2.

1 INTRODUCTION TO AIR CONDITIONING

1. Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is a combined process that performs many functions simultaneously. If
conditions the air, transport it, and introduces it to the conditioned space. It provides heating and
cooling from its central plant or rooftop units. It also controls and maintains the temperature,
humidity, air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and pressure differential in a space within
predetermined limits for the comfort and health of the occupants of the conditioned space or for
the purpose of product processing.
The term HVAC&R is an abbreviation of heating, ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigerating.

2. Comfort and Processing Air Conditioning Systems

2.1 Air conditioning systems
Air conditioning system is composed of components and equipment arranged in sequence
to condition the air, to transport it to the conditioned space, and to control the indoor
environmental parameters of a specific space within required limits.
Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions:
a. Provide the cooling and heating energy required.
b. Condition the supply air, that is, heat and cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and purify,
and attenuate any objectionable noise produced by the HVAC&R equipment.
c. Distribute the conditioned air, containing sufficient outdoor air, to the conditioned
space.
d. Control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters – such as temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, air movement, sound level, and pressure differential between the
conditioned space and surroundings – within predetermined limits.

Parameters such as the size and the occupancy of the conditioned space, the indoor
environmental parameters to be controlled, the quality and the effectiveness of control, and the
cost involved determine the various types and arrangements of components used to provide
appropriate characteristics.
Air conditioning systems can be classified according to their application as (1) comfort air
conditioning systems and (2) process air conditioning systems.

2.2 Comfort air conditioning systems

Comfort air conditioning systems provide occupants with a comfortable and healthy indoor
environment in which to carry out their activities. The various sectors of the economy using
comfort air conditioning systems are as follows:
a. The commercial sector includes office buildings, supermarkets, department stores, shopping
centers, restaurants, and others.
b. The institutional sector includes such applications as schools, colleges, universities, libraries,
museums, indoor stadiums, cinemas, theaters, concert halls, and recreation centers.
c. The residential and lodging sector consists of hotels, motels, apartment houses, and private
homes.
d. The health care sector encompasses hospitals, nursing homes, and convalescent care
facilities. Special air filters are generally used in hospitals to remove bacteria and
particulates of submicrometer size from areas such as operating rooms, nurseries, and
intensive care units. The relative humidity in a general clinical area is often maintained at a
minimum of 30% in winter.
 e. The transportation sector includes aircraft, automobiles, railroad cars, buses, and cruising
ships. Passengers increasingly demand ease and environmental comfort, especially for long-
distance travel. Modern airplanes flying at high altitudes may require a pressure differential
of about 5 psi between the cabin and the outside atmosphere.

2.3 Process air conditioning systems

Process air conditioning systems provide needed environmental control for manufacturing,
product storage, or other research and development processes. The following areas are
examples of process air conditioning systems:
a. In textile mills, natural fibers and manufactured fibers are hygroscopic. Proper control of
humidity increases the strength of the yarn and fabric during processing. For many textile
manufacturing processes, too high a value for the space relative humidity can cause
problems in the spinning process. On the other hand, a lower relative humidity may induce
static electricity that is harmful for the production processes.
b. Many electronic products require clean rooms for manufacturing such things as integrated
circuits, since their quality is adversely affected by airborne particles. Relative-humidity
control is also needed to prevent corrosion and condensation and to eliminate static
electricity. Temperature control maintains materials and instruments at stable condition and
is also required for workers who wear dust-free garments.
c. Precision manufacturers always need precise temperature control during production of
precision instruments, tools, and equipment.
d. Pharmaceutical products require temperature, humidity, and air cleanliness control. High
efficiency air filters must be installed for most of the areas in pharmaceutical factories to
prevent contamination.
e. Modern refrigerated warehouses not only store commodities in coolers at temperatures of
27 to 32 F (-2.8 to 0 C) and frozen foods at -10 to -20 F (-23 to -29 C), but also provide
relative-humidity control for perishable foods between 90 and 100 percent. Refrigerated
storage is used to prevent deterioration. Temperature control can be performed by
refrigeration systems only, but simultaneous control of both temperature and relative
humidity in the space can only be performed by process air conditioning systems.

3. Classification of Air Conditioning Systems according to Construction and Operating Characteristics

Air conditioning systems can also be classified according to their construction and operating
characteristics as follows.
3.1 Individual room air conditioning system
Individual room, or simple individual air conditioning systems employs a single, self-
contained room air conditioner, a packaged terminal, a separated indoor-outdoor split unit, or a
heat pump. A heat pump extracts heat from a heat source and rejects heat to air or water at a
higher temperature for heating. Unlike other systems, these systems normally use a totally
independent unit or units in each room.
3.2 Evaporative-cooling air conditioning system
Evaporative-cooling air conditioning systems use the cooling effect of the evaporation of
liquid water to cool an airstream directly or indirectly. It could be a factory-assembled packaged
unit or a field-built system. When an evaporative cooler provides only a portion of the cooling
effect, then it becomes a component of a central hydronic or a packaged unit system.
An evaporative-cooling system consists of an intake chamber, filter(s), supply fan, direct-
contact or indirect-contact heat exchanger, exhaust fan, water sprays, recirculating water pump,
and water sump.
3.3 Desiccant-based air conditioning systems
A desiccant-based air conditioning system is a system in which latent cooling is performed
by desiccant dehumidification and sensible cooling by evaporative cooling or refrigeration. Thus
, a considerable part of expensive vapor compression refrigeration is replaced by inexpensive
evaporative cooling. A desiccant-based air conditioning system is usually a hybrid system of
dehumidification, evaporative cooling, refrigeration, and regeneration of desiccant.

3.4 Thermal storage air conditioning systems

In thermal storage air conditioning system or simply thermal storage system, the
electricity-driven refrigeration compressor are operated during off-peak hours. Stored chilled
water or stored ice in tanks is used to provide cooling in buildings during peak hours when high
electric demand charges and electric energy rates are in effect. A thermal storage system
reduces high electric demand for HVAC&R and partially or fully shifts the high electric energy
rated from peak hours to off-peak hours.
A thermal storage air conditioning system is always a central air conditioning system using
chilled water as the cooling medium. In addition to the air, water, and refrigeration control
systems, there are chiller-water tanks or ice storage tanks, storage circulating pumps, and
controls.

3.5 Clean-room air conditioning systems

Clean-room or clean-space air conditioning systems serve spaces where there is a need for
critical control of particulates, temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, noise, vibration, and
space pressurization. In a clean-space air conditioning system, the quality of indoor
environmental control directly affects the quality of the products produced in the clean space.
A clean-space air conditioning system consists of a recirculating air unit and a makeup air
unit – both include dampers, prefilters, coils, fans, high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters,
ductwork, piping work, pumps, refrigeration systems, and related controls except for a
humidifier in the make-up unit.

3.6 Space conditioning air conditioning systems

Space conditioning air conditioning systems are also called space air conditioning systems.
They have cooling, dehumidification, dehumidification, heating, and filtration performed
predominantly by fan coils, water-source heat pumps, or other devices within or above the
conditioned space, or very near it. A fan coil consists of a small fan and a coil. A water-source
heat pump usually consists of a fan, a finned coil to condition the air, and a water coil to reject
heat to a water loop during cooling, or to extract heat from the same water loop during heating.
Single or multiple fan coils are always used to serve a single conditioned room. Usually, a small
console water-source heat pump is used for each control zone in the perimeter zone of a
building, and a large water-source heat pump may serve several rooms with ducts in the core of
the building.

3.7 Unitary packaged air conditioning systems

Unitary packaged air conditioning systems can be called, in brief, packaged air conditioning
systems or packaged systems. These systems employ either a single, self-contained packaged
unit or two split units. A single packaged unit contains fans, filters, DX coils, compressors,
condensers, and other accessories. In the split system, the indoor air handler comprises controls
and the air system, containing mainly fans, filters, and DX coils; and the outdoor condensing unit
 is the refrigeration system, composed of compressors and condensers. Rooftop packaged
systems are most widely used.

4. Central Hydronic Air Conditioning Systems

Central hydronic air conditioning systems are also called central air conditioning systems. In a
central hydronic air conditioning system, air is cooled or heated by coils filled with chilled or hot
water distributed from a central cooling or heating plant. It is mostly applied to large-area buildings
with many zones of conditioned space or to separate buildings.
A central hydronic air conditioning system consists of an air system, a water system, a central
heating/cooling plant, and a control system.

4.1 Air system

An air system is sometimes called the air-handling system. The function of an air system is to
condition, to transport, to distribute the conditioned, recirculating, outdoor, and exhaust air,
and to control the indoor environmental according to requirements. The major components of
an air system are the air-handling units, supply/return ductwork, fan-powered boxes, space-
diffusion devices, and exhaust systems.

4.2 Water system

The water system includes chilled and hot water systems, chilled and hot water pumps,
condenser water system, and condenser water pumps. The purpose of the water system is (1) to
transport chilled water and hot water from the central plant to the air-handling units, fan-coil
units, and fan-powered boxes and (2) to transport the condenser water from the cooling tower,
well water, or other sources to the condenser inside the central plant.

4.3 Central plant

The refrigeration system in a central plant is usually in the form of a chiller package. Chiller
packages cool the chilled water and act as a cold source in the central hydronic system. The
boiler plant, consisting of boilers and accessories, is the heat source of the heating system.
Either hot water is heated or steam is generated in the boilers.

4.4 Control system

Modern air conditioning control systems for the air and water systems and for the central plant
consist of electronic sensors, microprocessor-operated and –controlled modules that can
analyze and perform calculations from both digital and analog input signals, i.e., in the form of a
continuous variable. Control systems using digital signals compatible with the microprocessor
are called direct digital control (DDC) systems. Outputs from the control modules often actuate
dampers, valves, and relays by means of pneumatic actuators in large buildings and by means of
electric actuators for small projects.

- End -
 2.2 MOIST AIR PROPERTIES
1. Humidity Ratio
The humidity ratio of moist air W is the ratio of the mass of water vapour mw to the mass of dry air
ma contained in the mixture of the moist air, in lb/lb (kg/kg).

mw 0.622pv
W= =
ma P at − pv
For moist air at saturation:
0.622ps
Ws =
P at − ps

2. Relative Humidity
The relative humidity  of moist air, or RH, is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water
vapour xv in a moist air sample to the mole fraction of the water vapour in a saturated moist air
sample xs at the same temperature and pressure.
xv pv
= =
xs T ,p
ps

3. Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation  is defined as the ratio of the humidity ratio of moist air W to the
humidity ratio of the saturated moist air Ws, at the same temperature and pressure.
W  (P − ps )
= = at
Ws T ,p Pat − pv

4. Dew Point
The dew point td is the temperature of saturated moist air at the same pressure and humidity ratio
as the given mixture.
Ws (Pat ,td ) = W

5. Enthalpy
The enthalpy h of a mixture of perfect gases is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of each
constituents,
h = ha + Whv
And for the air-water vapour mixture is usually referenced to the mass of dry air.

In English units. cpa = 0.240 Btu (lbm − F ) , cpv = 0.444 Btu (lbm − F )
Enthalpy of saturated water vapour i g at 0 F is 1061.2 Btu/lbm.
h = 0.240t + W (1061.2 + 0.444t ) Btu lbma

In SI units. cpa = 1.0 kJ (kg − C ) , cpv = 1.86 kJ (kg − C )

Enthalpy of saturated water vapour i g at 0 C is 2501.3 kJ/kg.
h = 1.0t + W (2501.3 + 1.86t ) kJ kga
6. Moist Volume
The moist volume of moist air v, ft3/lb (m3/kg), is defined as the volume of the mixture of the dry air
and water vapour when the mass of the dry air is exactly equal to 1 lb (1 kg), that is,
V
v=
ma
Where, V = total volume of mixture, ft3 (m3).
ma = mass of dry air, lb (kg).
Then,
V RaTR (1 + 1.6078W )
v= =
ma Pat
Ra = 53.352 ( ft − lbf ) (lbm − R )
Ra = 287 J (kg − K )

7. Density
The air density a, in lb/ft3 (kg/m3), is defined as the ratio of the mass of dry air to the total volume
of the mixture, i.e., the reciprocal of moist volume.

ma 1
a = =
V v

8. Specific Heat of moist air at constant pressure

The specific heat of moist air at constant pressure cpa is defined as the heat required to raise its
temperature 1 F (0.56 C) at constant pressure.
cpa = 0.243 Btu lb − F
cpa =1020 J kg  K

9. Adiabatic Saturation
An adiabatic saturation process is a steady-flow process at total constant pressure through a control
volume, for which there is no heat, and in which a liquid and the gas flowing through (presumably)
arrive at a local equilibrium state containing saturated vapour before the exit section is reached.
 Figure 1. Schematic of adiabatic saturation device.

Consider the device shown in Figure 1. The apparatus is assumed to operate so that the air leaving
at point 2 is saturated. The temperature t2, where the relative humidity is 100 percent, is then
defined as the adiabatic saturation temperature t*2, or thermodynamic wet bulb temperature. If we
assume that the device operates in a steady-flow-steady-state manner, an energy balance on the
control volume yields,
ha1 + W1hv1 + (Ws*2 − W1 )hw* = Ws*2 hv*2 + ha*2
Or
W1 (hv1 − hw* ) = c pa (t 2* − t1 ) + Ws*2 (hv*2 − hw* )
Where the * superscript refers to the adiabatic saturation temperature, and
W1 (hv1 − hw* ) = c pa (t 2* − t1 ) + Ws*2 h*fg 2
Solving for W1 yields,
c pa (t 2* − t1 ) + Ws*2 h*fg 2
W1 =
hv1 − hw*
( ) ( )
It can be concluded that W1 hv1 − hw = c pa t 2 − t1 + Ws 2 h fg 2 W1 is a function of t1, t*2, P1, P2, since
* * * *

0.622pv 2
Ws*2 =
P2 − pv 2

pv2 = ps2 at t*2 the enthalpy of vaporization h*fg2 depends only on t*2; the enthalpy of the vapour hv1 is
a function of t1; and h*w is a function of t*2. Therefore, the humidity ratio of an air-water vapour
mixture can be determined from the entering and leaving temperatures and pressures of the
adiabatic saturator.
 Example No. 1
The pressure entering and leaving an adiabatic saturator is 14.696 lbf/in.2, the entering temperature
is 80 F, and the leaving temperature is 64 F. Compute the humidity ratio W1 and the relative
humidity 1.
Given:
Pressure = 14.696 lbf/in2.
Entering temperature = 80 F
Leaving temperature = 64 F
Required:
Humidity ratio W1 and relative humidity 1
Solution:
t 2* = 64 F
pv 2 = ps 2 at t 2* =0.299 lbf/in.2

0.622pv 2 0.622(0.299)
Ws*2 = = = 0.0129 lbmv lbma
P2 − pv 2 14.696 − 0.299
c pa (t 2* − t1 ) + Ws*2 h*fg 2
W1 =
hv1 − hw*
Using Table A-1a, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 5th Edition. F.C. McQuiston et al.
(Properties of Water-Steam)
hw* = 32 Btu lbm at 64 F
hv1 = 1096 Btu lbm at 80 F
h*fg 2 = 1057 .1 Btu lbm at 64 F
0.24(64 − 80) + (0.0129)(1057.1)
W1 = = 0.0092 lbmv lbma
1096 − 32
Then solving for pv1 we have,
0.6219pv1
W1 = = 0.0092 lbmv lbma
14.696 − pv1
pv1 = 0.2142 psia
Finally,
p 0.2142
 = v1 = = 0.423 = 42.3%
ps1 0.507
10. Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Temperatures
The temperature of an air-vapour mixture read with a dry thermometer is called the dry-bulb
temperature. If the bulb of the thermometer is surrounded by a wet fabric, liquid is evaporated as
air is blown over it causing the temperature to drop in a process similar to the adiabatic saturation
process. This lower reading when properly taken, is called the wet-bulb temperature. One of the
common instruments is a sling psychrometer, which consists of two thermometers, one dry bulb
and one wet bulb, attached to a handle so that they may be easily whirl about the axis of the
handle. The amount by which the moisture on the fabric is cooled, td – tw, is called the wet bulb
depression.
11. Sensible Heat and Latent Heat
Sensible heat is that heat energy associated with the change of air temperature between two state
points. The enthalpy of moist air calculated at a datum state 0 F(-17.8 C) can be divided into two
parts:
h = (cpa + Wcpv )T + Whfg
The first term on the right-hand side indicates the sensible heat. It depends on the temperature T
above the datum 0 F (-17.8 C).
Latent heat hfg (sometimes called hig) is the heat energy associated with the change of the state
of water vapour. The latent heat of vaporization denotes the latent heat required to vaporize liquid
water into water vapour. Also, the latent heat of condensation indicated the latent heat to be
removed in the condensation of water vapour into liquid water. When moisture is added to or
removed from a process or a space, a corresponding amount of latent heat is always involved, to
vaporize the water or to condense it.
In the equation, the second term on the right hand side,Whfg, denotes latent heat. Both sensible
and latent heat are expressed in Btu/lb (kJ/kg) of dry air.

12. Atmospheric Air

Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapor and countless pollutants. Aside
from the amount of water vapor and pollutants, which may vary considerably, the composition of
the gases making up dry air is nearly constant, varying slightly with time, location, and altitude.
The ASHRAE Handbook summarized standard atmospheric data for altitudes up to 60,000 ft
(18,291 m). Atmospheric pressure may be estimated as a function of elevation by the following
relation:
P = a + bH
Where the constants a and b are given in Table 1 and H is the elevation above sea level in
feet or meters. The pressure P in inches of mercury or kilopascals.

Table 1. Constants a and b

H  4000 ft or 1220 m H  4000 ft or 1220 m
Constant
IP SI IP SI
a 29.92 101.325 29.42 99.436
b -0.001025 -0.01153 -0.0009 -0.010

13. SAMPLE PROBLEMS

13.1 Calculate values of humidity ratio, enthalpy, and specific volume for saturated air at one
standard atmosphere using perfect gas relations for temperatures of (a) 20 C and (b) 20 F .
Given:
Saturated air at standard atmosphere and (a) 20 C and (b) 20 F.
Required:
Humidity ratio
Enthalpy
Specific volume

Solution:
(a) In SI units, t = 20 C
Humidity Ratio:
 ps p
Ws = 0.622 = 0.622 s
pa P − ps
at t = 20 C, ps = 0.00234 MPa = 2.34 kPa
P = 101.325 kPa
2.34
Ws = 0.622 = 0.0147 kgv/kga
101.325 − 2.34
h = 1.0t + W (2501.3 + 1.86t ) kJ/kga
h = 1.0(20) + (0.0147)2501.3 + (1.86)(20) = 57.3 kJ/kga
Specific Volume:
Ra = 287 J/kg.K
RT RT
v= a = a
pa P − ps
(287)(20 + 273.15)
v= = 0.85 m3/kga
(101.325 − 2.34)(1000)

(b) In English units, t = 20 F

Humidity Ratio:
p p
Ws = 0.622 s = 0.622 s
pa P − ps
at t = 20 F
ps = 0.0505 psia from ASHRAE HANDBOOK
P = 14.696 psia
0.0505
Ws = 0.622 = 0.00215 lbmv/lbma
14.696 − 0.0505
Enthalpy:
h = 0.240t + W (1061.2 + 0.444t ) Btu/lbma
h = 0.240(20) + (0.00215)1061.2 + (0.444)(20) = 7.1 Btu/lbma
Specific Volume:
Ra = 53.352 ft-lbf/lbm-R
RT RT
v= a = a
pa P − ps
(53.352)(20 + 459.67)
v= = 12.14 ft3/lbma
(14.696 − 0.0505)(144)
13.2 Air with a dry bulb temperature of 70 F and wet bulb temperature of 65 F is at a barometric
pressure of 29.92 in. Hg. Without making use of psychrometric chart, find (a) the relative humidity
of the air, (b) the vapor density, (c) the dew point, (d) the humidity ratio, and (e) the volume
occupied by the mixture associated with a pound mass of dry air.
Given:
Dry bulb = 70 F
Wet bulb = 65 F
Barometric pressure = 29.92 in Hg
Required:
a. Relative humidity
b. Vapour density
c. Dew point
d. Humidity ratio
e. Volume occupied per pound mass of dry air.

