

The main new network architecture entities that were needed are:

• SGSN, Serving GPRS Support Node: The SGSN forms a gateway to the services
within the network.
• GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node: The GGSN, forms the gateway to the
outside world.
• PCU, Packet Control Unit: The PCU detects whether data is to be routed to the
packet switched or circuit switched networks.
SGSN – Serving GPRS Support Node Serving GPRS Support Node
• Delivers data packets to mobile stations & vice-versa
• Detect and Register new GPRS MS in its serving area
• Packet Routing, Transfer & Mobility Management
• Authentication, Maintaining user profiles
• Its location register stores location info. & user profiles
GGSN – Gateway GPRS Support Node Gateway GPRS Support Node
• Interfaces GPRS backbone network & external packet data networks
• Converts the GPRS packets from SGSN to the PDP format
• Converts PDP addresses change to GSM addresses of the destination user
• Stores the current SGSN address and profile of the user in its location register
• Performs authentication

13.UMTS
Universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) refers to the third generation (3G)
mobile network built on the global GSM standard, compatible with data transfer up to 2
megabits per second. The specifications of UMTS covers the entire network system,
including the radio access network, the core network and user authentication.
UMTS Applications
• Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)
• Videoconferences.
• Fast Internet / Intranet.
• Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
• Remote Login
• Background Class applications
• Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
• FTP Access
• Mobile Entertainment (Games)
Features of UMTS
• UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal Broadcast
communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
• It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) discuss
interface.
• It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
• It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
• It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
• For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall
as 7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection.
• It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).

Advantages of UMTS
• UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS and EDGE
. Gaining a 3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation for GSM
• Support 2Mbit/s information rates.
• Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.
• Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security and
charging capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to 3G whereas
holding numerous of their existing back-office frameworks
• Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media
administrations to trade clients and buyers
 • This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover deciphers higher
incomes for the administrator.
Disadvantages of UMTS
• It is more expensive than GSM.
• Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video experience.
• Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband.

As shown in the figure there are three main components in UMTS network architecture,
User Equipments(UE) is composed of Mobile Equipment (ME) and USIM. Radio Access
Network is composed of NodeB and RNC. Core Network is composed of circuit switched and
packet switched functional modules. For Circuit switched (CS) operations MSC and GMSC
along with database modules such as VLR, HLR will be available. For packet switched (PS)
operations SGSN and GGSN will serve the purpose. GMSC will be connected with PSTN/ISDN
in CS case. GGSN is connected with Packet data Network (PDN) for PS case. Interfaces
between these entities are summarized below.
https://www.ques10.com/p/38287/explain-umts-network-architecture-in-detail-with-
1/#:~:text=The%20UMTS%20network%20architecture%20is,equipment%20(UE)%20in%20U
MTS.
14.COMPARISON BETWEEN 2G AND 3G
DL → DOWNLOADING UL→UPLOADING
15.Hard handoff and Soft handoff
Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base station to another, the network
automatically switches to the other respective base station and maintains the coverage
responsibility. This behavior called "hand-off" (Handoff) or "hand-over" (Handover).
Whereas in FDMA and TDMA systems, it uses a different frequency to communicate with the
base station of that area. It means, there will be a frequency switch from one frequency to
another, and during the switching, there will be slightly communication cut, which is called
as "hard handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard handover" (Hard Handover).
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and Mobile Switching Center
because the switching takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The
connection quality is not that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.
In Soft Handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed
to the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. Soft Handoff is
more costly than Hard Handoff.