Solution:
t1 = 70 F
t 2 = 65 F

Solving for Ws2

pv 2 = ps 2 at 65 F = 0.3095 psia
P2 = P1 = 29.92 in Hg = 14.696 psia
p 0.3095
Ws2 = 0.622 v 2 = 0.622 = 0.01338 lbmv/lbma
P2 − pv 2 14.696 − 0.3095
Solving for W1 , Eq. (3-21c)

W1 =
( )
c pa t 2 − t1 + Ws2 hfg 2
hv1 − hw
hfg 2 = h fg at 65 F = 1056.5 Btu/lbm
hw = h f at 65 F = 33 Btu/lbm
hv1 = hg at 70 F = 1091.7 Btu/lbm
0.24(65 − 70) + (0.01338)(1056.5)
W1 = = 0.012219 lbmv/lbma
1091.7 − 33
Solving for pv1
p v1
W1 = 0.622
P1 − pv1
p v1
0.012219 = 0.622
14.696 − pv1
pv1 = 0.2832 psia
at 70 F, ps1 = 0.363 psia
(a) Relative Humidity
p 0.2832
 = v1 = = 0.78 or 78 %
ps1 0.363
(b) Vapor Density
p (0.2832)(144)
= v = = 0.000898 lbmv/ft3
RvT (85.78)(70 + 459.67 )

(c) Dew Point

At pv1 = 0.2832 psia
t dp = 62.54 F
(d) Humidity Ratio
 v
m
W= = W1 = 0.012218 lbmv/lbma
a
m
(e) Volume occupied by mixture per pound of mass of dry air.
R T (53.352)(70 + 459.67 )
v= a = = 13.62 ft3/lbma
pa (14.696 − 0.2832)(144)

14. EXERCISE PROBLEMS

14.1 Calculate values of humidity ratio, enthalpy, and specific volume for saturated air at one
standard atmosphere using perfect gas relations for temperatures of (a) 70 F and (b) -6.7 C.
Answer: (a) 0.01575, 34, 13.69 ; (b) 0.0038, 2.8, 0.76.
14.2 The temperature of a certain room is 22 C, and the relative humidity is 50 percent. The
barometric pressure is 100 kPa. Find (a) the partial pressures of the air and water vapor, (b)
the vapor density, and (c) the humidity ratio of the mixtures.
Answer: (a) 98.664, 1.336 ; (b) 102.065 ; (c) 0.008421.
14.3 Compute the local atmospheric pressure at elevation ranging from sea level to 6000 ft (1830
m) in (a) inches of mercury and (b) kilopascals.
Answer: (a) 24.02 ; (b) 81.136.
14.4 Compute the enthalpy of moist air at 60 F and 80 percent relative humidity for an elevation of
(a) sea level and (b) 5000 ft.
Answer: (a) 23.96 ; (b) 25.91.
14.5 Compute the enthalpy of moist air at 16 C and 80 percent relative humidity for an elevation of
(a) sea level and (b) 1525 m.
Answer: (a) 39.16 ; (b) 43.96.
14.6 The condition within a room is 70 F db, 50 percent relative humidity, and 14.696 psia pressure.
The inside surface temperature of the window is 40 F. Will moisture condense on the window
glass?
Answer: YES.
14.7 A duct has moist air flowing at a rate of 5000 ft3/min. What is the mass flow rate of the dry
air, where the dry bulb temperature is 60 F, the relative humidity is 80 percent and the
pressure inside the duct corresponds to (a) sea level, and (b) 6000 ft.
Answer: (a) 376.5 ; (b) 301.05
14.8 A duct has moist air flowing at a rate of 2.36 m3/s. What is the mass flow rate of the dry air,
where the dry bulb temperature is 16 C, the relative humidity is 80 percent and the pressure
inside the duct corresponds to (a) sea level, and (b) 1830 m.
Answer: (a) 2.84 ; (b) 2.2656
14.9 Compute the dew point for moist air at 80 F and 50 percent relative humidity.
Answer: 59.68
14.10 Compute the dew point for moist air at 27 C and 50 percent relative humidity.
Answer: 15.72.
14.11 A space is to be maintained at 70 F dry bulb. It is estimated that the inside wall surface
temperature could be as low as 45 F . What maximum relative and specific humidity can be
maintained without condensation on the walls?
Answer: 41.32%, 0.006413.
14.12 A space is to be maintained at 21 C dry bulb. It is estimated that the inside wall surface
temperature could be as low as 7 C. What maximum relative and specific humidity can be
maintained without condensation on the walls?
Answer: 40.46%, 0.006287.
14.13 The dry bulb and thermodynamic wet bulb temperature are measured to be 75 F and 62 F,
respectively, in a room. Compute the humidity ratio relative humidity for the air at (a) sea
level and (b) 5000 ft.
Answer: (a) 0.008969, 48% ; (b) 0.010900, 50.22%.

- End -
 2.3 PSYCHROMETRIC CHART AND AIR CONDITIONING PROCESSES

1. Psychrometrics
Psychrometrics is the science of involving thermodynamic properties of moist air and the effect of
atmospheric moisture on materials and human comfort.

2. Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric chart provide a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of moist
air, various air conditioning processes, and air conditioning cycles. The charts are very helpful during
the calculation, analysis, and solution of the complicated problems encountered in air conditioning
processes and cycles, Figure 1.

Figure 1. Skeleton of Psychrometric Chart.

ASHRAE developed five such psychrometric charts. Chart 1,2, and 3 are for sea level pressure. Chart
4 is for 5000 ft altitude (24.89 in Hg), and Chart 5 is for 7500 ft altitude (22.65 in Hg). The dry-bulb
temperature ranges covered by the charts are

Chart 1,4,5 Normal Temperature 32 to 120 F

Chart 2 Low Temperature -40 to 50 F
Chart 3 High Temperature 60 to 250 F

In the psychrometric chart, Figure 2, dry bulb temperature is plotted along the horizontal axis.
The dry bulb temperature lines are straight but not exactly parallel and incline slightly to the left.
Humidity ratio is plotted along the vertical axis in the right-hand side of the chart. The scale is
uniform with horizontal lines. The saturation curve slopes upward from left to right. Dry bulb, wet
bulb, and dew point temperatures all coincide on the saturation curve. Relative humidity lines with
shapes similar to the saturation curve appear at regular intervals. The enthalpy scale is drawn
obliquely on the left of the chart with parallel enthalpy lines inclined downward to the right.
Although the wet bulb temperature lines appear to coincide with the enthalpy lines, they diverge
gradually in the body of the chart and are not parallel to one another. The spacing of the wet bulb
lines is not uniform. Specific volume lines appear inclined from the upper left to the lower right and
are not parallel, A protractor with two scales appears at the upper left of ASHRAE Charts 1. One
scale gives the sensible heat ratio and the other the ratio of enthalpy difference to humidity ratio
difference. The enthalpy, specific volume, and humidity ratio scales are all based on a unit mass of
dry air and not a unit mass of the moist air,

Figure 2. ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart 1.

Example No. 1
Read the properties of moist air at 75 F db, 60 F wb, and standard sea level pressure from ASHRAE
Pyschrometric Chart 1.
Given:
Dry bulb = 75 F db
Wet bulb = 60 F db
 Required:
Read the properties of moist air.
Solution:
The intersection of the 75 F db and 60 F wb lines defines the given state. This point on the chart is
the reference from which all the other properties are determined.

Humidity Ratio, W . Move horizontally to the right and read W = 0.0077 lbmv lbma on the vertical
scale.
Relative Humidity,  . Interpolate between the 40 and 50 percent relative humidity lines and read
 = 41 percent .
Enthalpy, h . Follow a line of constant enthalpy upward to the left and read h = 26.4 Btu lbma on the
oblique scale.
Specific Volume, v . Interpolate between the 13.5 and 14.0 specific volume lines and read
v = 13.65 ft 3 lbma .
Dew Point, t d . Move horizontally to the left from the reference point and read td = 50 F on the
saturation curve.

3. Air Conditioning Processes

3.1 Heating or Cooling of Moist Air

When air is heated or cooled without the loss or gain of moisture, the process yields a
straight horizontal line on the psychrometric chart, because the humidity ratio is constant. Such
processes may occur when moist air flows through a heat exchanger. In cooling, however, if part
of the surface of the heat exchanger is below the dew point of the air, condensation and the
subsequent dehumidification will occur. Figure 3 shows a schematic of a device used to heat or
cool air. Under steady-flow-steady-state conditions the energy balance becomes

m a h1 + q = m  a h2
q = m a (h2 − h1 )
Or
q = m a cp (t 2 − t1 )
cp = 0.245 Btu (lbma − F ) = 1.02 kJ (kga − C )
 Figure 3. Schematic of Device for Heating Moist Air

Example No. 2
Moist air, saturated at 2 C, enters a heating coil at a rate of 10 m3/s. Air leaves the coil at 40 C. Find
the required rate of heat addition.
Given:
Point 1, moist air, saturated at 2 C
Point 2, t2 = 40 C dry bulb
Rate = 10 m3/s

Required: q = rate of heat addition.

Solution:

Figure 4. Heating Process on Psychrometric Chart

 Figure 4 schematically show the solution. State 1 is located on the saturated curve at 2 C. Thus,
h1 = 13.0 kJ kgda , W1 = 4.3 gw kgda and v1 = 0.784 m 3 kgda . State 2 is located at the intersection
of t = 40 C and W2 = W1 = 4.3 gw kgda . Thus h2 = 51.6 kJ kgda . The mass flow of dry air is
V 10
ma = = = 12.76 kgda s
v1 0.784
Then;
q = m a (h2 − h1 )
q = (12.76)(51.6 −13.0) = 493 kW
Or
q = m a cp (t 2 − t1 )
q = (12.76)(1.02)(40 − 2) = 495 kW

3.2 Cooling and Dehumidification of Moist Air

When moist air passed over a surface so that a part of the stream is cooled to a temperature
below its dew point, some of the water vapor will condense and may leave the air stream.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of a cooling and dehumidifying device, and Figure 2.6 shows the
process on the psychrometric chart. Although the actual process path may vary considerably
depending on the type of surface, surface temperature, and flow conditions, the net heat and
mass transfer can be expressed in terms of the initial and final states, neither of which has to be
at saturation conditions. By referring to Figure 5, we see that the energy balance gives

Figure 5. Schematic of Device for Cooling and Dehumidifying Moist Air

m a h1 = q + m
 a h2 + m
 w hw
And the mass flow balance for the water in the air is
m aW1 = m w +m  aW2
 Combining the two equation yields,
q=m  a (h1 − h2 ) − m
 a (W1 −W2 )hw
The last term on the right-hand side is usually small compared to the others and is often
neglected.

Example No. 3
Moist air at 30 C dry-bulb temperature and 50% rh enters a cooling coil at 5 m3/s and is processed to
a final saturation condition at 10 C. Find the kW of refrigeration required.
Given:
Point 1 – 30 C db and 50% rh.
Point 2 – saturated at 10 C
Air flow = 5 m3/s

Required:
kW of refrigeration required, q.
Solution:

Figure 6 Cooling and Dehumdification Process on Psychrometric Chart

Figure 6 shows the schematic of solution. State 1 is located at the intersection of t = 30 C and
 = 50% . Thus, h1 = 64.3 kJ kgda , W1 = 13.3 gw kgda and v1 = 0.877 m 3 kgda . State 2 is located
on the saturation curve at 10 C. Thus, h2 = 29.5 kJ kgda and W2 = 7.66 gw kgda . From Table A-
 1a, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 5th Edition. F.C. McQuiston et al. (Properties of
Water-Steam), hw = 42.0 kJ kgw .

The mass flow of dry air is,

V 5
ma = = = 5.70 kgda s
v1 0.877
Then;
q=m  a (h1 − h2 ) − m a (W1 −W2 )hw
 13.3 − 7.66 
q = 5.70(64.3 − 29.5) − 5.70 (42.0)
 1000 
q = 197 kW

3.3 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams

The mixing of air streams is quite common in air-conditioning systems. The mixing usually
occurs under steady, adiabatic flow conditions. Figure 7 illustrates the mixing of two air streams.

Figure 7. Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams

An energy balance gives

m a1h1 + m a 2h2 = m a3h3
The mass balance on the dry air is
m a1 + m
 a2 = m  a3
And the mass balance on the water vapour is
m a1W1 + m  a 2W2 = m  a3W3

 a3 yields
Combining above equations and eliminating m
 h2 − h3 W2 − W3 m
= = a1
 a2
h3 − h1 W3 − W1 m

according to which, on the ASHRAE chart, the state point of the resulting mixture lies on the
straight line connecting the state points of the two streams being mixed, and divides the line
into two segments, in the same ratio as the masses of dry air in the two streams.
___ ___ ___
m a1 32 m  a1 32  a 2 13
m
= ___ , = ___ , =
m a2 m a3  a 3 ___
m
13 12 12
This is most easily shown by solving for h3 and W3;
ma1
h1 + h2
ma 2
h3 =
m
1 + a1
ma 2
ma1
W1 + W2
ma 2
W3 =
m
1 + a1
ma 2

Example No. 4
A stream of 2 m3/s of outdoor air at 4°C dry-bulb temperature and 2°C thermodynamic wet-bulb
temperature is adiabatically mixed with 6.25 m3/s of recirculated air at 25°C dry-bulb temperature
and 50% rh. Find the dry-bulb temperature and thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature of the
resulting mixture.
Given:
Point 1: 4 C db and 2 C wb, 2 m3/s
Point 2: 25 C db and 50% rh, 6.25 m3/s
Required:
Db and wb of the resulting mixture.

Solution:
Figure 8 shows the schematic solution. States 1 and 2 are located on the ASHRAE Chart, revealing
that v1 = 0.789 m 3 kgda , and v2 = 0.858 m3 kgda . Therefore,
V 2
 a1 = =
m = 2.535 kgda s
v1 0.789
V 6.25
 a2 = =
m = 7.284 kgda s
v 2 0.858
 Figure 8 Adiabatic Mixing Process on Psychrometric Chart

Then;
___
 a 2 13
m 7.284
= ___ = = 0.742

ma3 12 2.535 + 7.284
___ ___
Consequently, the length of line segment 13 is 0.742 times the length of entire line 12 . Using a
ruler, State 3 is located, and the values t3 = 19.5 C db and t 3 = 14.6 C wb found

3.4 Adiabatic Humidification of Moist Air

Steam or liquid water can be injected into a moist airstream to raise its humidity. Figure 9
represents a diagram of this common air conditioning process. If the mixing is adiabatic, the
following equations apply:
 Figure 9. Schematic of a Humidifying Device.

 a h1 + m
m  w hw = m a h2
 aW1 + m
m w =m  aW2

Therefore,
h2 − h1 h
= = hw
W2 − W1 W

according to which, on the ASHRAE chart, the final state point of the moist air lies on a straight
line whose direction is fixed by the specific enthalpy of the injected water, drawn through the
initial state point of the moist air.

Example No. 5
Moist air at 20°C dry-bulb and 8°C thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature is to be processed to a
final dew-point temperature of 13°C by adiabatic injection of saturated steam at 110°C. The rate of
dry airflow is 2 kg/s (dry air). Find the final dry-bulb temperature of the moist air and the rate of
steam flow.
Given:
Point 1: 20 C db, 8 C wb
Point 2: 13 C dp, 110 C sat. steam.
Mass flow rate = 2 kgs
Required:
Final dry-bulb temp. of moist air (t2) and rate of steam flow (mw).

Solution:
Figure 10 shows the schematic solution. By Table A-1a, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 5th
Edition. F.C. McQuiston et al. (Properties of Water-Steam), the enthalpy of the steam is
hg = 2691 kJ kgw . Therefore, according to the above equation, the condition line on the ASHRAE
chart connecting state 1 and 2 must have a direction:
 h2 − h1 h
= = hw
W2 − W1 W
h
= 2.691 kJ gw
W

Figure 10. Adiabatic Humdification Process on Psychrometric Chart

The condition line can be drawn with the h W protractor. First, establish the reference line on the
protractor by connecting the origin with the value h W = 2.691 kJ gw . Draw a second line parallel
to the reference line and through the initial state point of the moist air. This second line is the
condition line. State 2 is established at the intersection of the condition line with the horizontal line
extended from the saturation curve at 13 C ( td 2 = 13 C ).Thus, t 2 = 21C .

Values of W2 and W1 can be read from the chart. The required steam flow is,
m aW1 + m w =m  aW2
mw =m  a (W2 −W1 )
mw = 2(0.0093 − 0.0018)

m w = 0.015 kg s (steam).
3.5 Heating and Humidifying Moist Air
A device to heat and humidify moist air is shown schematically in Figure 11. This process is
generally required to maintain comfort during the cold months of the year.

Figure 11 Schematic of a heating and humidifying device

An energy balance on the device yields

m a h1 + q + m
 w hw = m a h2
and a mass balance on the water gives
m aW1 + m w =m  aW2
Combine equations above to obtain
h2 − h1 q
= +h
W2 − W1 m  a (W2 − W1 ) w
Or
h2 − h1 q
= + hw
W2 − W1 m w

The last equation above describes a straight line that connects the initial and final states on
the psychrometric chart. Figure 12 shows a combined heating and humidifying process, states 1-
2.

A graphical procedure makes use of the semicircular scale on Charts 1 to locate the process
line. The ratio of the change in the enthalpy to the change in humidity ratio is
h h −h q
= 2 1 = + hw
W W2 − W1 m w

Figure 12 shows the procedure where a straight line is laid out parallel to the line on the
protractor through state 1.
 Figure 12 Combined heating and humidifying process.

Example No. 6
Moist air is withdrawn from a room at 25°C dry-bulb temperature and 19°C thermodynamic wet-
bulb temperature. The sensible rate of heat gain for the space is 9 kW. A rate of moisture gain of
0.0015 kg/s (water) occurs from the space occupants. This moisture is assumed as saturated water
vapor at 30°C. Moist air is introduced into the room at a dry-bulb temperature of 15°C. Find the
required thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature and volume flow rate of the supply air.

Solution:
Figure 12 shows the schematic solution. State 2 is located on the ASHRAE Chart. From Table A-1a,
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 5th Edition. F.C. McQuiston et al. (Properties of Water-
Steam), the specific enthalpy of the added water vapour is hg = 2555.52 kJ kgw . Therefore,
h 9
= + 2555.52 = 8555 kJ kgw = 8.555 kJ gw
W 0.0015
With the h W protractor, establish a reference line of direction h W = 8.555 kJ gw . Parallel
to this reference line, draw a straight line on the chart through state 2. The intersection of this line
with the 15 C dry-bulb temperature line is state 1. Thus, t1 = 13.8 C .
 The flow of dry air can be calculated from
q + m w hw
ma =
h2 − h1

9 + (0.0015)(2555.52)
a =
m = 0.856 kgda s
54.0 − 39.0
At state 1, v1 = 0.859 m 3 kgda
Therefore, supply volume = m  av1 = (0.856)(0.859) = 0.735 m3 s
3.6 Sensible and Latent Heat Transfer Rate, Sensible Heat Factor.
The cooling and dehumidifying process involves both sensible and latent heat transfer; the
sensible heat transfer rate is associated with the decrease in dry bulb temperature, and the
latent heat transfer rate is associated with the decrease in humidity ratio. These quantities may
be expressed as
 a cp (t1 − t 2 )
q s = m
And
 a (W1 − W2 )hfg
ql = m
The energy of the condensate has been neglected. Obviously
q = q s + ql
The sensible heat factor SHF is denoted as q s / q . This parameter is shown on the
semicircular scale of ASHRAE Chart. Note that the SHF can be negative. If we use the standard
sign convention that sensible or latent heat transfer to the system is positive and transfer from
the system negative, the proper sign will result. For example, with the cooling and
dehumidifying process above, both sensible and latent heat transfer are away from the air, q s
and q l are both negative, and the SHF is positive. In a situation where air is being cooled
sensibly but a large latent heat gain is present, the SHF will be negative if the absolute value of
q l is greater than q s .
4. EXAMPLE OF AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
4.1 Cooling and Dehumidifying System
A given space is to be maintained at 78 F db and 65 F wb. The total heat gain to the space has
been determined to be 60,000 Btu/hr of which 42,000 Btu/hr is sensible heat transfer. The
outdoor air requirement of the occupants is 500 cfm. The outdoor air has a temperature and
relative humidity of 90 F and 55 percent, respectively. Determine the quantity and the state of
the air supplied to the space and the required capacity of the cooling and dehumidifying
equipment.

Figure 13 Single-line sketch of cooling and dehumidifying system for Example 4.1.
Given:
Space condition: 78 F db and 65 F wb
Outdoor air condition: 90 F and 55 % RH
Total heat gain to the space = 60,000 Btu/hr
Sensible heat transfer to the space = 42,000 Btu/hr
Outdoor air requirement = 500 cfm
Required:
Quantity and state of air supplied to the space.
Capacity of the cooling and dehumidifying equipment.
Solution:
A simplified schematic is shown in Figure 2.13. The given quantities are shown and stations are
numbered for reference. The sensible heat factor for the conditioned space is
q 42,000
SHF = s = = 0.7
q 60,000
The state of the air entering the space lies on the line defined by the SHF on psychrometric
Chart 1. Therefore, state 3 is located as shown on Figure 14, and a line is drawn through the
point parallel to the SHF = 0.7 line on the protractor. State 2 may be any point on that line and is
determined by the operating characteristics of the equipment, desired indoor air quality, and
what will be comfortable for the occupants. For now assume that the dry bulb temperature of
the entering air is 20 F less than the space temperature t 3 . Then t 2 = 58 F , and state 2 is
determined. The air quantity required may now be found from an energy balance on the space:
m a 2h2 + q = m  a3h3
Or
q = m  a 2 (h3 − h2 )
And
q
m a2 =
h3 − h2

Figure 14 Psychrometric processes for Example 4.1

From Chart 1, h3 = 30 Btu lbma , h2 = 23 Btu lbma , and
60,000
m a2 = m a3 = = 8570 lbma hr
30 − 23
Also from Chart 1, v 2 = 13.21 ft 3 lbma and the air volume flow rate required is
8570(13.21)
Q 2 = m
 a 2v 2 = = 1890 cfm
60
Before attention is directed to the cooling and dehumidifying process, state 1 must be
determined. A mass balance on the mixing section yields
m a0 + m a4 = m  a1 = m
 a2
Q
m a0 = 0
v0
v0 = 14.23 ft 3 lbma
500  60
m a0 = = 2110 lbma hr
14.23
Then the recirculated air is
m a4 = m
 a2 − m
 a0 = 8570 − 2110 = 6460 lbma hr
By using the graphical technique and referring to Figure 2.14, we see that
___
31  a 0 2110
m
= = = 0.246
___
 a1 8570
m
30
___ ___
31 = 0.246 (30)
State 1 is located at 81 F db and 68 F wb. A line constructed from state 1 to state 2 on Chart 1
then represents the process taking place in the conditioning equipment.
An energy balance gives
m a1h1 = qc + m a 2h2
Solving for the rate at which energy is removed in the cooling coil
qc = m a1 (h1 − h2 )
From Chart 1,
h1 = 32.4 Btu lbma
and
qc = 8570(32.4 − 23) = 80,600 Btu hr = 6.7 tons
The sensible heat factor (SHF) for the cooling coil is found to be 0.6 using the protractor of Chart
1 (Figure 2.14). Then
qcs = 0.6(80,600) = 48,400 Btu hr
and
qcl = 80,600 − 48,400 = 32,300 Btu hr
The sum of qcs and q cl is known as the coil refrigeration load; because of outdoor air cooling it is
different from the space cooling load.
4.2 Heating and Humidifying System
A space is to be maintained at 75 F and 50 percent relative humidity. Heat losses from the space
are 225,000 Btu/hr sensible and 56,250 Btu/hr latent. The latent heat transfer is due to the
infiltration of cold dry air. The outdoor air required is 1000 cfm and is at 35 F and 80 percent
relative humidity. Determine the quantity of air supplied at 120 F, the state of the supply air, the
size of the furnace or heating coil, and the humidifier characteristics.

Figure 15 The heating and humidification process for Example 2.6.2.

Given:
Space condition: 75 F and 50 % RH
Sensible heat loss from space = 225,000 Btu/hr
Latent heat loss from space = 56,250 Btu/hr
Outdoor air cfm = 1000 cfm
Outdoor air condition = 35 F and 80% RH
Supply air = 120 F
Required:
Quantity of air supplied
State of the supply air
Size of furnace or heating coil
Humidifier Characteristics

Solution:
Figure 15 is a schematic for the problem; it contains the given information and reference points.
First consider the conditioned space:
225,000
SHF = = 0.80
225,000 + 56,250
The state of the supply air lies on a line drawn through state point 3 parallel to the SHF=0.8 line
on the protractor of Chart 1. Figure 16 shows this construction. State 2 is located at 120 F dry
bulb and the intersection of this line. An energy balance on the space gives
m a 2h2 = q + m  a3h3
Or q = m a 2 (h2 − h3 )
From Chart 1, h2 = 42 Btu lbma , h3 = 28.2 Btu lbma , and
q 281,250
m a2 = = = 20,400 lbma hr
h2 − h3 42 − 28.2
From Chart 1, v2 = 14.89 ft 3 lbma , and
20,400
Q 2 = 14.89 = 5060 cfm
60

Figure 16 Psychrometric processes for Example 2.6.2

To find the conditions at state 1, the mixing process must be considered. A mass balance on the
mixing section yields
 a0 + m
m  a4 = m
 a1 = m a2
Or
 a4 = m
m  a2 − m
 a0
Q
 a 0 = 0 , and
m v0 = 12.53 ft 3 lbma
v0
1000  60
 a0 =
m = 4790 lbma hr
12.53
 a 4 = 20,400 − 4790 = 15,600 lbma hr
m

Using the graphical technique and referring to Figure 2.16, we obtain

___ m ___ 4790 ___ ___
31 = a 0 30 = (30) = 0.235 (30)
m a1 20,400
___
State 1 is then located at 66 F db and 57 F wb. The line 12 constructed on Chart 1, Figure 16,
represents the combination heating and humidifying process that must take place in the heating
and humidifying unit. However, in practice the processes must be carried out separately.
Assume that saturated vapor at 200 F is used in the humidifier. Then hw = 1145.8 Btu lbm from
Table A-1a, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 5th Edition. F.C. McQuiston et al.
(Properties of Water-Steam). The required sensible heating is
 a cp (t X − t1 )
q1a = q s = m
q s = (20,400)(0.245)(119 − 66) = 264,900 Btu hr
 The amount of water vapor supplied to the humidifier is given by
v =m
m  a (W2 −W1 )
Where W2 = 0.012 lbmv lbma and W1 = 0.008 lbmv lbma from Chart 1, so that
 v = 20,400(0.012 − 0.008) = 82 lbmv hr
m

5. EXERCISE PROBLEMS

5.1 A chilled water cooling coil receives 2.5 m3/s of air at 25 C db, 20 C wb. It is necessary for the air
to leave the coil at 13 C db, 12 C wb. Assume sea level pressure.
(a) Determine the SHF and the apparatus dew point.
(b) Compute the total and sensible heat transfer rates from the air.
Answer: (a) 0.528, 6.45, (b) 67.22, 35.5.
5.2 Air at 100 F db and 65 F wb is humidified adiabatically with steam. The steam supplied contains
20 percent moisture (quality of 0.80) at 14.7 psia. If the air is humidified to 60 percent relative
humidity, what is the dry bulb temperature of the humidified air? Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 91.6 F
5.3 Air at 38 C db and 18 C wb is humidified adiabatically with steam. The steam supplied contains
20 percent moisture (quality of 0.80) at 101.3 kPa. If the air is humidified to 60 percent relative
humidity, what is the dry bulb temperature of the humidified air? Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 33.1 C
5.4 Air at 84 F db and 60 F wb is humidified with the dry bulb temperature remaining constant. Wet
steam is supplied for humidification at 20 psia. What quality must the steam have to provide
saturated air? Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 93.95%
5.5 Air at 29 C db and 16 C wb is humidified with the dry bulb temperature remaining constant. Wet
steam is supplied for humidification at 138 kPa. What quality must the steam have to provide
saturated air? Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 93.9%
5.6 Air at 38 C db and 20 C wb and 101.325 kPa is humidified adiabatically with liquid water supplied
at 60 C, in such proportions that the mixture has a relative humidity of 80 percent. Find the dry
bulb temperature of the mixture.
Answer: 22.86
5.7 It is desired to heat and humidify 2000 cfm of air from an initial state defined by a temperature
of 60 F dry bulb and relative humidity of 30 percent to a final state of 110 F dry bulb and 30
percent relative humidity. The air will first be heated by a hot water coil, followed by adiabatic
humidification using saturated vapour at 5 psig. Using the psychrometric chart, find the heat
transfer rate for the heating coil and the mass flow rate of the water vapour, and sketch the
properties on a skeleton chart showing pertinent data. Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 104,412 ; 122.5
5.8 It is desired to heat and humidify 1.0 m3/s of air from an initial state defined by a temperature of
16 C dry bulb and relative humidity of 30 percent to a final state of 43 C dry bulb and 30 percent
relative humidity. The air will first be heated by a hot water coil, followed by adiabatic
humidification using saturated vapour at 34.5 kPa. Using the psychrometric chart, find the heat
transfer rate for the heating coil and the mass flow rate of the water vapour, and sketch the
properties on a skeleton chart showing pertinent data. Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 31.6 ; 0.01576
 5.9 Air at 40 F db and 35 F wb is mixed with warm air at 100 F db and 77 F wb in the ratio of 2 lbm
cool air to 1 lbm of warm air. Compute the humidity ratio and enthalpy of the mixed air.
Answer: 0.00702, 21.88
5.10 Air at 5 C db and 2 C wb is mixed with warm air at 38 C db and 25 C wb in the ratio of 2 kga cool
air to 1 kga of warm air. Compute the humidity ratio and enthalpy of the mixed air.
Answer: 0.00698, 33.90
5.11 Air at 10 C db and 5 C wb is mixed with air at 25 C db and 18 C wb in a steady-flow process at
standard atmospheric pressure. The volume flow rates are 10 m3/s and 6 m3/s, respectively.
Compute the mixture conditions.
Answer: 15.4, 10.4 .
5.12 A meeting hall is to be maintained at 25 C db and 18 C wb. The barometric pressure is 101.325
kPa. The space has a load of 58.6 kW sensible load and 58.6 kW latent. The temperature of the
supply air cannot be lower than 18 C db. (a) How many kilograms per second of air must be
supplied? (b) What is the required wet bulb temperature of the supply air? (c) What is the
sensible heat ratio?
Answer: (a) 8.2073 ; (b) 12.92 ; (c) 0.50 .
5.13 Outdoor air is at 95 F and 79 F wb and at a barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg is cooled and
dehumidified under steady conditions until it becomes saturated at 60 F. (a) Find the mass of
water condensed per pound of dry air. (b) If the condensate is removed at 60 F, what quantity of
heat is removed per pound of dry air?
Answer: (a) 0.0067 ; (b) 15.79 .
5.14 Outdoor air is at 35 C and 26 C wb and at a barometric pressure of 101 kPa is cooled and
dehumidified under steady conditions until it becomes saturated at 16 C. (a) Find the mass of
water condensed per kg of dry air. (b) If the condensate is removed at 16 C, what quantity of
heat is removed per kilogram of dry air?
Answer: (a) 0.0061 ; (b) 34.94 .
5.15 Moist air enters a refrigeration coil at 89 F db and 75 F wb at a rate of 1400 cfm. The apparatus
dewpoint temperature of the coil is 55 F. If 3.5 tons of refrigeration is available, find the dry bulb
temperature of the air leaving the coil. Assume sea level pressure.
Answer: 73.18 .
5.16 Saturated steam at a pressure of 25 psia is sprayed into a stream of moist air. The initial
condition of air is 55 F db and 45 F wb temperature. The mass rate of air flow is 2000 lbma/min.
Barometric pressure is 14.696 psia. Determine (a) how much steam (in lbm/min) must be added
to produce a saturated air condition and (b) the resulting temperature of the saturated air.
Answer: (a) 12 ; (b) 57.2 .
5.17 Saturated water vapor at 100 C is used to humidify a stream of moist air. The air enters the
humidifier at 13 C db and 2 C wb at a flow rate of 2.5 m 3/s. The pressure is 101.35 kPa.
Determine (a) the mass flow rate of the steam required to saturate the air and (b) the
temperature of saturated air.
Answer: (a) 0.0318 ; (b) 14.47 .

- End -
 3.1 Solar Radiation

1. Thermal Radiation
Solar radiation is made up of several broad classes of electromagnetic radiation, all of which
have some common characteristics, but which differ in the effect they produce, primarily because of
their wavelength. These broad classes of the solar spectrum include ultraviolet, visible light, and
infrared. Overlapping the wavelengths of most of the infrared, all of the visible light, and part of the
ultraviolet spectrum is a range referred to as thermal radiation, since it is this part of the
electromagnetic spectrum that primarily creates a heating effect. In turn, when a substance has its
thermal energy level (temperature) increased, the electromagnetic radiation produced by this
temperature increase is primarily in the thermal radiation band. Thermal radiation is that portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum with wavelengths from 0.1 x 10-6 m up to approximately 100 x 10-6 m.
In both the IP and the SI systems the common unit for wavelength is the micron ( 1 m = 10-6 m);
therefore, the approximate range of thermal radiation is from 0.1 to 100 microns. A portion of the
shorter wavelengths in this range is visible to the human eye. Radiant energy or radiation should be
understood to mean thermal radiation.
The total thermal radiation that impinges on a surface from all directions and from all sources is
called the total or global irradiation (G). Its units are Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2.
The thermal radiation energy that falls on a surface is subject to absorption and reflection as
well as transmission through transparent bodies. Absorption is the transformation of the radiant
energy into thermal energy stored by the molecules. Reflection is the return of radiation by a
surface without change of frequency. In effect the radiation is “bounced” off of the surface.
Transmission is the passage of radiation through a medium without change of frequency. Energy
falling on a surface must be subject to one of these three actions; therefore,
 +  + = 1
where:
 = the absorptance, the fraction of the total incident thermal radiation absorbed
 = the reflectance, the fraction of the total incident thermal radiation reflected
 = the transmittance, the fraction of the total incident radiation transmitted through the body

When the material is optically smooth and of sufficient thickness to show no change of
reflectance or absorptance with increasing thickness, the terms reflectivity and absorptivity are used
to describe the reflectance and absorptance, respectively.
Radiant energy originates at a surface or from the interior of a medium because of the
temperature of the material. The rate of emission of energy is stated in terms of the total emissive
power (E). Its value depends only on the temperature of the system and the characteristics of the
material of the system. Some surfaces emit more energy than others at the same temperature. The
units of E may be expressed in Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2. E is the total energy emitted by the surface into
the space and is a multidirectional, total quantity.
It follows that radiant energy leaving an opaque surface ( = 0) comes from two sources: (1) the
emitted energy and (2) the reflected irradiation.
A surface that reflects no radiation ( = 0) is said to be a blackbody, since in the absence of
emitted or transmitted radiation it puts forth no radiation visible to the eye and thus appears black.
A blackbody is a perfect absorber of radiation and is a useful concept and standard for study of the
subject of radiation heat transfer. It can be shown that the perfect absorber of radiant energy is also
a perfect emitter; thus the perfect radiant emitter is also given the name blackbody. For a given
 temperature T in degrees R, a black emitter exhibits a maximum monochromatic emissive power at
wavelength max, given by
5215.6
max = microns
T
This equation is known as Wien’s displacement law. The maximum amount of radiation is
emitted in the wavelengths around the value of max. According to Wien’s displacement law, as the
temperature of a black emitter increases, the major part of the radiation that is being emitted shifts
to shorter wavelengths. It implies that higher-temperature surfaces are primarily emitters of short-
wavelength radiation and lower-temperature surfaces are primarily emitters of long-wavelength
radiation. The sun, which has a surface temperature of approximately 10,000 F (6000 K), emits
radiation with a maximum in the visible range. Building surfaces, which are at a much lower
temperature, emit radiation primarily at much longer wavelengths.
Most surfaces are not blackbodies, but reflect some incoming radiation and emit less radiation
than a blackbody at the same temperature. For such real surfaces we define one additional term,
the emittance . The emittance is the fraction of the blackbody energy that a surface would emit at
the same temperature, so that
E = EB
The emittance can vary with the temperature of the surface and with its conditions, such as
roughness, degree of contaminations, and the like.

2. The Earth’s motion about the sun

The sun’s position in the sky is a major factor in the effect of solar energy on a building. Equations
for predicting the sun’s position are best understood by considering the earth’s motion about the
sun. The earth moves in a slightly elliptical orbit about the sun (Figure 1).
 The plane in which the earth rotates around the sun (approximately once every 365 ¼ days) is
called the ecliptic plane or orbital plane. The mean distance from the center of the earth to the
center of the sun is approximately 92.9 x 106 miles (1.5 x 108 km). The perihelion distance, when the
earth is closest to the sun, is 98.3 percent of the mean distance and occurs on January 4. The
aphelion distance, when the earth is farthest from the sun, is 101.7 percent of the mean distance
and occurs on July 5. Because of this the earth receives about 7 percent more total radiation in
January than in July.
As the earth moves it also spins about its own axis at the rate of one revolution each 24 hours.
There is an additional motion because of a slow wobble or gyroscopic precession of the earth. The
earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.5 deg with respect to the orbital plane. As a result of this dual
motion and tilt, the position of the sun in the sky, as seen by an observer on earth, varies with the
observer’s location on the earth’s surface and with the time of day and the time of year. For
practical purposes the sun is so small as seen by an observer on earth that it may be treated as a
point source of radiation.
At the time of the vernal equinox (March 21) and of the autumnal equinox (September 22 or
23), the sun appears to be directly overhead at the equator and the earth’s poles are equidistant
 from the sun. Equinox means “equal nights,” and during the time of the two equinoxes all points on
the earth (except the poles) have exactly 12 hours of darkness and 12 hours of daylight.
During the summer solstice (June 21 or 22) the north pole is inclined 23.5 deg toward the sun.
All points on the earth’s surface north of 66.5 deg N latitude (the Arctic Circle) are in continuous
daylight, whereas all points south of 66.5 deg S latitude (the Antarctic Circle) are in continuous
darkness. Relatively warm weather occurs in the northern hemisphere and relatively cold weather
occurs in the southern hemisphere. The word solstice means sun standing still.
During the summer solstice the sun appears to be directly overhead at noon along the Tropic of
Cancer, whereas during the winter solstice it is overhead at noon along the Tropic of Capricorn. The
torrid zone is the region between, where the sun is at the zenith (directly overhead) at least once
during the year. In the temperate zones (between 23.5 and 66.5 deg latitude in each hemisphere)
the sun is never directly overhead but always appears above the horizon each day. The frigid zones
are those zones with latitude greater than 66.5 deg, where the sun is below the horizon for at least
one full day (24 hours) each year. In these two zones the sun is also above the horizon for at least
one full day each year.

3. Time
Because of the earth’s rotation about its own axis, a fixed location on the earth’s surface goes
through a 24-hour cycle in relation to the sun. The earth is divided into 360 deg of circular arc by
longitudinal lines passing through the poles. Thus, 15 deg of longitude corresponds to 1/24 of a day
or 1 hour of time. A point on the earth’s surface exactly 15 deg west of another point will see the
sun in exactly the same position as the first point after one hour of time has passed. Universal Time
or Greenwich civil time (GCT) is the time along the zero longitude line passing through Greenwich,
England. Local civil time (LCT) is determined by the longitude of the observer, the difference being
four minutes of time for each degree of longitude, the more advanced time being on meridians
further east. Thus when it is 12:00 noon GCT, it is 7:00 A.M. LCT along the seventy-fifth deg W
longitude meridian.
Clocks are usually set for the same reading throughout a zone covering approximately 15 deg of
longitude, although the borders of the time zone may be irregular to accommodate local
geographical features. The local civil time for a selected meridian near the center of the zone is
called the standard time. The four standard times zones in the lower 48 states and their standard
meridians are
Eastern standard time, EST 75 deg
Central standard time, CST 90 deg
Mountain standard time, MST 105 deg
Pacific standard time, PST 120 deg

In much of the United States clocks are advanced one h our during the late spring, summer, and
early fall season, leading to daylight saving time.
Whereas civil time is based on days that are precisely 24 hours in length, solar time has slightly
variable days because of nonsymmetry of the earth’s orbit, irregularities of the earth’s rotational
speed, and other factors. Time measured by the position of the sun is called solar time.
The local solar time (LST) can be calculated from the local civil time (LCT) with the help of a
quantity called the equation of time: LST = LCT + (equation of time). The following relationship,
developed from work by Spencer, may be used to determine the equation of time EOT:
 0.000075 + 0.001868cos N − 0.032077 sinN 
EOT = 299.2  min
 − 0.014615cos 2N − 0.04089 sin 2N 
 where N = (n-1)(360/365), and n is the day of the year, 1 ≤ n ≤ 365. In this formulation, N is given in
degrees. Values of the equation of time are given in Table 1 for the twenty-first day of each month.

Example 1
Determine the local solar time (LST) corresponding to 11:00 A.M. CDST on February 21 in the United
States at 95 deg W longitude.
Given:
CDST = 11:00 A.M., February 21, 95 deg W longitude
Required:
LST
Solution:
It is first necessary to convert Central Daylight Saving Time to Central Standard Time:
CST = CDST – 1 hour = 11:00 – 1 = 10:00 A.M.
Then CST is local civil time at 90 deg W longitude. Now local civil time at 95 deg W is 5 x 4 = 20
minutes less advanced than LCT at 90 deg W. Then
LCT = CST – 20 min = 9:40 A.M.
From Table 1 the equation of time is -13.9 min. Then
LST = LCT + equation of time
LST = 9:40 – 0.14 = 9:26 A.M.

4. Solar Angles
The direction of the sun’s rays can be described if three fundamental quantities are known:
a. Location on the earth’s surface
b. Time of day
c. Day of the year

It is convenient to describe these three quantities by giving the latitude, the hour angle, and the
sun’s declination, respectively. Figure 2 shows a point P located on the surface of the earth in the
northern hemisphere. The latitude l is the angle between the line OP and the projection of OP on
the equatorial plane. This is the same latitude that is commonly used on globes and maps to
describe the location of a point with respect to the equation.

The hour angle h is the angle between the projection of P on the equatorial plane and the
projection on that plane of a line from the center of the sun to the center of the earth. Fifteen
degrees of hour angle corresponds to one hour of time. The hour angle varies from zero at local
solar noon to a maximum at sunrise or sunset. Solar noon occurs when the sun is at the highest
point in the sky, and hour angles are symmetrical with respect to solar noon. Thus, the hour angles
of sunrise and sunset on a given day are identical.
The sun’s declination d is the angle between a line connecting the center of the sun and earth
and the projection of that line on the equatorial plane. Figure 3 shows how the sun’s declination
varies throughout a typical year.
 On a given day in the year, the declination varies slightly from year to year but for typical HVAC
calculations the values from any year are sufficiently accurate. The following equation, developed
from work by Spencer, may be used to determine declination in degrees:
d = 0.3963723 − 22.9132745cos N + 4.0254304 sinN − 0.387205cos 2B
+ 0.05196728sin 2N − 0.1545267 cos 3N + 0.0847977 sin3N
where N = (n-1)(360/365), and n is the day of the year, 1 ≤ n ≤ 365. In this formulation, N is given in
degrees.
It is convenient in HVAC computations to define the sun’s position in the sky in terms of the
solar altitude  and the solar azimuth , which depend on the fundamental quantities l, h, and d.
The solar altitude  (sun’s altitude angle) is the angle between the sun’s ray and the projection
of that ray on a horizontal surface (Fig. 4). It is the angle of the sun above the horizon. It can be
shown by the analytic geometry that the following relationship is true:

sin  = cos l cos h cos d + sinl sind

The sun’s zenith angle  is the angle between the sun’s rays and a perpendicular to the
horizontal plane at point P (Fig. 4). Obviously
  + = 90 degrees
The daily maximum altitude (solar noon) of the sun at a given location can be shown to be
noon = 90 − l − d degrees
where |l – d| is the absolute value of l – d.
The solar azimuth angle  is the angle in the horizontal plane measured between south and the
projection of the sun’s rays on that plane (Fig. 4). Again by analytic geometry it can be shown that
sin  sin l − sind
cos =
cos  cos l
For a vertical surface the angle measured in the horizontal plane between the projection of the
sun’s rays on that plane and a normal to the vertical surface is called the wall solar azimuth . Figure
5 illustrates this quantity.

If  is the wall azimuth measured east or west from south, then obviously
 =  
The angle of incidence  is the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal to the surface, as
shown in Figure 5. The angle of tilt  is the angle between the normal to the surface and the normal
to the horizontal surface. It may be shown that
cos = cos  cos  sin + sin  cos
Then for a vertical surface
cos = cos  cos
And for a horizontal surface
cos = sin 
Example No. 2
Find the solar altitude and azimuth at 10:00 A.M. central daylight saving time on July 21 at 40 deg N
latitude and 85 deg W longitude.
 Solution:
The local civil time
LCT = 10:00 – 1:00 + 4(90 – 85) = 9:20 A.M.
The equation of time is -6.2 min (Table 1, July 21); therefore the local solar time to the nearest
minute is
LST = 9:20 – 0.06 = 9:14 A.M.
Then , (solar altitude)
sin  = cos l cos h cos d + sinl sind
h = 12:00 – 9:14 = 2 hr 46 min = 2.767 hr x 15 deg/hr = 41.5 deg
Table 1, July 21
d = 20.6 deg
l = 40 deg (given)
sin  = cos 40 cos 41.5cos 20.6 + sin40 sin 20.6
 = 49.7 deg
For  (azimuth),
sin  sin l − sind
cos =
cos  cos l
sin 40 sin 49.7 − sin 20.6
cos =
cos 49.7 cos 40
 = 73.7 deg

5. Solar Irradiation
The mean solar constant Gsc is the rate of irradiation on the surface normal to the sun’s rays
beyond the earth’s atmosphere and at the mean earth-sun distance. The mean solar constant is
approximately
( )
G = 433.4 Btu hr − ft 2 = 1367 W m2
The irradiation from the sun varies about ± 3.5 percent because of the variation in distance
between the sun and earth. Because of the large amount of atmospheric absorption of this
radiation, and because this absorption is so variable and difficult to predict, a precise value of the
solar constant is not used in most HVAC calculations.
A part of the solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere is scattered by gas and water
vapor molecules and by cloud and dust particles. The blue color of the sky is a result of the
scattering of some of the shorter wavelengths from the visible portion of the spectrum. The familiar
red at sunset results from the scattering of longer wavelengths by dust or cloud particles near the
earth. Some radiation (particularly ultraviolet) may be absorbed by ozone in the upper atmosphere,
and other radiation is absorbed by water vapor near the earth’s surface. That part of the radiation
that is not scattered or absorbed and reaches the earth’s surface is called direct radiation. It is
accompanied by radiation that has been scattered or reemitted, called diffuse radiation. Radiation
may also be reflected onto a surface from nearby surfaces. The total irradiation Gt on a surface
normal to the sun’s rays is thus made up of normal direct irradiation GND, diffuse irradiation Gd, and
reflected irradiation GR:

6. ASHRAE Clear Sky Model

The value of the solar constant is for a surface outside the earth’s atmosphere and does not take
into account the absorption and scattering of the earth’s atmosphere, which can be significant even
for clear days. The value of the solar irradiation at the surface of the earth on a clear day is given by
the ASHRAE Clear Sky Model:
A
GND =
exp(B sin  )
where:
GND = normal direct irradiation, Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2
A = apparent solar irradiation, Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2
B = atmospheric extinction coefficient
 = solar altitude

Values of A and B are given in Table 1 for the twenty-first day of each month and for an atmospheric
clearness number CN of unity. The data in Table1, when used in the above equation do not give the
maximum value of GND that can occur in any given month, but are representative of conditions on
average cloudless days. The value of CN expressed as a percentage are given in Figure 6 for non-
industrial locations in the United States. The use of these values will be shown below.

The diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface is given by the use of the factor C from Table 1:
Gd = (C )(GND )
where C is obviously the ratio of diffuse irradiation on a horizontal surface to direct normal
irradiation. The parameter C is assumed to be a constant for an average clear day for a particular
month.
 A critical review of the ASHRAE Solar Radiation Model is given by Galanis and Chatigny in which
they show the contradiction of using the concept of a clearness number as a multiplying factor for
both the normal direct irradiation and the diffuse radiation. They suggest dividing by the square of
the clearness number to give the correct behavior for the diffuse component:
(C )(GND )
Gd =
(C N )2
Their model would then combine with an equation for the direct radiation GD on a surface of
arbitrary orientation, corrected for clearness:
GD = CNGND cos
where  is the angle of incidence between the sun’s rays and the normal to the surface . The result
is, for a horizontal surface where cos = sin.
 C 
Gt = GD + Gd = cos +
(C N )3  N ND
C G

To estimate the rate at which diffuse radiation Gd strikes a non-horizontal surface on a clear
day, the following equation is used:
Gd = CGNDFws
in which Fws is the configuration factor or angle factor between the wall and the sky. The
configuration factor is the fraction of the diffuse radiation leaving one surface that would fall
directly on another surface. For diffuse radiation this factor is a function only of the geometry of the
surface or surfaces to which it is related.
The symbol for configuration factor always has two subscripts designation the surface or
surfaces that it describes. For example, the configuration factor F12 applies to the two surfaces
numbered 1 and 2. Then F12 is the fraction of the diffuse radiation leaving surface 1 that falls directly
on surface 2. F11 is the fraction of the diffuse radiation leaving surface 1 that falls on itself and
obviously is zero except for non-plane surfaces.
A very important and useful characteristic of configuration factors is the reciprocity relationship:
A1F12 = A2F21
Its usefulness is in determining configuration factors when the reciprocal factor is known or
when the reciprocal factor is more easily obtained than the desired factor.
For example, the fraction of the diffuse radiation in the sky that strikes a given surface would be
difficult to determine directly. The fraction of the energy that leaves the surface and “strikes” the
sky directly, Fws, however, can be easily determined from the geometry:
1 + cos 
Fws =
2
 is the tilt angle of the surface from horizontal  =  in degrees.
The rate at which diffuse radiation from the sky strikes a given surface of area a is, per unit area
of surface,
q As Gd Fsw
=
Aw Aw
By reciprocity
AsFsw = Aw Fws
Therefore
q
= Gd Fws
Aw
 Thus, although the computation involves the irradiation of the sky on the surface or wall, the
configuration factor most convenient to use is Fws, the one describing the fraction of the surface
radiation that strikes the sky.

Example No. 3
Calculate the clear day direct, diffuse, and total solar radiation rate on a horizontal surface at 36 deg
N latitude and 84 deg W longitude on June 21 at 12:00 noon CST.
Given:
l = 36 deg
84 deg W longitude
June 21 at 12:00 noon CST.

Required:
Clear day direct, diffuse, and total solar radiation rate (GD, Gd and Gt)
Solution:
From Table 1. June 21.
Equation of time = - 1.4 min, d = 23.45 deg, A = 346.3 Btu/(hr-ft2), B = 0.185, C = 0.137
Local solar time:
LST = LCT + (equation of time )
 90 − 84 
LST = 12 : 00 +  (60) + (− 1.4) = 12 : 22.6
 15 
Hour angle, h
(22.6)(15)
h= = 5.65 deg
60
Solar altitude ,
sin  = cos l cos d cos h + sinl sind
sin  = cos 36 cos 23.45cos 5.65 + sin36 sin23.45
sin  = 0.972
For a horizontal surface cosq = sinb, so
GND =
A
 B 
=
346.3
 0.185 
( )
= 286 Btu hr − ft 2
exp  exp 
 sin    0.972 
Direct radiation
(
GD = GND cos = (286)(0.972) = 278 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Diffuse radiation
(
Gd = CGND = (0.137)(286) = 39.2 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Total radiation
(
Gt = GD + Gd = 278 + 39.2 = 317 Btu hr − ft 2)
A particular useful curve (Figure 8) gives the ratio of diffuse sky radiation on a vertical surface to
that incident on a horizontal surface on a clear day.
 The curve may be approximated by
GdV GdH = 0.55 + 0.437 cos + 0.313cos2 
When  > -0.2; otherwise, GdV/GdH = 0.45.
In determining the total rate at which radiation strikes an arbitrarily oriented surface at any
time, one must also consider the energy reflected onto the surface.
The most common case is reflection of solar energy from the ground to a tilted surface or
vertical wall. For such a case the rate at which energy is reflected to the wall is
GR = GtH  g Fwg
Where:
GR = rate at which energy is reflected onto the wall, Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2
GtH = rate at which the total radiation (direct plus diffuse) strikes the horizontal surface or
ground in front of the wall, Btu/(hr-ft2) or W/m2
g = reflectance of ground or horizontal surface
Fwg = configuration or angle factor from wall to ground, defined as the fraction of the radiation
leaving the wall of interest that strikes the horizontal surface or ground directly.

For a surface or wall at a tilt angle  to the horizontal ( = ).

1 − cos 
Fwg =
2

Example No. 4
Calculate the total incidence of solar radiation on a window facing south located 6 ft above the
ground. In front of the window is a concrete parking area that extends 50 ft south and 50 ft to each
 side of the window. The window has no setback. The following parameter have been previously
computed:  = 69 degrees 13 min,  = 17 degrees 18 min, GND = 278 Btu/(hr-ft2), GtH = 293 Btu/(hr-
ft2), GdH = 33 Btu/(hr-ft2), 1 = 0.33, Fwg = 0.433.

Given:
 = 69 degrees 13 min,  = 17 degrees 18 min, GND = 278 Btu/(hr-ft2), GtH = 293 Btu/(hr-ft2), GdH = 33
Btu/(hr-ft2), 1 = 0.33, Fwg = 0.433.

Required:
Total incidence of solar radiation on a window

Solution:
For wall azimuth facing south,  = 0
For wall solar azimuth,  =  +  =  = 17 degrees 18 min
For angle of incidence
cos = cos  cos  = cos 6913 cos1718 = 0.339

Direct radiation:
(
GDV = GND cos = 287(0.339) = 94 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Diffuse radiation: (From Figure 7)
GdV
= 0.75
GdH
(
GdV = 0.75(33) = 25 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Reflected component
GR = GtH  g Fwg
(
GR = (293)(0.33)(0.433) = 42 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Total radiation:
(
GtV = GDV + GdV + GR = 94 + 25 + 42 = 161Btu hr − ft 2 )
7. Heat Gain Through Fenestrations
The term fenestration refers to any glazed aperture in a building envelope. The components of
fenestrations include:
• Glazing material, either glass or plastic
• Framing, mullions, muntins, and dividers
• External shading devices
• Internal shading devices
• Integral (between-glass) shading systems

Fenestrations are important for energy use in a building, since they affect rates of heat transfer
into and out of the building, are sources of air leakage, and provide daylighting, which may reduce
the need for artificial lighting. The solar radiation passing inward through the fenestration glazing
permits heat gains into a building that are quite different from the gains of the nontransmitting
parts of the building envelope. This behavior is best seen by referring to Figure 8.
 The solar gain is the sum of the transmitted radiation and the portion of the absorbed radiation
that flows inward. Because heat is also conducted through the glass whenever there is an outdoor-
indoor temperature difference, the total rate of heat admission is
Total heat admission through glass = Radiation transmitted through glass + Inward flow of
absorbed solar radiation + Conduction heat gain.
The first two quantities on the right are related to the amount of solar radiation falling on the
glass, and the third quantity occurs whether or not the sun is shining. In winter the conduction heat
flow may well be outward rather than inward. The total heat gain becomes
Total heat gain = Solar heat gain + Conduction heat gain
The conduction heat gain per unit area is the product of the overall coefficient of heat transfer U
for the existing fenestration and the outdoor-indoor temperature difference (to – ti).

7.1 Solar Heat Gain Coefficients

The heat gain through even the simplest window is complicated by the fact that the window
is finite in size, it is framed, and the sunlight striking it does so at varying angles through the day.
To fully take all of the complexities into account requires the use of not only spectral methods
but also the angular radiation characteristics involved. The equation requires become quite
complex, the required properties are sometimes difficult to determine, and lengthy computer
calculations are involved.
The spectral method involves the development of one solar heat gain coefficient, the
fraction of the incident irradiance (incident solar energy) that enters the glazing and becomes
heat gain:
qi = (Gi )(SHGC )
 The SHGC includes both the directly transmitted portion and the absorbed and readmitted
portion. It does not include the portion of the fenestration heat gain due to a difference in
temperature between the inside and outside air. In multiple pane glazing, where the special
method is required for accurate predictions, the determination of the SHGC requires a term to
allow for inward flow of absorbed radiation for each of the layers.

7.2 Simplified Solar Heat Gain Calculations – SHGF

The hourly solar heat gains that occur in a unit area of double-strength sheet glass (DSA) for
a given orientation and time are called the solar heat gain factors (SHGF). The term makes into
account for the combined effects of both transmitted solar heat gain and absorbed solar heat
gain conducted into the space. Because of refinements made in the method for calculating
cooling loads, the transmitted and the absorbed solar heat gain components are now treated
separately. The transmitted solar heat gain that occurs in a unit area of DSA glass for a given
orientation and time is referred to as the transmitted solar heat gain factor (TSHGF). The
absorbed solar heat gain that occurs in a unit area of DSA glass for a given orientation and time
is referred to as the absorbed solar heat gain factor (ASHGF).
Both solar heat gain factors are calculated assuming that the direct solar irradiation GD and
the diffuse solar irradiation Gd have already been determined.
The transmittance D of DSA glass to direct (beam) radiation incident at an angle  is
5
 D =  t j (cos ) j
j =0

where tj is the transmission coefficients for glass (Table 2). The transmittance D of DSA glass to
diffuse radiation is given by
5
tj
d = 2j =0 j + 2

Note that both calculations use the transmission coefficients for glass found in Table 2. These
coefficients give a normal transmittance for DSA glass of 0.80, which is slightly higher than
values sometimes used. The transmitted solar heat gain factor is
5 5
tj

TSHGF = GD t j (cos ) j + 2Gd
j =0
j =0 j + 2

Table 2. Coefficients for DSA Glass for Calculation of Transmittance and Absorptance
j ai tj
0 0.01154 -0.00885
1 0.77674 2.71235
2 -3.94657 -0.62062
3 8.57811 -7.07329
4 -8.38135 9.75995
5 3.01188 -3.89922
Source: ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume, 1989 (From Reference)

The units of TSHGF will be consistent with the units of GD and Gd.
The fraction of direct (beam) solar radiation incident at an angle  that is absorbed by DSA
glass is
 5
 D =  a j (cos ) j
j =0

where aj is the absorption coefficients for glass (Table 2). The fraction of diffuse solar radiation
absorbed by DSA glass is given by
5
aj
d = 2 
j =0 j + 2

The absorbed solar heat gain factor is then given by

5 5
aj

ASHGF = GD a j (cos ) j + 2Gd
j =0

j =0 j + 2

7.3 Shading Coefficients (SC)

Procedures for estimating solar heat gain assume that a constant ratio exists between the
solar heat gain through any given type of fenestration system and the solar heat gain (under
exactly the same solar conditions) through DSA glass. This ratio, is called the shading coefficient
and abbreviated SC, is unique for each type of fenestration or each combination of glazing and
internal shading device:
Solar heat gain of fenestration
SC =
Solar heat gain of DSA glass
Since the solar heat gain coefficient SHGC for standard DSA glass is 0.87 at normal incidence
and for a standard solar spectrum, and since the shading coefficient SC for such a glass is 1.0,
the relationship between SC and SHGC for standard glass is
SHGC
SC =
0.87
This equation applies only to the glazing portion of a fenestration and does not include
frame effects. The ratio remains constant as the solar spectral shape varies, and as the angle of
incidence varies for clear single- and double-pane glazings and for many tinted single-pane
glazings. With spectrally and angularly selective multiple pane and coated glazings, the ratio is
not constant.
The shading coefficients are determined experimentally from the total solar heat gain,
lumping the transmitted and absorbed components together. Thus the transmitted solar heat
gain TSHG is given by
TSHG = (SC )(TSHGF)
and the absorbed solar heat gain ASHG is given by
ASHG = (SC )(ASHGF)Ni
where Ni is the inward-flowing fraction of absorbed solar heat gain.
The inward-flowing fraction of the absorbed solar heat gain is dependent on the relative
magnitude of the indoor and outdoor heat-transfer coefficients and is given approximately by
hi
Ni =
hi + ho
The values of SC are based on natural convection conditions at the inner surface of the
fenestration, and a 7.5 mph (3.35 m/s) wind at the outer surface. For these conditions hi is 1.46
Btu/(hr-ft2) (0.257 W/(m2-C)) and ho is 4.0 Btu/(hr-ft2) (0.704 W/(m2-C)), which yields a value of
Ni equal to 0.267. For significantly different conditions Ni may be recalculated. Finally, the
instantaneous solar heat gain is SHG = TSHG + ASHG.
 Example No. 5
Calculate SHGF for 2:30 P.M. local solar time, for a SW facing wall at 36 deg N latitude, 97 deg W
longitude. The direct solar irradiation GD = 131 Btu/(hr-ft2), and the diffuse solar irradiation Gd =
64.1 Btu/(hr-ft2).

Given:
LST = 2:30 P.M.
SW facing wall
36 deg N latitude
97 deg W longitude
Direct solar irradiation GD = 131 Btu/(hr-ft2)
Diffuse solar irradiation Gd = 64.1 Btu/(hr-ft2).

Required:
SHGF

Solution:
Transmitted solar heat gain factor, using Table 2.
5 5
tj

TSHGF = GD t j (cos ) j + 2Gd
j =0

j =0 j + 2

(
TSHGF = (131)(0.7835) + 2(64.1)(0.3995) = 154 Btu hr − ft 2 )
where cos = cos(61.7) = 0.4741.
Absorbed solar heat gain factor, using Table 2
5 5
aj

ASHGF = GD a j (cos ) j + 2Gd
j =0

j =0 j + 2

(
ASHGF = (131)(0.0556) + 2(64.1)(0.0272) = 10.8 Btu hr − ft 2 )
Then, total solar heat gain is the sum of transmitted and the inward-flowing part of the
absorbed energy
(
SHGF = TSGHF + (ASHGF)Ni = 154 + (10.8)(0.267) = 157 Btu hr − ft 2 )

7.4 External Shading

A fenestration may be shaded by roof overhangs, side fins or other parts of the building,
trees, or another building. External shading of fenestrations is effective in reducing solar heat
gain to a space and may be produce reductions of up to 80 percent. The shading coefficient SC is
not appropriate to use in determining the effect of external shade, since its purpose is to allow
only for the effect of the fenestration and its internal shading devices. The SC will be used in
heat gain calculations whether the fenestration is externally shaded or not. What is needed in
considering heat gains affected by external shade is the areas of the fenestrations that are
externally shaded. These areas on which external shade falls can be calculated from the
geometry of the external objects creating the shade and from knowledge of the sun angles for
that particular time and location.
Figure 9 illustrates a window that is set back into the structure, where shading may occur
on the sides and top, depending on the time of day and the direction the window faces. It can
be shown that the dimensions x and y in Figure 9 are given by
 x = b tan
y = b tan
where
tan 
tan =
cos 
and
 = sun’s altitude angle
 = wall solar azimuth angle ( ± )
 = solar azimuth
 = wall azimuth measured east or west from the south

The following rules aid in the computation of the wall solar azimuth angle : For morning hours,
with walls facing east of south and afternoon hours with walls facing west of south
 =  −
For afternoon hours with the walls facing east of south and morning hours with walls facing
west of south.
 =  +
If  is greater than 90 deg, the surface is in the shade.

Example 6
A 4 x 5 ft, ¼ in. regular plate glass windows faces southwest. The top of the window has a 2 ft
overhang that extends a great distance on each side of the window. Compute the shaded area of the
window on July 21 at 3:00 P.M. solar time at 40- deg N latitude.

Given:
Window area = 4 ft x 5 ft
Facing southwest
2 ft overhung
July 21 at 3:00 P.M. solar time
40 deg N latitude

Required:
Shaded area of the window

Solution:
To find the area, the dimension y must be computed.
From equations given before,  = 47.0 deg and  = 76.6 deg, respectively.
The wall azimuth for a window facing southwest is 45 deg.
For a wall facing west of south and for afternoon hours on July 21 at 3:00 P.M. solar time at 40 deg
N latitude,
 =  − = 76.6 − 45 = 31.6 deg
Then
b tan 
y = b tan =
cos 
2 tan 47.0
y= = 2.52 ft
cos 31.6
The shaded area is then
Ash = 2.52  4 = 10.2 ft 2
and the sunlit portion has an area of
Asl = A − Ash = 20 −10.1 = 9.9 ft 2
The shaded portion of a window receives only indirect (diffuse) radiation.

- End -
 3.2 Cooling and Heating Loads

1. Introduction
Buildings are built to provide a safe and comfortable internal environment despite variations in
external conditions. The extent to which the desired interior conditions can be economically
maintained is one important measure of the success of a building design. Although control of inside
conditions is usually attributed to the active heating and cooling system, the design of heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) must start with an examination of the thermal
characteristics of the envelope.

2. Health and comfort criteria.

The human body is an amazingly adaptable organism. With long-term conditioning the body can
function under quite extreme thermal conditions. Variations in outdoor temperature and humidity,
however, often go beyond the normal limits of adaptability, and it becomes necessary to provide
modified conditions in order to maintain a healthy, comfortable environment.

3. Thermal comfort.
Figure 1 illustrates the factors that influence thermal comfort. First, body heat is generated by
metabolic processes to maintain body temperature. Metabolic processes are influenced by such
factors as age, health, and level of activity. For example, a given range of environmental conditions
might be quite acceptable in a space occupied by a healthy person but unacceptable for one who is
ill. When people are willing to adjust their dress habits with the changing seasons, they find that
they are comfortable over a broader range of environmental conditions than they would expect.
The body is continuously generating heat, which must be dissipated to maintain a constant body
temperature. For a person at rest or doing light work in a conditioned space, the body dissipates
heat primarily by convection (carried away by the surrounding air) and radiation (to surrounding
surfaces that are at a lower temperature than the body surface). Each of these components of heat
dissipation accounts for approximately 30 percent of the heat loss. Evaporation, from both
respiration and perspiration, accounts for the remaining 40 percent. As environmental conditions or
levels of activity change, these percentages will vary. For example, if a person is doing strenuous
work, the primary heat-dissipation mechanism will be evaporation.

4. Air quality
Air quality must also be maintained to provide a healthy, comfortable indoor environment. Sources
of pollution exist in both the internal and external environment. Indoor air quality is controlled by
removal of the contaminant or by dilution. Ventilation plays an important role in both processes.
Ventilation is defined as supplying air by natural or mechanical means to a space. Normally,
ventilation air is made up of outdoor air and recirculated air. The outdoor air is provided for dilution.
In most cases odor and irritation of the upper respiratory tract or eyes are the reason for ventilation
rather than the presence of health-threatening contaminants. The possibility of contaminants
cannot be overlooked, however.

5. Estimating heat loss and heat gain

Heat transfer through a building envelope is influenced by the materials used; by geometric
factors such as size, shape, and orientation; by the existence of internal heat sources; and by
climatic factors. System design requires each of these factors to be examined and the impact of their
interactions to be carefully evaluated.
 The primary function of heat-loss and heat-gain calculations is to estimate the capacity that will
be required for the various heating and air-conditioning components necessary to maintain comfort
within a space. These calculations are therefore based on peak-load conditions for heating and
cooling and correspond to environmental conditions which are near the extremes normally
encountered. Standard outside design values of temperature, humidity, and solar intensities are
usually available from handbooks.
A number of load-calculation procedures have been developed over the years. Loads are
generally divided into the following four categories (Figure 1).

Transmission – Heat loss or heat gain due to a temperature difference across a building element.
Solar – Heat gain due to transmission of solar energy through a transparent building component or
absorption by an opaque building component.
Infiltration – Heat loss or heat gain due to the infiltration of outside air into a conditioned space.
Internal – Heat gain due to the release of energy within a space (lights, people, equipment, etc.)

In response to these loads the temperature in the space will change or the heating or cooling
equipment will operate to maintain a desired temperature.