16.Near Far Problem in CDMA

The near–far problem or hearability problem is the effect of a strong signal from a near
signal source in making it hard for a receiver to hear a weaker signal from a further source
due to adjacent-channel interference, co-channel interference, distortion, capture effect,
dynamic range limitation, or the like. Such a situation is common in wireless communication
systems, in particular CDMA. In some signal jamming techniques, the near–far problem is
exploited to disrupt ("jam") communications.
While the power control schemes that are adopted by the different cellular
telecommunications technologies work very well and allow the CDMA systems to operate
over a wide area, there are penalties for using them:

• Reduced data capacity: The power control mechanism requires data to be sent
in both directions across the radio interface. This utilises data capacity that could
be otherwise used for carrying revenue earning data.
• High power handset power consumption at cell edges: In order to be able to
maintain the required signal level at the base station when the handset is close to
the edge of the cell, it will be required to transmit at a high power level. This will
reduce battery life. Other cellular systems might not require such high signal levels
at the base station and may be able to conserve battery power as a result.
The CDMA near far problem is resolved in systems such as cdmaOne, CDMA2000 and W-
CDMA by using sophisticated power control schemes to ensure that the power levels at the
base station fall within a given band.
17.CALL SETUP PROCEDURE IN GSM
Different procedures are necessary depending on the initiating and terminating party:

o Mobile Originating Call MOC: Call setup, which are initiated by an MS

o Mobile Terminating Call MTC: Call setup, where an MS is the called party
o Mobile Mobile Call MMC: Call setup between two mobile subscribers; MMC thus
consists of the execution of a MOC and a MTC one after the other.
o Mobile Internal Call MIC: a special case of MMC; both MSs are in the same MSC
area, possibly even in the same cell.

Call Setup in GSM:

1. Channel Request: The MS requests for the allocation of a dedicated signaling channel
to perform the call setup.
2. After allocation of a signaling channel the request for MOC call setup, included the
TMSI (IMSI) and the last LA1, is forwarded to the VLR
3. The VLR requests the AC via HLR for Triples (if necessary).
4. The VLR initiates Authentication, Cipher start, IMEI check (optional) and TMSI Re-
allocation (optional).
5. If all this procedures have been successful, MS sends the Setup information (number
of requested subscriber and detailed service description) to the MSC.
6. The MSC requests the VLR to check from the subscriber data whether the requested
service an number can be handled (or if there are restrictions which do not allow
further proceeding of the call setup)
7. If the VLR indicates that the call should be preceded, the MSC commands the BSC to
assign a Traffic Channel (i.e. resources for speech data transmission) to the MS
8. The BSC assigns a Traffic Channel TCH to the MS
9. The MSC sets up the connection to requested number (called party)

18.MOBILITY MANAGEMENT
Mobility management is a functionality that facilitates mobile device operations in Universal
Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) or Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) networks. Mobility management is used to trace physical user and subscriber
locations to provide mobile phone services, like calls and Short Message Service (SMS).
UMTS and GSM are each made up of separate cells (base stations) that cover a specific
geographical area. All base stations are integrated into one area, allowing a cellular network
to cover a wider area (location area).The location update procedure allows a mobile device
to notify a cellular network when shifting between areas. When a mobile device recognizes
that an area code differs from a previous update, the mobile device executes a location
update, by sending a location request to its network, prior location and specific Temporary
Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI). A mobile device provides updated network location
information for several reasons, including reselecting cell location coverage due to a faded
signal.Location area includes a group of base stations assembled collectively to optimize
signaling. Base stations are integrated to form a single network area known as a base station
controller (BSC). The BSC manages allocation of radio channels, acquires measurements
from cell phones, and handles handovers from one base station to another. Roaming is
among the basic procedures of mobility management. It enables subscribers to use mobile
services when moving outside of the geographical area of a specific network.

19.DIFFERENT ACCESS METHODS IN CELLULAR SYSTEM

There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following −
Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can
be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth are
called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel
but allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number
of users in time on a single channel.
Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than
the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the
received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a
small fraction of the signal bandwidth.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of FDMA
are as follows.
• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access the
network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than TDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously and
continuously in FDMA.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead of
FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.
• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes
use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence handsoff
process is simpler.
 • TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are
not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots
per frame to different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or
reassigning time slot based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several
transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as
follows.
• In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by
separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same code
can communicate with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a technique which is
MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and used mostly in wireless and
satellite communication. It has the following features.
• All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
• SDMA is completely free from interference.
• A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the same
frequency.
• The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station in SDMA,
can track a moving user.
• Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth
whose magnitude is greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques −
Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)