6. Design conditions
The design conditions usually specified for estimating heating loads are the inside and outside
dry-bulb temperatures. For heating operation an indoor temperature of 20 to 22 C is generally
assumed, and for cooling operation 24 to 26 C is typical. A minimum relative humidity of 30% in the
winter and a maximum of 60% in the summer is also assumed. For heating operation the 97.5
percent value of the outside condition is usually chosen. This means that on a long-term basis the
outside dry-bulb temperature equals or exceeds this value for 97.5 percent of the hours during the
coldest months of the year. At the 97.5 percent outdoor temperature the air is assumed to be
saturated.
 The set of conditions specified for cooling-load estimates is more complex and includes dry-bulb
temperature, humidity, and solar intensity. Peak-load conditions during the cooling season usually
correspond to the maximum solar conditions rather than to the peak outdoor-air temperature.
Thus, it is often necessary to make several calculations at different times of the day or times of the
year to fix the appropriate maximum-cooling-capacity requirements. When the cooling-load
calculation is made will depend on the geographic location and on the orientation of the space being
considered.

7. Thermal transmission
The general procedure for calculating heat loss or heat gain by the thermal transmission is
t At
q= * = = UA(t o − t i )
R tot Rtot
Where
UA = 1/R*tot, W/K
R*tot = total thermal resistance, K/W
U = overall heat-transfer coefficient, W/m2-K
to – ti = outside – inside temperature difference, K

For heating-load estimates the temperature difference is simply the 97.5 percent outside value
minus the inside design value.

8. Infiltration and ventilation loads.

The entry of outside air into the space influences both the air temperature and the humidity
level in the space. Usually a distinction is made between the two effects, referring to the
temperature effect as sensible load and the humidity effect as latent load. Heat loss or heat gain
due to the entry of outside air is then expresses as
qis = 1.23Q(to – ti) , qil = 3000Q(Wo – Wi)
where
Q = volumetric flow rate of outside air, L/s
W = humidity ratio, water to air, kg/kg
Infiltration, defined as the uncontrolled entry of unconditioned outside air directly into the
building, results from natural forces, e.g., wind and buoyancy due to the temperature difference
between inside and outside. For our purposes we define ventilation as air intentionally brought into
the building by mechanical means. Of course, the air entering must also leave by natural means, i.e.,
exfiltration, or be exhausted by mechanical means.

9. Summary of procedure for estimating heating loads.

In estimating the heating loads for a building, it is important to use an organized, step-by-step
procedure. The necessary steps can be outlined as follows:
9.1 Select design values for outdoor winter design (97.5 percent value) from Table 1.
9.2 Select an indoor design temperature appropriate to the activities to be carried out in the space
and a minimum acceptable relative humidity.
9.3 Determine whether any special conditions will exist, such as adjacent unconditioned spaces.
Estimate temperatures in the unconditioned spaces as necessary.
9.4 On the basis of building plans and specifications in each enclosing surfaces. Any surfaces
connecting with spaces to be maintained at the same temperature may be omitted, i.e., interior
walls.
9.5 On the basis of building components, system design and operation, wind velocity, and indoor-
outdoor temperature difference, estimate the rate of infiltration and/or ventilation outside air.
Note that the latent component of the infiltration and/or ventilation load is included only if the
conditioned air is to be humidified to maintain a specified minimum indoor humidity level.
Humidification is often omitted from air-conditioning systems in mild climates.
9.6 Using the above design date, compute transmission heat losses for each surface of the building
envelope and the heat loss from infiltration and/or ventilation. Sum these values to determine
the total estimated heat loss and the required capacity of the heating equipment.
9.7 Consider any special circumstances that might influence equipment sizing. Three circumstances
may influence equipment capacity.
a. If a building and its heating system are designed to take advantage of passive solar gain and
thermal storage, heating capacities should be based in a dynamic heat loss analysis.
b. In a building that has an appreciably steady internal load (heat release) at the time of the
maximum transmission and ventilation heat loss, heating equipment capacity may be
reduced by the amount of the internal heat release. An example would be a hospital or
industrial building which operates on a 24-h basis.
c. A building that does not operate on a continuous basis and indoor temperatures are allowed
to drop over a lengthy unoccupied period, additional capacity may be required to bring the
air temperature and building indoor surface temperatures back to an acceptable level in a
short time. An alternative to the additional capacity is to bring the heating system into
operation earlier and allow the building to heat more gradually.
10. Components of the cooling load.
Estimating the cooling load is more complex than estimating the heating load. Additional
consideration must be given to internal loads, latent loads, and solar loads.

11. Internal loads.

The primary sources of internal heat gain are lights, occupants, and equipment operating within
the space. Internal loads are a major factor in most non-residential buildings. The amount of heat
gain in the space due to lighting depends on the wattage of the lamps and type of fixture. When
fluorescent lighting is used the energy dissipated by the ballast must also be included in the internal
load. As lighting is often the largest single component of the internal load, care must be exercised in
its evaluation. The portion of the heat emanating from lighting which is in the form of radiant energy
is not an instantaneous load on the air-conditioning system. The radiant energy from the lights is
first absorbed by the walls, floor, and furnishings of the space, and their temperatures then increase
at a rate dependent on their mass. As the surface temperature of these objects rises above the air
temperature, heat is convected from the surfaces and finally becomes a load on the cooling system.
Thus because of the mass of the objects absorbing the radiation there is a delay between turning
the light on and the energy from the lights having an effect on the load. The cooling load from the
lighting persists after the lights are turned off for the same reason. To accommodate these
circumstances the following format has been developed for estimating the internal heat gain from
lights.
q = (lamp rating in watts)(Fu)(Fb)(CLF)
where
Fu = utilization factor or fraction of installed lamps in use
Fb = ballast factor for fluorescent lamps = 1.2 for most common fluorescent fixtures
CLF = cooling-load factor.
For heat-producing equipment it is also necessary to estimate the power used along with the
period and/or frequency for use in a manner similar to that used for lighting. For equipment having
little radiant-energy transmission the CLF can be assumed equal to 1.0.
Table 2 shows loads from occupants as a function of their activity. The greatest uncertainty in
estimating this load component is the number of occupants. If the number of occupants is unknown,
value such as those in Table 3 may be used. Since a portion of the heat transferred from occupants
is by radiation, the ASHRAE methodology again uses the cooling-load factor for a better
representation of actual loads.
 Thus,
Occupant sensible cooling load in watts = gain per person x number of people x CLF
For the latent load the CLF is 1.0.
Although there are a number of uncertainties in estimating internal loads, these loads are
significant and must be evaluated as carefully as possible.

12. Solar loads through transparent surfaces.

Heat gain due to solar energy incident on a surface will depend upon the physical characteristics
of the surface. Surface optical properties are described by
++=1
where
 = transmittance
 = reflectance
 = absorptance
The value of each of these terms has a pronounce effect on solar-heat gain.
For transparent surfaces, such as the window shown in Figure 2, the solar energy passing
through the surface qsg in watts is
qsg = A(It + NIt ) = AIt ( + N )
where
It = irradiation on exterior surface, W/m2
N = fraction of absorbed radiation transferred by conduction and convection to inside
environment
ho = outside heat-transfer coefficient, W/m2.K

Under steady-state conditions N can be shown to be U/ho. Restating the equation in terms of U and
ho gives
 U 
q sg = AIt  + 
 ho 
The expression It( + U/ho) for a single sheet of clear window glass is frequently referred to as
the solar-heat gain factor (SHGF). Maximum values for the SHGF are given for two latitudes by
month and orientation.
A shading coefficient (SC) is used to adjust these SHGF values for other types of glass or to
account for inside shading devices. This coefficient is
 + U ho
SC =
( + U ho )ss
 where the subscript ss stands for a single sheet of clear glass. If external surfaces shade the window,
SHGF values for a north orientation are used for the shaded portion of window.
The solar energy passing through a window qsg can be expressed as
qsg = (SHGFmax )(SC )A

13. Solar loads on opaque surfaces.

The process of solar-heat gain for an opaque wall is illustrated schematically in Figure 3. A
portion of the solar energy is reflected and the remainder absorbed. Of the energy absorbed some is
convected and some reradiated to the outside. The remainder of the absorbed solar energy is
transmitted to the inside by conduction or temporarily stored.

The transmissivity  of an opaque surface is zero, and thus for walls and roofs
+=1
Then
U 
qw = w It A
ho
If the transmission due to the air-temperature difference is included,
U 
qw = w It A + Uw A(t o − t i )
ho
 Then
 I  
qw = Uw A t o + t  − t i 
 ho  
It is apparent that if the first term in the brackets is replaced by an equivalent temperature te, where
I
te = to + t
ho
Then
qw = Uw A(t o − t i )
The equivalent temperature te called the sol-air temperature is the outdoor temperature increased
by an amount to account for the solar radiation.
Using the sol-air temperature is a convenient way of including solar loads for opaque surfaces.
For opaque walls, however, the effects of thermal storage can be quite pronounced, and using the
temperature difference te – ti may significantly over-estimate the heat gain. To incorporate the
effect of thermal storage an equivalent temperature difference, called the cooling-load temperature
difference (CLTD), has been developed for commonly used wall cross sections. It takes into account
both the solar flux on the surface and the thermal capacitance of the mass of the wall.
When the thermal storage is included, the heat gain through the wall is given by
qw = Uw A(CLTD)
14. Summary of procedures for estimating cooling load.
The process of estimating cooling loads is similar to that used in determining heating loads. In
fact much of the same information is applicable. There is enough difference, however, to make each
step worth noting again.
14.1 Select design values for outdoor summer dry-bulb temperature (2.5 percent value),
mean coincident wet-bulb temperature, and the daily average temperature from Table
1.
14.2 Select an indoor design temperature which is appropriate for the activities to be carried
out in the space.
14.3 Determine whether any special conditions exist, such as adjacent unconditioned spaces.
Estimate temperatures in the adjacent spaces.
14.4 On the basis of building plans and specifications, compute heat-transfer coefficients for
the building components in each enclosing surface. Any surfaces connecting with spaces
to be maintained at the same temperature may be omitted. Note that the only
differences between the U values calculated here and those for the heating-load
estimate are the values used for the surface convection coefficients, which differ in
summer and winter and may vary with the direction of heat flow.
14.5 From the building plans and specifications, system operating schedule, and design
values of wind velocity and temperature difference estimate the rate of infiltration
and/or ventilation of outside air. For the cooling load the latent load is also included.
14.6 Determine the additional building characteristics, e.g., location, orientation, external
shading, and mass that will influence solar-heat gain.
14.7 On the basis of building components and design conditions determine the appropriate
cooling-load temperature differences, solar-heat gain factors, and cooling-load factors.
14.8 On the basis of the heat-transfer coefficients, areas, and temperature differences
determined above calculate the rate of heat gain to the space.
14.9 For spaces with heat gain from integral sources (lights, equipment, or people), apply the
cooling-load factor when appropriate.
 14.10 Sum all the pertinent load components to determine the maximum capacity required
for heating and cooling. If the building is to be operated intermittently, additional
capacity may be required.

15. SPACE COOLING LOAD CALCULATION TECHNIQUES

15.1 Heat Balance Fundamentals
The estimation of cooling load for a space involves calculating a surface-by-surface
conductive, convective, and radiative heat balance for each room surface and a
convective heat balance for the room air. Sometimes called “the exact solution,” these
principles form the foundation for all other methods.
To calculate space cooling load directly by heat balance procedures requires a
laborious solution of energy balance equations involving the space air, surrounding walls
and windows, infiltration and ventilation air, and internal energy sources.

15.2 Total Equivalent Temperature Differential Method

In the total equivalent temperature differential (TETD) method, the response factor
technique is used with a number of representative wall and roof assemblies from which
data are derived to calculate TETD values as functions of sol-air temperature and
maintained room temperature. Various components of space heat gain are calculated
using associated TETD values, and the results are added to internal heat gain elements
to get an instantaneous total rate of space heat gain. This gain is converted to an
instantaneous space cooling load by the time-averaging (TA) technique of averaging the
radiant portions of the heat gain load components for the current hour with related
values from an appropriate period of immediately preceding hours. This technique
provides a rational means to deal quantitatively with the thermal storage phenomenon,
but it is best solved by computer because of its complexity. Its fundamental weakness is
that simple averaging of radiant load components is a poor approximation of the actual
physics involved, and choosing an appropriate averaging period is subjective and
depends on user experience.

15.3 Transfer Function Method

Although similar in principle to TETD/TA, the transfer function method (TFM) applies
a series of weighting factors, or conduction transfer function (CTF) coefficients to the
various exterior opaque surfaces and to differences between sol-air temperature and
inside space temperature to determine heat gain with appropriate reflection of thermal
inertia of such surfaces. Solar heat gain through glass and various forms of internal heat
gain are calculated directly for the load hour of interest. The TFM next applies a second
series of weighting factors, or coefficients of room transfer functions (RTF), to heat gain
and cooling load values from all load elements having radiant components, to account
for the thermal storage effect in converting heat gain to cooling load. Both evaluation
series consider data from several previous hours as well as the current hour. RTF
coefficients relate specifically to the spatial geometry, configuration, mass, and other
characteristics of the space so as to reflect weighted variations in thermal storage effect
on a time basis rather than a straight-line average.

15.4 CLTD/SCL/CLF Method

Rudoy and Duran (1975) compared the TETD/TA and TFM. As part of this work, data
obtained by using the TFM on a group of applications considered representative were
 then used to generate cooling load temperature differential (CLTD) data, for direct one
step calculation of cooling load from conduction heat gain through sunlit walls and roofs
and conduction through glass exposures. Cooling load factors (CLF) for similar one-step
calculation of solar load through glass and for loads from internal sources were also
developed. More recent research (McQuiston 1992) developed an improved factor for
solar load through glass, the solar cooling load (SCL) factor, which allows additional
influencing parameters to be considered for greater accuracy. CLTDs, SCLs, and CLFs all
include the effect of (1) time lag in conductive heat gain through opaque exterior
surfaces and (2) time delay by thermal storage in converting radiant heat gain to cooling
load. This simplification allows cooling loads to be calculated manually; thus, when data
are available and are appropriately used, the results are consistent with those from the
TFM, thus making the method popular for instruction.

16. HEATING LOAD PRINCIPLES

Techniques for estimating design heating load for commercial, institutional, and industrial
applications are essentially the same as for those estimating design cooling loads for such uses,
except that (1) temperatures outside the conditioned spaces are generally lower than the space
temperatures maintained; (2) credit for solar heat gains or for internal heat gains is not included;
and (3) the thermal storage effect of building structure or content is ignored. Heat losses (negative
heat gains) are thus considered to be instantaneous, heat transfer essentially conductive, and latent
heat treated only as a function of replacing space humidity lost to the exterior environment.

- End -
 3.3 Symbols, Abbreviations, and Psychrometric Formulas

1. Symbols

cfmba - bypassed air quantity around apparatus

cfmda - dehumidified air quantity
cfmoa - outdoor air quantity
cfmra - return air quantity
cfmsa - supply air quantity

h - specific enthalpy
hadp - apparatus dewpoint enthalpy
hes - effective surface temperature enthalpy
hea - entering air enthalpy
hla - leaving air enthalpy
hm - mixture of outdoor and return air enthalpy
hoa - outdoor air enthalpy
hrm - room air enthalpy
hsa - supply air enthalpy

t - temperature
tapd - apparatus dewpoint temperature
tedb - entering dry-bulb temperature
tes - effective surface temperature
tew - entering water temperature
tewb - entering wet-bulb temperature
tldb - leaving dry-bulb temperature
tlw - leaving water temperature
tlwb - leaving wet-bulb temperature
tm - mixture of outdoor and return air dry-bulb temperature
toa - outdoor air dry-bulb temperature
trm - room dry-bulb temperature
tsa - supply air dry-bulb temperature

W - moisture content or specific humidity

Wadp - apparatus dewpoint moisture content
Wea - entering air moisture content
Wes - effective surface temperature moisture content
Wla - leaving air moisture content
Wm - mixture of outdoor and return air moisture content
Woa - outdoor air moisture content
Wrm - room moisture content
Wsa - supply air moisture content

2. Abbreviations

adp - apparatus dewpoint

 BF - bypass factor
(BF)(OALH) - bypassed outdoor air latent heat
(BF)(OASH) - bypassed outdoor air sensible heat
(BF)(OATH) - bypassed outdoor air total heat
Btu/hr - British thermal units per hour

cfm - cubic feet per minute

db - dry bulb
dp - dewpoint
ERLH - effective room latent heat
ERSH - effective room sensible heat
ERTH - effective room total heat
ESHF - effective sensible heat factor

F - Fahrenheit degrees
Fpm - feet per minute

Gpm - gallons per minute

Gr/lb - grains per pound
GSHF - grand sensible heat factor
GTH - grand total heat
GTHS - grand total heat supplement

OALH - outdoor air latent heat

OASH - outdoor air sensible heat
OATH - outdoor air total heat

rh - relative humidity
RLH - room latent heat
RLHS - room latent heat supplement
RSH - room sensible heat
RSHF - room sensible heat factor
RSHS - room sensible heat supplement
RTH - room latent heat

Sat Eff - saturation efficiency of sprays

SHF - sensible heat factor

TLH - total latent heat

TSH - total sensible heat

wb - wet bulb

3. Psychrometric Formulas

3.1 Air Mixing Equations (Outdoor and Return Air)

 (cfmoa  t oa ) + (cfmra  t ra )
tm = (1)
cfmsa

hm =
(cfmoa  hoa ) + (cfmra  hra ) (2)
cfmsa

Wm =
(cfmoa Woa ) + (cfmra Wra ) (3)
cfmsa

3.2 Cooling Load Equations

ERSH = RSH + (BF )(OASH) + RSHS (4)
ERLH = RLH + (BF )(OALH ) + RLHS (5)
ERTH = ERLH + ERSH (6)

TSH = RSH + OASH + RSHS (7)

TLH = RLH + OALH + RLHS (8)
GTH = TSH + TLH + GTHS (9)

RSH = 1.08 cfmsa  (trm − t sa ) (10)

RLH = 0.68 cfmsa  (Wrm − Wsa ) (11)
RTH = 4.45 cfmsa  (hrm − hsa ) (12)
RTH = RSH + RLH (13)

OASH = 1.08 cfmoa  (toa − trm ) (14)

OALH = 0.68 cfmoa  (Woa −Wrm ) (15)
OATH = 4.45  cfmoa  (hoa − hrm ) (16)
OATH = OASH + OALH (17)
(BF )(OATH) = (BF )(OASH) + (BF )(OALH ) (18)

ERSH = 1.08  cfmda  (t rm − tadp )(1 − BF ) (19)

ERLH = 0.68 cfmda  (Wrm −Wadp )(1 − BF ) (20)
ERTH = 4.45 cfmda  (hrm − hadp )(1 − BF ) (21)

TSH = 1.08 cfmda  (tedb − tldb ) (22)

TLH = 0.68 cfmda  (Wea −Wla ) (23)
GTH = 4.45 cfmda  (hea − hla ) (24)

3.3 Sensible Heat Factor Equations

RSH RSH
RSHF = = (25)
RSH + RLH RTH
ERSH ERSH
ESHF = = (26)
ERSH + ERLH ERTH
TSH TSH
GSHF = = (27)
TSH + TLH GTH
3.4 Bypass Factor Equations
t ldb − t adp t −t
BF = ; = (1 − BF ) = edb ldb (28)
t edb − t adp t edb − t adp
Wldb − Wadp Wedb − Wldb
BF = ; = (1 − BF ) = (29)
Wedb − Wadp Wedb − Wadp
hldb − hadp hedb − hldb
BF = ; = (1 − BF ) = (30)
hedb − hadp hedb − hadp

3.5 Temperature Equations at Apparatus

t edb =
(cfmoa  t oa ) + (cfmra  t rm ) (31)
cfmsa
t ldb = tadp + BF (t edb − tadp ) (32)
tewb and tlwb correspond to the calculate values of hea and hla on the psychrometric chart.
hea =
(cfmoa  hoa ) + (cfmra  hrm ) (33)
cfmsa
hla = hadp + BF (hea − hadp ) (34)

3.6 Temperature Equations for Supply Air

RSH
t sa = t rm − (35)
1.08(cfmsa )

3.7 Air Quantity Equations

ERSH
cfmda =
1.08  (1 − BF )(t rm − t adp )
(36)

ERLH
cfmda =
0.68  (1 − BF )(Wrm − Wadp )
(37)

ERTH
cfmda =
4.45  (1 − BF )(hrm − hadp )
(38)

TSH
cfmda = (39)
1.08(t edb − t ldb )
TLH
cfmda = (40)
0.68(Wea − Wla )
GTH
cfmda = (41)
4.45(hea − hla )
RSH
cfmsa = (42)
1.08(t rm − t sa )
RLH
cfmsa = (43)
0.68(Wrm − Wsa )
 RTH
cfmsa = (44)
4.45(hrm − hsa )
cfmba = cfmsa − cfmda (45)

Note: cfmda will be less than cfmsa only when air is physically bypassed around the conditioning
apparatus.
cfmsa = cfmoa + cfmra (46)

3.8 Derivation of Air Constants

60
1.08 = 0.244 
13.5
where:
0.244 = specific heat of moist air at 70 F db and 50% rh, Btu/(deg F)(lb dry air).
60 = min/hr.
13.5 = specific volume of moist air at 70 F db and 50% rh.

60 1076
0.68 = 
13.5 7000
where:
60 = min/hr
13.5 = specific volume of moist air at 70 F db and 50% rh.
1076 = average heat removal required to condense one pound of water vapour from the
room air.
7000 = grains per pound.

60
4.45 =
13.5
where:
60 = min/hr.
13.5 = specific volume of moist air at 70 F db and 50% rh.

- End -
 4.1 Air Handling Apparatus

1. INTRODUCTION
Air handling apparatus can be of three types: (1) built-up apparatus where the casing for the
conditioning equipment is fabricated and installed at or near the job site; (2) fan coil equipment that
is manufactured and shipped to the job site, either completely or partially assembled; and (3) self-
contained equipment which is shipped to the job site completely assembled.
In addition to the built-up apparatus, items such as outdoor air louvers, dampers, and fan
discharge connections are also discussed in the chapter. These items are applied to all types of
apparatus.
Equipment location and equipment layout must be carefully studied when designing are
handling apparatus.

2. LOCATION
The locations of the air handling apparatus directly influence the economic and sound level
aspects of any system.

3. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
The air handling apparatus should be centrally located to obtain a minimum-first-cost system. In
a few instances, however, it may be necessary to locate the apparatus, refrigeration machine, and
cooling tower in one area, to achieve optimum system cost. When the three components are
grouped in one location, the cost of extra ductwork is offset by the reduced piping cost. In addition,
when the complete system becomes large enough to require more than one refrigeration machine,
grouping the mechanical equipment on more than one floor becomes practical. This design is often
used in large buildings. The upper floor equipment handles approximately the top 20 to 30 floors,
and the lower floor equipment is used for the lower 20 to 30 floors.
Occasionally a system is designed requiring a grouping of several units in one location, and the
use of single unit in a remote location. This condition should be carefully studied to obtain the
optimum coil selection versus-piping cost for the remotely located unit. Often, the cost of extra coil
surface is more than offset by the lower pipe cost for the smaller water quantity resulting when the
extra surface coil is used.

4. SOUND LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

It is extremely important to locate the air handling apparatus in areas where reasonable sound
levels can be tolerated. Locating apparatus in the conditioned space or adjacent to areas such as
conference rooms, sleeping quarters and broadcasting studios is not recommended.
The following items point up the conditions that are usually created by improper location; these
conditions can be eliminated by careful planning when making the initial placement of equipment:
a. The cost of correcting a sound or vibration problem after installation is much more than the
original cost of preventing it.
b. It may be impossible to completely correct the sound level, once the job is installed.
c. The owner may not be convinced even after the trouble has been corrected.

The following practices are recommended to help avoid sound problems for equipment rooms
located on upper floors.
a. In new construction, locate the steel floor framing to match equipment supports designed for
weights, reactions and speeds to be used. This transfers the loads to the building columns.
 b. In existing buildings, use of existing floor slabs should be avoided. Floor deflection can, at times,
magnify vibration in the building structure. Supplemental steel framing is often necessary to
avoid this problem.
c. Equipment rooms adjacent to occupied spaces should be acoustically treated.
d. In apartments, hotels, hospitals and similar buildings, non-bearing partition walls should be
separated at the floor and ceilings adjoining occupied spaces by resilient materials to avoid
transmission of noise vibration.
e. Bearing walls adjacent to equipment rooms should be acoustically treated on the occupied side
of the wall.

5. LAYOUT
Package equipment is usually factory shipped with all of the major equipment elements in one
unit. With this arrangement, the installation can be completed by merely connecting the ductwork
and assembling and installing the accessories.
In a central station system, however, a complete, workable and pleasing layout must be made of
all major components. This involves considerations usually not present in the unitary equipment
installation.
The shape and cross-sectional area of the air handling equipment are the factors that determine
the dimensions of the layout. The dehumidifier assembly or the air cleaning equipment usually
dictates the overall shape and dimensions. A superior air handling system design has a regular
shape. A typical apparatus is shown in Fig 1. The shape shown allows for a saving in sheet metal
fabrication time and, therefore, is considered to be better industrial appearance. From a functional
standpoint, an irregular shaped casing tends to cause air stratification and irregular flow patterns.
The most important rule in locating the equipment for the air handling apparatus is to arrange
the equipment along a center line for the best air flow conditions. This arrangement keeps plenum
pressure losses to a minimum, and is illustrated in Fig 1.
6. EQUIPMENT
This section describes available central station apparatus equipment and recommends suitable
application of the various components.

7. OUTDOOR AIR LOUVERS AND SCREEN

Fig 2. illustrates outdoor air louvers that minimize the entry of snow and water into the
equipment. It is impossible to completely eliminate all moisture with vertical louvers, and this is
usually not necessary. The screen is added to arrest most foreign materials such as paper, trash and
birds. Often the type of screen required and the mesh are specified by codes.
The screen and louver is located sufficiently above the roof to minimize the pickup of roof dust
and the probability of snow piling up and subsequently entering the louver during winter operation.
This height is determined by the annual snowfall. However, a minimum of 2.5 feet is recommended
for most areas. In some locations, doors are added outside the louver for closure during extreme in
element weather such as hurricanes and blizzards.
 It is best to locate the outdoor air louver in such a manner that cross contamination from
exhaust fan to louver does not occur, specifically toilet and kitchen exhaust. In addition, the outdoor
air intake is located to minimize pulling air over a long stretch of roof since this increases the
outdoor air load during summer operation.
Chart 1 is used to estimate the air pressure loss at various face velocities when the outdoor
louvers are constructed, as shown in Fig 2.
 There are occasions when outdoor air must be drawn into the apparatus thru the roof. One
convenient method of accomplishing this is shown in Fig 3. The gooseneck arrangement shown in
this figure is also useful for exhaust systems.
8. LOUVER DAMPERS
The louver damper is used for three important functions in the air handling apparatus: (1) to
control and mix outdoor and return air; (2) to bypass heat transfer equipment; and (3) to control air
quantities handled by the fan.
Fig. 4 shows two damper blade arrangements. The single action damper is used in locations
where the damper is either fully open or fully closed. A double acting damper is used where control
of air flow is required. This arrangement is superior since the air flow is throttled more or less in
proportion to the blade position, whereas the single action type damper tends to divert the air and
does little or no throttling until the blades are nearly closed.
 Outdoor and return air dampers are located so that good mixing of the two air streams occurs.
On installations that operate 24 hours a day and are located in a mild climate, the outdoor damper
is occasionally omitted.
With the fan operating and the damper fully closed, leakage cannot be completely eliminated.
Chart 2 is used to approximate the leakage that occurs, based on an anticipated pressure difference
across the closed damper.

Table 1 gives recommendations for various louver dampers according to function, application,
velocities and type of action required.
9. RELIEF DAMPERS
Figure 5 shows a typical relief damper. This accessory is used as a check damper on exhaust
systems, and to relieve excess pressure from the building.
10. AIR CLEANING EQUIPMENT
A variety of air filtering devices is available, each with its own application. The pressure drop
across these devices must be included when totaling the static pressure against which the fan must
operate.

11. HEATING COILS

Heating coils can be used with steam or hot water. They are used for preheating, and for
tempering or reheating. The air velocity thru the coil is determined by the air quantity and the coil
size. The size may also be determined by a space limitation or by the recommended limiting velocity
of 500 to 800 fpm. The number of rows and fin spacing is determined by the required temperature
rise. Manufacturer’s data lists pressure drop and capacity for easy selection.
Steam coils must be installed so that a minimum of 18 in. is maintained between the condensate
outlet and the floor to allow for traps and condensate piping.
11.1 Preheat Coils
Non-freeze coils are recommended for preheat service, particularly if air below the
freezing temperature is encountered. To reduce the coil first cost, the preheater is often
sized and located in only the minimum outdoor air portion of the air handling apparatus.
If a coil cannot be selected at the required load and desired steam pressure, it is better
to make a selection that is slightly undersize than one that is oversize. An undersized coil
aids in preventing coil freeze-up.
The use of two coils for preheating also minimizes the possibility of freeze-up. The
first coil is deliberately selected to operate with full steam pressure at all times during
winter operation. In this instance, the air is heated from outdoor design to above the
freezing temperature. The second coil is selected to heat the air from the freezing
temperature to the desired leaving temperature. The temperature of the air leaving the
second coil is automatically controlled.
In addition to the normal steam trap required to drain the coil return header, a
steam supply trap immediately ahead of the coil is recommended. These traps must be
located outside the apparatus casing.
Most coils are manufactured with a built-in tube pitch to the return header. If the
coil is not constructed in this manner, it must be pitched toward the return header
when it is installed.
To minimize coil cleaning problems, filters should be installed ahead of the
preheaters.
11.2 Reheat or Tempering Coils
Coils selected for reheat service are usually oversized. In addition to the required
load, a liberal safety factor of from 15% to 25% is recommended. This allows for extra
load pickup during early morning operation, and also for duct heat loss which can be
particularly significant on long duct runs.
These coils are similar to preheat coils in that the tubes must be pitched toward the
return header.

12. COOLING COILS

Cooling coils are used with chilled water, well water or direct expansion for the purpose of
precooling, cooling and dehumidifying or for after cooling. The resulting velocity thru the cooling coil
is dictated by the air quantity, coil size, available space, and the coil load. Manufacturer’s data gives
recommended maximum air velocities above which water carry-over begins to occur.
13. SPRAYS AND ELIMINATORS
Spray assemblies are used for humidifying dehumidifying or washing the air. One item often
overlooked when designing this equipment is the bleeder line located on the discharge side of the
pump. In addition to draining the spray heads on shutdown, this line controls the water
concentrates in the spray pan. Eliminators are used after spray chambers to prevent entrained
water from entering the duct system.

14. AIR BYPASS

An air bypass is used for two purposes: (1) to increase room air circulation and (2) to control
leaving air temperature.
The fixed bypass is used when increased air circulation is required in a given space. It permits
return air from the room to flow thru the fan without first passing thru a heat exchange device. This
arrangement prevents stagnation in the space and maintains a reasonable room circulation factor.
The total airway resistance for this type system is the sum of the total resistance thru the
ductwork and air handling apparatus. Therefore, the resistance thru the bypass is normally designed
to balance the resistance of the components bypassed. This can be accomplished by using a
balancing damper and by varying the size of the bypass opening.
The following formula is suggested for use in sizing the bypass opening:
cfm
A=
h
581
0.0707
where: A = damper opening (sq ft)
cfm = maximum required air quantity thru bypass
h = design pressure drop (in. wg) thru bypassed equipment

Temperature control with bypassed air is accomplished with either a face and bypass damper or
a controlled bypass damper alone. However, the face and bypass damper arrangement is
recommended, since the bypass area becomes very large, and it is difficult to accommodate the
required air flow thru the bypass at small partial loads. Even where a controlled face and bypass
damper is used, leakage approaching 5% of design air quantity passes thru the face damper when
the face damper is closed. This 5% air quantity normally is included when the fan is selected.

15. FANS
Properly designed approaches and discharges from fans are required for rated fan performance
in addition to minimizing noise generation. Figures 6 and 7 indicate several possible layouts for
varying degrees of fan performance. In addition, these figures indicate recommended location of
double width fans in plenums. When these minimums have not been met, it becomes increasing
difficult to guarantee the fan performance or to accurately determine air quantities.
 Fans in basement locations require vibration isolation based on the blade frequency. Usually
cork or rubber isolators are satisfactory for this service. On upper floor locations, however, spring
mounted concrete bases designed to absorb the lowest natural frequency are recommended.
The importance of controlling sound and vibration cannot be overstressed, particularly on upper
floors. The number of fans involved in one location and the quality of sound and vibration control
needed. Small direct connected fans, due to higher operating speed, are generally satisfactorily
isolated by rubber or cork.
In addition, all types of fans must have flexible connections to the discharge ductwork and,
where required, must have flexible connections to the intake ductwork. Details of a recommended
flexible connection are shown in Fig.8.

Unitary equipment should be located near columns or over main beams to limit the floor
deflection. Rubber or cord properly loaded usually gives the required deflection for efficient
operation.

16. FAN MOTOR AND DRIVE

A proper motor and drive selection aids in long life and minimum service requirements. Direct
drive fans are normally used on applications where exact air quantities are not required, because
ample energy (steam or hot water, etc.) is available at more than enough temperature difference to
compensate for any lack of air quantity that exists. This applies, for example, to a unit heater
application. Direct drive fans and also used on applications where system resistance can be
accurately determined. However, most air conditioning applications use belt drives.
 V-belts must be applied in matched sets and used on balanced sheaves to minimize vibration
problems and to assure long life. They are particularly useful on applications where adjustments
may be required to obtain more exact air quantities. These adjustments can be accomplished by
varying the pitch diameter on adjustable sheaves, of by changing one or both sheaves on a fixed
sheave drive.
Belt guards are required for safety on all V-belt drives, and coupling guards are required for
direct drive equipment. Figure 9 illustrates a two-piece belt guard.

The fan motor must be selected for the maximum anticipated brake horsepower requirements
of the fan. The motor must be large enough to operate within its rated horse power capacity. Since
the fan motor runs continuously, the normal 15% over load allowed by NEMA should be reserved for
drive losses and reductions in line voltages. Normal torque motors are used for fan duty.

17. APPARATUS CASING

The apparatus casing on central station equipment must be designed to avoid restrictions in air
flow. In addition, it must have adequate strength to prevent collapse or bowing under maximum
operating conditions.
Each sheet of material should be fabricated as a panel and joined together, as illustrated in Fig
10, by standing seams bolted or riveted on 12 in. centers. Normally seams perpendicular to air flow
are placed outside of the casing. Side walls over 6 ft high and roof spans over 6 ft wide require
supplemental reinforcing as shown in Table 2. Diagonal angle braces as illustrated in Fig. 11 may also
be required.
 The recommended construction of apparatus casings and connections between equipment
components (except when mounted in the ducts) is 18 U.S. gage steel of 16 B & S gage aluminum.
Aluminum in contact with galvanized steel at connections to spray type equipment requires that the
inside of the casing be coated with an isolating material for a distance of 6 in. from the point of
contact.

18. CONNECTIONS TO MASONRY

A concrete curb is recommended to protect insulation from deteriorating where the apparatus
casing joins the floor. It also provides a uniform surface for attaching the casing; this conserves
fabrication time. Figure 12 illustrates the recommended method of attaching a casing to the curb.

When an equipment room wall is used as one side of the apparatus, the casing is attached as
shown in Fig.13. The degree of tightness required for an apparatus casing depends on the air
conditioning application. For instance, on a pull-thru system, leakage between the dehumidifier and
the fan cannot be tolerated if as the negative pressure at the fan intake increases, the less the
leakage that con be tolerated. If the apparatus is located in a return air plenum, normal construction
as shown in Figs. 12 and 13 can be used. Corresponding construction practice for equipment
requiring extreme care is shown in Figs. 14, 15 and 16.
 In addition to the construction required for leakage at seams, pipes passing thru the casing at
cooling coil connections must be sealed as shown in Fig. 17. This applies in applications where the
temperature difference between the room and supply air temperatures is 20 F and greater.

19. DRAINS AND MARINE LIGHTS

Upkeep and maintenance is better on an apparatus that con be illuminated and easily cleaned
than on one that does not have good illumination and drainage. To facilitate this maintenance,
marine lights, as well as drains, are recommended as shown in Fig. 1.
 As a rule of thumb, drains should be located in the air handling apparatus wherever water is
likely to accumulate, either in normal operation of the equipment or because of maintenance.
Specific examples are:
a. In the chamber immediately after the outdoor air louver where a driving rain or snow may
accumulate.
b. Before and after filters tat must be periodically washed.
c. Before and after heating and cooling coils that must be periodically cleaned.
d. Before and after eliminators because of backlash and carry-over due to unusual air eddies.

Drains should not normally be connected because directly to sewers.

20. INSULATION
Insulation is required ahead of the preheater and vapor sealed for condensation during winter
operation. Normally, the section of the casing from the preheater to the dehumidifier is not
insulated. The dehumidifier, the fan and connecting casing must be insulated and vapor sealed; fan
access doors are not insulated, however, the bottoms and sides of the dehumidifier condensate pan
must also be insulated, and all parts of the building surfaces that are used to form part of the
apparatus casing must be insulated and vapor sealed.

21. SERVICE
Equipment service is essential and space must be provided to accomplish this service. It is
recommended that minimum clearances be maintained so that access to all equipment is available.
In addition, provision should be made so that equipment can be removed without dismantling the
complete apparatus. Access must be provided for heating and cooling coils, steam traps, damper
motors and linkages, control valves, bearings, fan motors, fans and similar components.
Service access doors as illustrated in Fig. 18 are recommended, and are located in casing
sections shown in Fig. 1.
To conserve floor space, the entrance to the equipment room is often located so that coils can
be removed directly thru the equipment room doors. This arrangement requires less space than
otherwise possible.
If the equipment room is not arranged as described, space must be allowed to clean the coil
tubes mechanically. This applies to installations that have removable water headers.
- End -
 4.2 Air Distribution

1. REQUIREMENTS NECESSARY FOR GOOD AIR DISTRIBUTION

1.1 TEMPERATURE
The air distributing system must be designed to hold the temperature within tolerable limits
of the above recommendations. In a single space a variation of 2 F at different locations in the
occupied zone is about the maximum that is tolerated without complaints. For a group of rooms
located within a space, a maximum of 3 F between rooms is not unusual. Temperature
variations are generally more objectionable in the heating season than in the cooling season.
Temperature Fluctuations are more noticeable than temperature variations. These
fluctuations are usually a function of the temperature control system. When they are
accompanied by air movements on the high end of the recommended velocities, they may result
in complains of drafts.
1.2 AIR VELOCITY
Table 1 shows room air velocities. It also illustrates occupant reaction to various room air
velocities in the occupied zone.

1.3 AIR DIRECTION

Table 1 shows that air motion is desirable and actually necessary. Figure 1 is a guide to the
most desirable air direction for a seated person.
2. Behavior of Jets
Conditioned air is normally supplied to air outlets at velocities much higher than would be
acceptable in the occupied space. The conditioned air temperature maybe above, below, or equal to
the temperature of the air in the occupied space. Proper air distribution causes entrainment of
room air by the primary air stream, and the resultant mixing reduces the temperature differences to
acceptable limits before the air enters the occupied space. It also counteracts the natural convection
and radiation effects within the room.
The air projection from free round openings, grilles, perforated panels, ceiling diffusers, and
other outlets is related to the average velocity at the face of the air supply opening. The full length
of an air jet, in terms of the center-line velocity, can be divided into four zones.
Zone 1 – a short zone, extending about four diameters or widths from the outlet face, in which
the velocity and temperature of the airstream remains practically constant.
Zone 2 – a transition zone, the length of which depends on the type of outlet, the aspect ratio of
the outlet, and the initial air-flow turbulence.
Zone 3 – a zone of fully established turbulent flow that may be 25 to 100 air outlet diameters
long.
Zone 4 – a zone of jet degradation where the air velocity and temperature decrease rapidly. The
air velocity quickly becomes less than 50 feet per minute.
 In zone 3 is the most important zone from the point of view of room air distribution because in
most cases the diffuser jet enters the occupied space within this zone. In zone 3, the relation
between the jet center-line velocity and the initial velocity is given by
Vx A0
=K (1)
V0 x
Or
Vx KQ o
= (2)
V0 x A0
Where:
Vx = center-line velocity at any x, ft/min or m/s.
V0 = initial velocity, ft/min or m/s.
A0 = area corresponding to initial velocity, ft2 and m2.
x = distance from outlet to point of measurement of Vx, ft or m.
Qo = air flow rate at outlet to point of measurement of Vx, ft or m.
k = constant of proportionality, dimensionless

Equations 1 and 2 strictly pertain to free jets at the same temperature as the room air, but with
the proper A and K the equations define the throw for any type of outlet. The throw is the distance
from the outlet to where the maximum velocity in the jet has decreased to some specified value
such as 50, 100, or 150 ft/min (0.25, 0.5, or 0.75 m/s). The constant K varies from about 5 to 6 for
free jets to about 1 for ceiling diffusers. For slots with aspect ratios less than 40, K ranges from
about 4.5 to 5.5. In many cases the throw corresponding to 50 ft/min (0.25 m/s) is in zone 4, where
Equation 1 will typically yield a throw approximately 20 percent high.
The jet expands because of entrainment of room air, the air beyond zone 2 is a mixture of
primary and induced air. The ratio of the total volume of the jet to the initial volume of the jet at a
given distance from the origin depends mainly on the ratio of initial velocity V0 to the terminal
velocity Vx. The induction ratio is
Q x V
=C 0 (3)
Q 0 Vx
Where:
Qx = total air mixture at distance x from the outlet, cfm or m3/s
C = entrainment coefficient (2 for a round, free jet), dimensionless

For a continuous slot up to 10 ft in length and separated by at least 2 ft,

Q x V
= 2 0 (4)
Q 0 Vx
In zone 4, where the terminal velocity is low, Equation 3 and 4 will give values about 20 percent
high.
When a jet is projected parallel to and within a few inches of a surface, the induction, or
entrainment, is limited on the surface side of the jet. A low-pressure region is created between the
surface and the jet, and the jet attaches itself to the surface. This phenomenon results if the angle of
discharge between the jet and the surface is less than about 40 degrees and if the jet is within about
one foot of the surface. The jet from a floor outlet is drawn to the wall, and the jet from a ceiling
outlet is drawn to the ceiling. This surface effect increases the throw for all types of outlets and
decreases the drop for horizontal jets. Buoyant forces cause the jet to rise when the air is warm, and
 drop when cool, relative to room temperature. These conditions result in shorter throws for jet
velocities less than 150 ft/min (0.76 m/s).

3. Room Air Motion

Room air near the jet is entrained and must then be replaced by other room air. The room air
moves toward the supply and sets all the room air into motion. Whenever the average room air
velocity is less than about 50 ft/min (0.25 m/s), buoyancy effects may be significant. In general,
about 8 to 10 air changes per hour are required to prevent stagnant regions (velocity less than 15
ft/min or 0.08 m/s. However, stagnant regions are not necessarily a serious condition. The general
approach is to supply air in such a way that the high-velocity air from the outlet does not enter the
occupied space. The region within 1 ft of the wall and above about 6 ft from the floor is out of the
occupied space for practical purposes.
Figure 2 shows velocity envelopes for a high sidewall outlet. Equation 1 has been used to
estimate the throw for the terminal shown.

In order to interpret the air motion shown in terms of comfort, it is necessary to estimate the
local air temperatures corresponding to the terminal velocities. The relationship between the
center-line velocities and the temperature difference is given approximately by
V
t x = 0.8t o x (5)
V0
where tx and to are the differences in temperature between the local stream temperature and
the room (tx – tr) and between the outlet air and the room (to – tr). Temperatures calculated using
Equation 5 are shown in Figure 2. On the opposite wall, where the terminal velocity is 100 ft/min,
the air temperature is 1.6 F below the room temperature. The temperature difference for the 50
ft/min envelope shows that within nearly the entire occupied space the temperature is less than
about 0.8 F below the room temperature and the room air motion is under 50 ft/min.
4. Basic Flow Patterns
Outlets have been classified into five groups:
Group A – outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that discharge air horizontally.
Group B – outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a nonspreading jet.
Group C – outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air vertically in a spreading jet.
Group D – outlets mounted in or near the floor that discharge air horizontally.
Group E – outlets mounted in or near the ceiling that project air vertically down.

The basic flow patterns for the most often used types of outlets are shown in Figures 3 to 7. The
high-velocity primary air is shown by shaded areas. These areas represent the high-momentum
regions of the room air motion. Natural convection (buoyancy) effects are evident in all cases. Note
that stagnant zones always have a large temperature gradient. When this occurs in the occupied
space, air needs to be projected into the stagnant region to enhance mixing. An ideal condition
would be uniform room temperature from the floor to about 6 ft above the floor. However, a
gradient of about 4 F (2 C) should be acceptable to about 85 percent of the occupants.
 The perimeter-type outlet shown in Figure 3, ASHRAE Group C, are generally regarded as
superior for heating applications. This is particularly true when the floor is over an unheated space
or a slap and where considerable glass area exists in the wall. Diffusers with a wide spread are
usually best for heating because buoyancy tends to increase the throw. For the same reason, the
spreading is not as good for cooling applications because the throw may not be adequate to mix the
room air thoroughly. However, the perimeter outlet with a nonspreading jet, ASHRAE Group B, is
satisfactory for cooling. Figure 4 shows a typical cooling application of the nonspreading perimeter
diffuser. It can be seen that the nonspreading jet is less desirable for heating a larger stratified zone
will usually result. Diffusers are available that may be changed from the spreading to nonspreading
type according to the season.
The high sidewall type of register, ASHRAE Group A, shown in Figure 5 is often used in mild
climates and on the second and succeeding floors of multistory buildings. This type of outlet is not
recommended for cold climates or with unheated floors. Figure 5 shows that a considerable
temperature gradient may exist between floor and ceiling when heating; however, this type of
outlet gives good air motion and uniform temperatures in the occupied zone for cooling application.
The ceiling diffuser, ASHRAE Group A, shown in Figure 5 is very popular in commercial
applications, and many variations of it are available. The air patterns shown in Figure 5 are typical.
Because the primary air is projected radially in all directions, the rate of entrainment is large,
causing high-momentum jet to diffuse quickly. This feature enables the ceiling diffuser to handle
larger quantities of air at higher velocities than most other types. Figure 5 shows that the ceiling
diffuser is quite effective for cooling applications but generally poor for heating. However,
satisfactory results may be obtained in commercial structures when the floor is above a heated
space.
Linear or T-bar diffusers (Figure 8) fall into ASHRAE Group A and are generally favored in VAV
applications due to their better flow characteristics at reduced flow. However, this type of diffuser is
poor in heating applications. A separate heating system is generally required which might be a
perimeter type. Group D diffusers, shown in Figure 6, are for special applications. Group E Figure 7
covers downward-projected air jets, which are usually a linear type and used for special
applications.
 Since air approaches return air and exhaust intakes (grilles) from all directions and the velocity
decreases rapidly as the distance from the opening increases, the location of these intakes generally
has very little effect on room air motion. From an energy performance standpoint it is desirable to
return the coolest air to the heating coil and the warmest air to the cooling coil, suggesting that a
stagnant region is usually the best location for return openings. However, in spaces with very high
ceilings, atriums, skylights, or large vertical glass surfaces and where the highest areas are not
occupied, air stratification is a desirable energy-saving technique and return grilles should not be
located in those areas. The openings should always be located to minimize short circuiting of supply
air.

5. Noise
One important criterion affecting the choice of an outlet is its sound level. Table 2 shows
recommended outlet velocities that result in acceptable sound levels for various types of
application.

Noise produced by the air diffuser can be annoying to the occupants of the conditioned space.
Noise associated with air motion usually does not have distinguishable frequency characteristics,
and its level (loudness) is defined in terms of a statistically representative sample of human
reactions. Loudness contours (curves of equal loudness versus frequency) can be established from
such reactions.
A widely used method of providing information on the spectrum content of noise is the use of
the noise criterion (NC) curves and numbers. The NC curves are shown in Figure 9. These are a series
of curves constructed using loudness contours and the speech-interfering properties of noise and
are used as a simple means of specifying sound-level limits for an environment by a simple, single-
number rating. They have been found to be quite generally applicable for conditions of comfort. In
general, levels below a NC of 30 are considered to be quiet, whereas levels above a NC of 50 or 55
are considered noisy.
 The activity within the space is a major consideration in determining an acceptable level. Table 3
gives recommended noise criterion numbers for various applications. To determine the acceptability
of a given space for a given specification, sound pressure level must be measured at several octave
band center frequencies and compared with the specified NC curve of Figure 9. To meet the
particular NC rating, the actual octave band reading should lie on or below the NC curve.
 Although still widely used, the noise criterion curves are beginning to be replaced by the room
criterion (RC) curves, which provide more information about sound quality. RC curves are designed
specifically for establishing HVAC system design goals. The shape of the NC and RC curves are similar
but differ at both high and low frequencies. Table 4 gives room criterion (RC) numbers for various
applications. Because NC information is still widely used in manufacturer’s catalogs, this criterion
will be used in this topic.
6. Air-Distribution System Design
A measure of the effective temperature difference between any point in the occupied space and
the control conditions is called the effective draft temperature. It is defined by the equation
proposed by Rydberg and Norback:
EDT = (t x − tr ) − M(Vx − Vr )
where:
tr = average room dry bulb temperature, F or C
Vr = 30 ft/min or 0.15 m/s
tx = local air stream dry bulb temperature, F or C
Vx = local air stream velocity, ft/min or m/s
M = 0.07 (F-min)/ft or 7.0 (C-s)/m

The equation above takes into account the feeling of coolness produced by air motion. It also
shows that the effect of a 1 F temperature change is equivalent to a 15 ft/min velocity change.
Research indicates that a high percentage of people in sedentary occupations are comfortable
where the effective draft temperature is between -3 F (-1.7 C) and +2 F (1.1 C) and the air velocity is
less than 70 ft/min (0.36 m/s). These conditions are used as criteria for developing the air
distribution performance index (ADPI).
The ADPI is defined as the percentage of measurements taken at many locations in the occupied
zone of a space that meet the -3 F to 2 F effective draft temperature criteria. The objective is to
select and place the air diffusers so that an ADPI approaching 100 percent is achieved. The ADPI
provides means of selecting air diffusers in a rational way. The space cooling load per unit area is an
important consideration. Heavy loading tends to lower the ADPI. Each type of diffuser has a
characteristic room length, as shown in Table 5. Table 6 is the ADPI selection guide. It gives the
recommended ratio of throw to characteristic length that should maximize the ADPI. A range of
throw-to-length ratio is also shown that should give minimum ADPI. Note that the throw is based on
a terminal velocity of 50 ft/min for all diffusers except the ceiling slot type.
 The general procedure for use of Table 6 is a follows:
a. Determine the air flow requirements and the room size.
b. Select the type of diffuser to be used.
c. Determine the room characteristic length.
d. Select the recommended throw-to-length ratio from Table 6.
e. Calculate the throw.
f. Select the appropriate diffuser from catalog data such as those in Table 7, 8, 9, 10.
g. Make sure any other specifications are met (noise, total pressure, etc.)

Table 7 gives performance data for a type of diffuser that may be used for perimeter systems
having a vertical discharge from floor outlets or as a linear diffuser in the ceiling or sidewall. Note
that the data pertain to the capacity, throw, total pressure loss, noise criteria, and free area as a
function of the size.
 Performance data for one type of round ceiling diffuser are shown in Table 8, and Table 9 shows
data for an adjustable diffuser that would generally be used for high sidewall applications. The same
general data are given. Note that the diffuser of Table 9 has adjustable vanes and throw data are
given for three different settings 0, 22 ½ , and 45 degrees. Figure 9 shows a T-bar type diffuser,
which is used extensively with modular ceilings. Table 10 gives performance data for the T-bar
diffuser.
7. Examples

Example No. 1
The room shown in Figure 10 is part of a single-story office building located in the central United
States. A perimeter air-distribution system is used, since heating will be important. The air quantity
required for the room is 250 cfm. Select diffusers for the room.

Given: Figure 10 and 250 cfm air quantity

Required: Select a diffuser
Solution:
Diffusers of the type shown in Table 7 should be used for this application. Because the room has two
exposed walls, an air outlet should be placed under each window in the floor near the wall (Figure
10c). This will help to counteract the cold air moving downward from the window as a result of
natural convection. The total air quantity is divided equally between the two diffusers. According to
Table 3 the NC should be about 30 to 40. If we assume that the room has an 8 ft ceiling, the room
characteristic length is 8 ft. Table 6 gives a throw-to-length ratio ranging from 1.7 to 0.9 for a
straight vane diffuser. We will assume a room load of 40 Btu/(hr-ft2); then
x50 L = 1.3
And
x50 = 1.3(8) = 10.4 ft
From Table 7 a 4 x 12 in. diffuser with 125 cfm has a throw, corrected for length, between
x50 = 13(0.7) = 9.1 ft
And
x50 = 17(0.7) = 11.9 ft
Because 125 cfm lies between 111 cfm and 139 cfm. The NC is quite acceptable and is between 12
and 18, uncorrected for length. The total pressure required by the diffuser is between 0.036 and
0.057 in. wg and is about
2
 125 
P =   (0.036) = 0.046 in. wg.
 111 
An acceptable solution is listed as follows:
 Size, in Capacity, cfm Throw, ft NC P0, in. wg
4 x 12 125 10.5 15 0.046
The loss in total pressure for the diffuser is an important consideration. The value shown above
would be acceptable for a light commercial system.

Example No. 2
Suppose the room of Figure 10 is located in the southern latitudes where overhead systems are
recommended. Select a round ceiling diffuser system and a high sidewall system. Also select a
return grille.
Given: Figure 10 and 250 cfm air quantity
Required: Select a round ceiling diffuser, select high sidewall grille, and select a return grille.
Solution:
The data of Table 8 with information from Table 5 and 6 will be used to select a ceiling diffuser. The
characteristic length is 7 or 8 ft and the throw-to-length ratio is 0.8; then
x50 = 0.8(7.0) = 5.6 ft
The best choice would be
Size, in Throw, ft NC P0, in. wg
10 7½ 10 0.035

The throw is larger than desired, but the throw-to-length ratio is within the range to give a minimum
ADPI of 80 percent. Figure 10a shows this application. A high sidewall diffuser may be selected from
Table 9. In this case the throw-to-length ratio should be about 1.6 and the characteristic length is 14
ft; then
x50 = 1.6(14) = 22.4 ft
The following units using the 22 ½ degree spread would be acceptable:
Size, in Throw, ft NC P0, in. wg
16 x4
12 x 5 22 ½ 18 0.063
10 x 6

Figure 10b shows the diffuser location. It would be desirable to locate the return air intake near the
floor for heating purposes and in the ceiling for cooling. However, two different returns are not
generally used except in extreme cases, and the return will be located to favor the cooling case or to
accommodate the building structure. For the room shown in Figure 10 it will be assumed that the
building design prevents practical location of the return near the floor and the return is located in
the ceiling as shown. We may select the following grilles from Table 11:
Size, in NC P0, in. wg
24 x 4
16 x 6 23 0.067
18 x 5
12 x 6
27 0.12
8x8
8. Return Grilles
Velocities thru return grilles depend on (1) the static pressure loss allowed and (2) the effect on
occupants or materials in the room.
In determining the pressure loss, computations should be based on the free velocity thru the
grille, not on the face velocity, since the orifice coefficient may approach 0.7.
In general the following velocities may be used:
GRILLE LOCATION FPM OVER GROSS AREA
Commercial
Above occupied zone 800 and above
Within occupied zone not near seats 600 – 800
Within occupied zone near seats 400 – 600
Doors or wall louvers 500 – 1000
Undercutting of doors 600
Industrial 800 and above
Residential 400

- End -
 4.3 Air Duct Design

1. General Consideration
The purpose of the duct system is to deliver a specified amount of air to each diffuser in the
conditioned space at a specified total pressure. This is to ensure that the space load will be absorbed
and the proper air motion within the space will be realized.
The method used to layout and size the duct system must result in a reasonably quiet system
and must not required unusual adjustments to achieve the proper distribution of air to each space.
A low noise level is achieved by limiting the air velocity, by using sound-absorbing duct materials or
liners, and by avoiding drastic restrictions in the duct such as nearly closed dampers. A low velocity
duct system will generally have a pressure loss from about 0.08 to 0.15 in. wg per 100 ft (0.65 to
1.23 Pa/m), whereas high-velocity systems may have pressure losses from about 0.40 to 0.70 in. wg
per 100 ft (3.3 to 5.7 Pa/m).
The use of fibrous glass duct materials has gained acceptance in recent times because they are
very effective for noise control. These ducts are also attractive from the fabrication point of view
because the duct, insulation, and reflective vapor barrier are all the same piece of material. Metal
ducts are usually lined with fibrous glass material in the vicinity of the air distribution equipment for
some distance away from the equipment. The remainder of the metal duct is then wrapped or
covered with insulation and a vapor barrier. Insulation on the outside of the duct also reduces noise.
The layout of the duct system is very important to the final design of the system. Generally the
location of the air diffusers and air-moving equipment is first selected, with some attention given to
how a duct system may be installed. The ducts are then laid out with attention given to space and
ease of construction. It is very important to design a duct system that can be constructed and
installed in the allocated space. If this is not done, the installer may make changes in the field that
lead to unsatisfactory operation.
The total pressure requirements of a duct system are determined in two main ways. For unit-
type equipment, all of the heating, cooling, and air-moving equipment is determined by the
heating/and or cooling load. Therefore, the fan characteristics are known before the duct design is
begun. Furthermore, the pressure losses in all other elements of the system except the supply and
return ducts are known. The total pressure available for the ducts is then the difference between
the total pressure characteristic of the fan and the sum of the total pressure losses of all the other
elements in the system excluding the ducts. Figure 12-26 shows a total pressure profile for a unitary-
type system. In this case the fan is capable of developing 0.6 in. wg at the rated capacity. The return
grille, filter, coils, and diffusers have a combined loss in total pressure of 0.38 in. wg. Therefore, the
available total pressure for which the ducts must be designed is 0.22 in. wg. This is usually divided
for low-velocity system so that the supply-duct system has about twice the total pressure loss of the
return duct.
1.1 Pressure Gradient Diagrams
The total pressure in a duct system at any location is the sum of the static pressure and the
velocity pressure. As frictional and dynamic effects occur in the air stream in the course of flow,
an energy loss occurs that appears as a reduction in total pressure. Therefore, in any real duct
system, except where energy is added with a fan, the total pressure will decrease in the
direction of flow.
The line connecting all the total pressure points along the duct system is called the energy
grade line (EGL). The line connecting all the static pressure points along the duct is called the
hydraulic grade line (HGL). The vertical distance between these lines at any section is the
velocity pressure. The reference pressure may be any value, although local atmospheric
pressure is normally used.
Figure 12-27 is a pressure gradient diagram for a simple fan system, where
P0 = total pressure (in. wg or Pa)
Ps = static pressure (in. wg or Pa)
Pv = velocity pressure (in. wg or Pa)
Pb = barometric pressure
It can be seen that the only location at which there is a total pressure increase is at the point of
external energy input, the fan. At all other locations, total pressure decreases. The total
pressure always equals or exceeds the static pressure by a quantity equal to the velocity
pressure.
The pressure in any building served by an air system is dictated by the location of the fan
and the duct system arrangement. The problem of determining, understanding, or controlling
the relationship of the pressure in a building to the ambient or surrounding pressure is best
understood through the use of the pressure gradient diagram. Figure 12-28 will help to develop
this concept more clearly. In this system, one additional element has been added: an outdoor-
air intake. The system would be operable in this manner only if an exhaust system were
operating to exhaust the outdoor air.
 In many cases the return-air duct system is used as the route for the excess exhaust or relief
air. Figure 12-29 displays such a pressure gradient diagram. In this case the pressure in the duct
system must be above barometric pressure upstream of the return damper and below
barometric pressure downstream of the return damper. In addition, and more importantly, the
room pressure in this condition must exceed the barometric pressure. This condition will cause
exterior doors to stand open, with no means of correcting the problem short of modifying the
return-relief duct system. In most cases the problem cannot be corrected without the use of an
additional fan.

The use of a second fan can hold the building pressure closer to the barometric pressure. This
system is shown in Fig. 12-30. In this case, the total energy required is still the same as in the
case of Fig. 12-29, but it is divided between the two fans. The return fan acts to negate the
losses in the return-relief air system, furnishing the positive pressure necessary at the entrance
to the relief point such that the outdoor air that has been introduced may be effectively
exhausted. The pressure gradient diagram is invaluable as a tool for studying such systems to
evaluate the methods and components for achieving proper system operation.
2. Classification
Supply and return air duct systems are classified with respect to the velocity and pressure of the air
within the duct.
2.1 Velocity
There are two types of air transmission systems used for air conditioning applications. They are
called conventional or low velocity and high velocity systems. The following initial supply air
velocities are offered as a guide:
2.1.1 Commercial comfort air conditioning
a. Low velocity – up to 2500 fpm. Normally between 1200 and 2200 fpm.
b. High velocity – above 2500 fpm.
2.1.2 Factory comfort air conditioning
a. Low velocity - up to 2500 fpm. Normally between 2200 and 2500 fpm.
b. High velocity – 2500 to 5000 fpm.

Normally, return air systems for both low and high velocity supply air systems are designed as
low velocity systems. The velocity range for commercial and factory comfort application is as
follows:
a. Commercial comfort air conditioning – low velocity up to 2000 fpm. Normally between 1500
and 1800 fpm.
b. Factory comfort air conditioning – low velocity up to 2500 fpm. Normally between 1800 and
2200 fpm.

2.2 Pressure
Air distribution systems are divided into three pressure categories; low, medium and high.
These divisions have the same pressure ranges as Class I, II and III fans as indicated:
2.2.1 Low pressure – up to 3 3/4 in. wg – Class I fan
2.2.2 Medium pressure –3 3/4 to 6 3/4 in . wg – Class II fan
2.2.3 High pressure – 6 3/4 to 12 1/4 in. wg – Class III fan
 These pressure ranges are total pressure, including the losses thru the air handling
apparatus, ductwork and the air terminal in the space.

3. Air Flow in Ducts

The adiabatic, steady flow of a fluid in a pipe or conduit is governed by the first law of
thermodynamics, which leads to the equation
P1 V12 gz1 P2 V22 gz 2 g
+ + = + + +w + lf Equation (1)
1 2gc gc  2 2gc gc gc
where:
P = static pressure, lbf/ft2 or N/m2
 = mass density at a cross section, lbm/ft3 or kg/m3
V = average velocity at a cross section, ft/sec or m/s
g = local acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2 or m/s2
gc = constant = 32.17 (lbm-ft)/(lbf-sec2) = 1.0 (kg-m)/(N-s2)
z = elevation, ft or m
w = work, (ft-lbf)/lbm or J/kg
lf = lost head, ft or m

Each term of Equation 1 has the units of energy per unit mass, or specific energy. The last term
on the right is the internal conversion of energy due to friction. The first three terms on each side of
the equality are the pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy, respectively. A sign
convention has been selected such that work done on the fluid is negative.
Another governing relation for steady flow in a conduit is the conservation of mass. For the one-
dimensional flow along a single conduit the mass flow rate of flow at any two cross section 1 and 2 is
given by
m = 1V1A1 =  2V2 A2 Equation (2)
where:
m = mass flow rate, lbm/sec or kg/s
A = cross sectional area normal to the flow, ft2 or m2.

When the fluid is incompressible, Equation 2 becomes

Q = V1A1 = V2 A2
where
Q = volume flow rate, ft3/sec or m3/s

Equation 1 has other useful forms. If it is multiplied by the mass density, assumed constant, an
equation is obtained where each term has the units of pressure:
 V 2  gz  V 2  gz gl f
P1 + 1 1 + 1 1 = P2 + 2 2 + 2 2 + w + Equation (3)
2gc gc 2gc gc gc
In this form the first three terms on each side of the equality are the static pressure, the velocity
pressure, and the elevation pressure, respectively. The work term now has the units of pressure,
and the last term on the right is the pressure lost due to friction.
Finally, if Equation 1 is multiplied by gc/g, an equation results where each term has the unit of
length, commonly referred to as head:
 gc P1 V12 g P V2 gw
+ + z1 = c 2 + 2 + z 2 + c + l f Equation (4)
g 1 2 g 2 2 g
The first three terms on each side of the equality are the static head, velocity head, and elevation
head, respectively. The work term is now in terms of head, and the last term is the lost head due to
friction.
Equation 4 applied to the adiabatic flow of air in a duct. Neglecting the elevation head terms,
and assuming that no fan is present, Equation 4 becomes
gc P1 V12 gc P2 V22
+ = + + l f Equation (5)
g 1 2 g 2 2
and the terms of the total head, with  constant,
gc P01 gc P02
= + lf Equation (6)
g  g 
Equations 5 and 6 provide insight into the duct flow problem. The only important terms remaining in
the energy equation are the static head, the velocity head, and the lost head. The static and velocity
heads are interchangeable and may increase or decrease in the direction of flow, depending on the
duct cross-sectional area. Because the lost head lf must be positive the total pressure always
decreases in the direction of flow. Figure 12-20 illustrates these principles.

For duct flow units of pressure are desired for each term in Equation5. Equation 4 then takes the
following form:
V 2 V 2 gl f
P1 + 1 = P2 + 2 + Equation (7)
2gc 2gc gc
where lf has the units of feet or meters. To simplify the notation, the equations may be written
Ps1 + Pv1 = Ps 2 + Pv 2 + Pf Equation (8)
where
gl f
Pf = Equation (9)
gc
and
 P01 = P02 + Pf Equation (10)
In this form each term has the units of pressure in any system of units. For air at standard conditions
and English units, pressure is usually in in. wg:
2 2
 V   V 
Pv =    =   in. wg Equation (11)
 1097   4005 
where V is in ft/min and  is in lbm/ft3. In SI units
2 2
 V   V 
Pv =    =   Pa Equation (12)
 1.414   1.29 
where V is in m/s and  is in kg/m3.

The lost head due to friction in a straight, constant-area duct is tedious when designing ducts,
special charts have been prepared. Figure 12-21 and 12-22 are examples of such charts for air
flowing in galvanized steel ducts with approximately 40 joints per 100 ft (30 m). The charts are
based on standard air and fully developed flow.
For the temperature range from 50 F (10 C) to about 100 F (38 C) there is no need to correct for
viscosity and density changes. Above 100 F (38 C), however, a correction should be made. For
elevations below about 2000 ft (610 m) the correction is small. The correction factor for density and
viscosity will normally be less than one. For example, dry air at 100 F at an elevation of 2000 ft
would exhibit a pressure loss about 10 percent less than given in Figure 12-21. For average to rough
ducts, a correction factor for density and viscosity may be expressed as
0.9 0.10
   a 
C =  a    Equation (13)
 s   s 
where:
 = air density
 = air viscosity

and subscript a and s refer to actual and standard conditions, respectively. The actual pressure is
then given by
P01 = CP0 s Equation (14)
where P01 is from Figure 12-21 and 12-22.

The effect of roughness is the most important consideration. A common problem to designers is
determination of the roughness effect of fibrous glass duct liners and fibrous ducts. This material is
manufactured in several grades with various degrees of absolute roughness. Further, the joints and
fasteners necessary to install the material affect the overall pressure loss. Smooth galvanized ducts
typically have a friction factor of about 0.02, whereas fibrous liners and duct materials will have
friction factors varying from about 0.03 to 0.06, depending of the quality of the material and joints
and on the duct diameter. The usual approach to allowing for this roughness effect is to use a
correction factor that is applied to the pressure loss obtained for galvanized metal duct as in Figure
12-21. Figure 12-23 shows a range of data for commercially available fibrous duct liner materials.
These correction factors probably do not allow for typical joints and fasteners.
 A more refined approach to the prediction of pressure loss in rough or lined ducts is to generate
a chart, such as Figure 12-21, using Equation 15 and the Colebrook function
L V2
lf = f Equation (15)
D 2g
1  e 2.51 
= −2 log10  +  Equation (16)
f  3.7D ReD f 

to express the friction factor.

The pressure loss due to friction is greater for a rectangular duct than for a circular duct of the
same cross-sectional area and capacity. For most practical purposes ducts of aspect ratio not
exceeding 8:1 will have the same lost head for equal length and mean velocity of flow as a circular
duct of the same hydraulic diameter. When the duct sizes are expressed in terms of hydraulic
diameter Dh and when the equations of friction loss in round and rectangular ducts are equated for
equal length and capacity, an equation for the circular equivalent of a rectangular duct is obtained:
 (ab)5 8
De = 1.3 Equation (17)
(a + b)1 4
Note that De and Dh are not equal. Here a and b are the rectangular duct dimensions in any
consistent units. Table 12-7 has been compiled using Equation 17. A more complete table is given in
the ASHRAE Handbook.
Oval ducts are sometimes used in commercial duct systems. The frictional pressure loss may be
treated in the same manner as for rectangular ducts by using the circular equivalent of the oval duct
as defined by
1.55A 0.625
De = Equation (18)
P 0.25

with
b2
A= + b(a − b ) Equation (19)
4
and
P = b + 2(a − b) Equation (20)
where
a = major diameter of oval duct, in. or m
b = minor diameter of oval duct, in. or m
4. Air Flow in Fitting
Whenever a change in area or direction occurs in a duct or when the flow is divided and
diverted in to a branch, substantial losses in total pressure may occur. These losses are usually of
greater magnitude than the losses in the straight pipe and are referred to as dynamic losses.
Dynamic losses vary as the square of the velocity and are conveniently represented by
P0 = C0 (Pv ) Equation (21)
where the loss coefficient C0 is a constant and Equations 11 or 12 express Pv. When different
upstream and downstream areas are involved, as in an expansion or contraction, either the
upstream or downstream value of Pv may be used in Equation 21, and C will be different in each
case.
Consider a transition such as that shown in Table 12-9. The loss coefficients are referenced to
section zero. However, the coefficient referenced to section 1 is obtained as follows:
P0 = C0Pv 0 = C1Pv1 Equation (22)
Or
C1 = C 0 (Pv 0 Pv1 ) = C 0 (V0 V1 )
2
Equation (23)
Notation for the loss coefficients is as follows:
Cn – used for constant-flow fittings; C is based on the velocity at section n.
Cij – used for converging or diverging fittings. Subscript i refers to the section (c, s or b), and subscript
j refers to the path. If the path and section are the same, only one subscript is used.
Fittings are classified as either constant flow, such as an elbow or transition, or as divided flow,
such as wye or tee. Tables 12-8 through 12-10 give loss coefficients for different types of constant-
flow fittings. It should be kept in mind that the quality and type of construction may vary
considerably for a particular type of fitting. Some manufacturers provide data for their own
products.
An extensive database of duct-fitting coefficients for over 200 fittings has been developed by
ASHRAE.
Example No. 1
Compute the lost pressure in a 6 in., 90 deg pleated elbow that has 150 cfm of air flowing through it.
The ratio of turning radius to diameter is 1.5. Assume standard air.

Given:
D = 6 in., 90 deg pleated elbow, 150 cfm, r/D = 1.5
Required: lost pressure P0.
Solution:
The lost pressure will be computed from Eq. 22. From Table 8 the loss coefficient is read as 0.43 and
the average velocity in the elbow is computed as
Q 4Q 4(150)(144)
V= = 2 = = 764 ft min
A D  (36)2
then Pv is given by Equation 11 and
2
 V 
2
 764 
P0 = C 0   = 0.43  = 0.016 in. wg
 4005   4005 
In SI units the elbow diameter is 15.24 cm and the flow rate is 4.25 m 3/min. The average velocity is
then
Q 4Q 4(4.25)
V= = 2 = = 3.88 m s
A D  (0.1524)2 (60)
The loss coefficient C0 is dimensionless and is therefore unchanged. Using Equation 12, we get
2
 V 
2
 3.88 
P0 = C 0   = 0.43  = 3.89 Pa
 1.29   1.29 
This result agrees with the result obtained in English units, since 0.016 in. wg may be converted
directly to 3.89 Pa.

When considering the lost pressure in divided flow fittings, the loss in the straight-through
section as well as the loss through the branch duct outlet must be considered. Table 12-11 and Table
12-12 give data for branch-type fittings. The angle of the branch takeoff has the great influence on
the loss coefficient. Converging flow (Table 12-12) differs from diverging flow (Table 12-11). It has
been customary to base the loss coefficient on the velocity in the common section of the fitting;
however, to accommodate modern duct design methods, the convention has been changed to base
the coefficients on the branch and main sections. Equation 23 may be used to change the base for
the coefficients when desired.
Example No. 2
Compute the loss in total pressure for a round 90 degree branch and straight-through section, a tee.
The common section is 12 in. in diameter, and the straight-through section has a 10 in. diameter
with a flow rate of 1100 cfm. The branch flow rate is 250 cfm through a 6 in. duct.

Given:
A round 90 degree tee. D = 12 in common section at 1100 cfm and D = 6 in branch at 250 cfm.
Required:
Loss in total pressure in branch and straight-through section.
Solution:
It is first necessary to compute the average velocity in each section of the fitting:
Q 4(1100)
Vc = c = = 1400 ft min
Ac  (12 12)2
Q 4(250)
Vb = b = = 1273 ft min
Ab  (6 12)2
Q 4(850)
Vs = s = = 1558 ft min
As  (10 12)2
The ratio of the branch to the common flow rate is
Q b 250
= = 0.23
Q c 1100
and the ratio of the main to the common flow rate is
Q s 850
= = 0.77
Q c 1100
The ratio of the branch to the common area is
2
Ab  6 
=   = 0.25
Ac  12 
The ratio of the main to the common area is
2
As  10 
=   = 0.69
Ac  12 
The loss coefficient for the branch is then read from Table 12-11B as 1.55, and
2 2
 V   1273 
P0b = C b  b  = 1.55  = 0.16 in. wg
 4005   4005 
The lost pressure for the straight-through section is also determined from Table 12-11B. The loss
coefficient is about 0.14, and
2
 1558 
P0 s = 0.14  = 0.021 in. wg
 4005 
When rectangular duct is used, the pressure losses will depend on the design of the fittings.

It is convenient to express the effect of fittings in terms of equivalent length. The equivalent
length is a function of the air velocity and the size (diameter) of the fitting. In the case of pipes with
water flowing, the Reynolds number is sufficiently large to assume that the fully turbulent friction
factor is always valid. This is not generally true for air flowing in ducts unless the duct is large.
However, for low-velocity systems a friction factor can be assumed, based on expected flow
conditions, to derive equivalent lengths from the loss coefficient data of Tables 12-7 through 12-12.
Recall that
L V2 V2
lf = f =C Equation (24)
D 2g 2g
and
L C
= Equation (25)
D f
Table 12-13 gives some friction factors that will generally be valid for various duct diameters.

Example No. 3
Compute the equivalent lengths for the fittings in the duct system of Figure 12-24. The fittings are
an entrance, a 45 degree wye, the straight-through section of the wye fitting, a 45 degree elbow,
and a 90 degree elbow.
Given: Figure 12-24
Required: Equivalent lengths for the following fittings: an entrance, a 45 degree wye, the straight-
through section of the wye fitting, a 45 degree elbow, and a 90 degree elbow.
Solution:
Table 12-10A gives the loss coefficient for an entrance. In this case,  is either 0 or 180 degrees and
C0 is 0.5. Then using Equation 25, Table 12-13 for f, and a 10 in. diameter, we have
Li C 0.5
= = = 22.7
D f 0.022
and
 10 
Li = 22.7  = 19 ft
 12 
Table 12-11A gives the loss coefficients for the branch of a wye. For this case
Q b 120
= = 0.3
Q c 400
and
2
Ab  6 
=   = 0.36
Ac  10 
Then for  of 45 degrees, Cb = 0.60. Since Cb is based on the branch velocity, use the diameter of the
branch of 6 in. Then
Lb C 0.6
= = = 21.4
D f 0.028
and
6
Lb = 21.4  = 11 ft
 12 
Data for the straight-through section of the branch fitting are given in Table 12-11A.
Q s 280
= = 0.7
Q c 400
2
As  9 
=   = 0.81
Ac  10 
Then Cs = 0.13 and
 Ls C 0.13
= = = 5.8
D f 0.0225
and
9
Lb = 5.8  = 4.4 ft
 12 
which is small as expected.
Assume that the 90 degree elbow is the pleated type with a r/D ratio of 1.5. Then the loss
coefficient is 0.43 from Table 12-8A, and
Le C 0.43
= = = 15.4
D f 0.028
and
6
Le = 15.4  = 7.7 ft
 12 
A 45 degree elbow will have about one-half the equivalent length of a 90 degree elbow.

Table 12-14 gives some equivalent lengths. The lengths shown are approximate, with some
conservatism built in. This approach simplifies calculations and is helpful in the design of simple low-
velocity systems.
 To compute the lost pressure, we add the equivalent length of the fitting to the adjacent pipe
length.

Example No. 4
Compute the lost pressure for each branch of the simple duct system shown in Figure 12-24, using
the equivalent length approach with data from Table 12-14 and SI units.
Given: Figure 12-24
Required: Lost pressure for each branch
Solution:
The lost pressure will be first computed from 1 to a; then section a to 2 and a to 3 will be handled
separately.
The equivalent length of section 1 to a consists of the actual length of the 25 cm duct plus the
equivalent length for the entrance from the plenum of 8 m given in Table 12-14. Then
L1a = 15 + 8 = 23 m
 From Figure 12-23 at 0.19 m3/s and for a pipe diameter of 25 cm, the lost pressure is 0.85 Pa/m of
pipe. Then
P01a = 0.85(23) = 20 Pa

Section a to 3 has an equivalent length equal to the sum of the actual length and the equivalent
length for the 45 degree branch takeoff, one 45 degree elbow, and one 90 degree elbow
La3 = 12 + 3.1 +1.5 + 2.4 = 19 m
From Figure 12-22, at 0.057 m3/s and for a 15 cm diameter pipe, the lost pressure is 1.0 Pa/m of
pipe. Then
P0a3 = 1.0(19) = 19 Pa
Section a to 2 has an equivalent length equal to the sum of the actual length and the equivalent
length for the straight-through section of the branch fitting. A length of 2 m is used for this case:
La 2 = 15 + 2 = 17 m
From Figure 12-22, the loss per meter of length is 0.6 Pa, and
P0a 2 = 0.6(17) = 10.2 Pa
Then the lost pressure for section 1 to 2 is
P012 = P01a + P0a 2 = 20 + 10.2 = 30.2 Pa
and for section 1 to 3
P013 = P01a + P0a3 = 20 + 19 = 39 Pa

5. Turning Vanes and Dampers

The two main accessory devices used in duct systems are vanes and dampers. It is the
responsibility of the design engineer to specify the location and use of the devices.
Turning vanes have the purpose of preventing turbulence and consequent high loss in total
pressure where turns are necessary in rectangular ducts. Although large-radius turns may be used
for the same purpose, that requires more space. When turning vanes are used, an abrupt 90 degree
turn is made by the duct, but the air is turned smoothly by the vanes. Turning vanes are of two basic
designs. The airfoil type is the more efficient of the two, but it is more expensive to fabricate than
the single-piece flat vane.
Dampers are necessary to balance the system and to control makeup and exhaust air. The
dampers may be hand-operated and locked in position after adjustment or may be motor-operated
and controlled by temperature sensors or by other remote signals. The damper may be a single
blade on shaft or a multiblade arrangement as shown in Figure 12-25. The blades may also be
connected to operate in parallel. The damper causes a pressure loss even when fully open. The loss
coefficient C0 is about 0.52 with the blades in the full open position.
6. Design of Low Velocity System
6.1 Air Velocity
The design velocity for an air distribution system depends primarily on sound level
requirements, first cost, and operating cost.
Table 7 (Carrier) list the recommended velocities for supply and return ducts in a low
velocity system. These velocities are based on experience.

In high velocity systems, the supply ducts are normally limited to a maximum duct velocity
of 5000 fpm. Above this velocity, the sound level may become objectionable and the operating
cost (friction rate) may become excessive. Selecting the duct velocity, therefore, is a question of
 economics. A very high velocity results in smaller ducts and lower duct material cost but it
requires a higher-operating cost and possible a larger fan motor and a higher class fan. If a lower
duct velocity is used, the ducts must be larger but the operating cost decreases and the fan
motor and fan class may be smaller.
The return ducts for a high velocity supply system have the same design velocity
recommendations as listed in Table 7 for a low velocity system, unless extensive sound
treatment is provided to use higher velocities.

6.2 Equal-Friction Method

The principle of this method is to make the pressure loss per foot of duct length the same
for the entire system. If the layout is symmetrical with all runs from fan to diffuser
approximately the same length, this method will produce a good balanced design. However,
most duct systems have a variety of duct runs ranging from long to short. The short runs will
have to be dampered, which can cause considerable noise.
The usual procedure is to select the velocity in the main duct adjacent to the fan in
accordance with the criteria discussed above. The known flow rate then establishes the duct size
and the lost pressure per unit of length using Figure 12-21. This same pressure loss per unit
length is then used throughout the system. A desirable feature of this method is the gradual
reduction of air velocity from fan to outlet, reducing noise problems. After sizing the system, the
designer must compute the total pressure loss of the longest run (largest flow resistance), taking
care to include all fittings and transition. When the total pressure available for the system is
known in advance, the design loss value may be established by estimating the equivalent length
of the longest run and computing the lost pressure per unit length.

Example No. 4
Select duct sizes for the simple duct system of Figure 12-32, using the equal-friction method and
English and SI units. The total pressure available for the duct system is 0.12 in. wg (30 Pa), and
the loss in total pressure for each diffuser at the specified flow rate is 0.02 in. wg (5 Pa).

Given: Figure 12-32

Total pressure available = 0.12 in. wg (30 Pa)
Loss in total pressure for each diffuser = 0.02 in. wg (5 Pa)
Required:
Select the duct sizes
Solution:
Because the system is small, the velocity in the main supply duct should not exceed about 1000
ft/min (5 m/s) and the branch duct velocities should not exceed about 600 ft/min (3 m/s). The
total pressure available for the ducts, excluding the diffusers, is 0.10 in. wg (25 Pa). The total
equivalent lengths of all the three runs of duct are approximately the same same; therefore, let
the longest run be 1-2-3. The equivalent-length method will be used to allow for losses in the
fittings. Then if for simplicity we use Table 12-14 to estimate the fitting equivalent lengths, we
have
( )
L123 = (L1 + Lent ) + (L2 + Lst ) + L3 + Lwye + L45 + L90 + Lboot
L123 = (20 + 30) + (15 + 8) + (25 +13 + 6 +10 + 33) = 160 ft
or
L123 = (6.0 + 9.1) + (4.6 + 2.4) + (8 + 4 + 1.8 + 3.1 + 10.1) = 49.7 m
Then
P0 P0  100 
= = 0.10  = 0.063 in. wg 100 ft
L L123  160 
or
P0 P0 25
= = = 0.50 Pa m
L L123 49.7
These values will be used to size the complete system using Figure 12-21 and 12-22. Tables 12-
15 summarize the results, showing duct sizes, the velocity in each section, and the loss in total
pressure in each section.

Table 12-15a Solution to Example No. 4 in English Units (P0/L = 0.063 in. wg/100 ft)
Section Q, cfm D, in Velocity, P0/L, Le, ft P0, in. wg
Number ft/min in.wg/100 ft
1 500 12 637 0.056 50 0.028
2 350 10 642 0.072 23 0.017
3 150 8 430 0.045 87 0.039
4 200 8 573 0.077 67 0.052
5 150 8 430 0.045 74 0.034
Table 12-15b Solution to Example No. 4 in English Units (P0/L = 0.50 Pa/m)
Section Q, m3/s D, cm Velocity, P0/L, Le , m P0, Pa
Number m/s Pa/m
1 0.237 30 3.4 0.50 15.1 7.55
2 0.166 25 3.4 0.64 6.7 4.29
3 0.071 20 2.3 0.40 27 10.8
4 0.095 20 3.1 0.69 20.4 14.08
5 0.071 20 2.3 0.40 21 8.40

It is of interest to check the actual loss in total pressure from the plenum to each outlet. For
English units.
 (P0 )123 = 0.028 + 0.017 + 0.039 = 0.084 in. wg
(P0 )124 = 0.028 + 0.017 + 0.052 = 0.097 in. wg
(P0 )15 = 0.028 + 0.034 = 0.062 in. wg
For SI Units,
(P0 )123 = 7.55 + 4.29 +10.8 = 22.64 Pa
(P0 )124 = 7.55 + 4.29 +14.08 = 25.92 Pa
(P0 )15 = 7.55 + 8.40 = 15.95 Pa
The losses in total pressure for the three different runs are unequal when it is assumed that
the proper amount of air is flowing in each. However, the actual physical situation is such that
the loss in total pressure from the plenum to the conditioned space is equal for all runs of duct.
That is, if the actual energy grade lines for each duct run were constructed, they would all begin
at the plenum pressure and end at the room pressure. Therefore, the total flow rate from the
plenum will divide itself among the three branches in order to satisfy the lost-pressure
requirement. If no adjustments are made to increase the lost pressure in sections 4 and 5, then
the flow rates in these sections will increase relative to section 3, and the total flow rate from
the plenum will increase slightly because of the decreased system resistance. However, dampers
in sections 4 and 5 could be adjusted to balance the system. Nevertheless this duct sizing
method is used extensively. It is not always necessary that the system be designed to balance
without adjustments.

6.3 Balanced-Capacity Method

This method of duct design has been referred to as the “balance pressure loss method”.
However, it is the flow rate or capacity of each outlet that is balanced and not the pressure. The
loss in total pressure automatically balances, regardless of the duct sizes. The basic principle of
this method of design is to make the loss in total pressure equal for all duct runs from fan outlet
when the required amount of air is flowing in each. In general each run will have a different
equivalent length, and the pressure loss per unit length for each run will be different. It is
theoretically possible to design every duct system to be balanced. This may be shown by
combining Equations 10 and 15 to obtain.
L
P01 − P02 = Pf = f e Pv Equation (26)
D
Then for a given duct and fluid flowing,
P01 − P02 = Pf (Le , D ,V ) Equation (27)
Because the volume flow rate Q is a function of the velocity V and the diameter D, Equation 27
may be written as
P01 − P02 = Pf (Q , Le ) Equation (28)
For a given a given equivalent length the diameter can always be adjusted to obtain the
necessary velocity that will produce the required loss in total pressure. There may be cases,
however, when the required velocity may be too high to satisfy noise limitations and a damper
or other means of increasing the equivalent length will be required.
The design procedure for the balanced-capacity method is the same as for the equal-friction
method in that design pressure loss per unit length for the run of the longest equivalent length
is determined in the same way, depending on whether the fan characteristics are known in
advance. The procedure then changed to one of determining the required total pressure loss
per unit length in the remaining sections to balance the flow. The method shows where
dampers may be needed and provides a record of the total pressure requirements of each part
of the duct system.

Example No. 5
Design the duct system of Fig. 12-33 by using the balanced-capacity method. The velocity in the
duct attached to the plenum must not exceed 900 ft/min, and the overall loss in total pressure
should not exceed about 0.32 in. wg. Total pressure losses for the diffusers are all equal to 0.04
in. w.g. Rectangular ducts are required. The lengths shown are the total equivalent lengths of
each section. Use English units.

Given: Fig. 12-33

Velocity in duct attached to the plenum must not exceed 900 ft/min
Overall loss in total pressure should not exceed about 0.32 in. wg.
Total pressure loss for the diffusers = 0.04 in. wg.
Rectangular ducts.
Lengths are total equivalent lengths.
Required: Design of a duct system
Solution:
In order to hold the duct sizes to a minimum, the maximum velocity criteria will be used to
establish the design pressure loss for the longest run of duct. From Fig. 12-21 the pressure loss
per 100 ft and equivalent diameter of section 1 is
P01
 = 0.10 in. wg
= P01
L1
D1 = 12.8 in.
If this pressure loss per 100 ft is used to design sections 1-2-3-4-5, the loss in total pressure will
be
0.10(55 + 25 + 40 + 45 + 95)
P015 = = 0.260 in. wg
100
When the diffuser loss is added, the maximum-lost pressure criterion is still satisfied (P0 = 0.29
in. wg); therefore, run 1-2-3-4-5 will be sized using P’01 = 0.096 in. wg/100 ft. Table 12-16
summarizes this procedure. Note that the main run of duct selected in this example is not the
longest run. The total equivalent length of section 6 is actual larger than that of section 5.
However, the difference is small, and the final results will be nearly identical.
Branch 6,7,8, and 9 must now be is sized to balance the system. Because all of the diffusers
have the same lost pressure, they need not be considered in the remainder of the analysis.

Table 12-16 Data for the Longest Run for Example 5

Section Q, cfm De, in. w x h, Velocity, Le, ft P0,
Number in. x in. fpm in. wg
1 800 12.8 18 x 8 900 55 0.055
2 700 12.1 16 x 8 871 25 0.025
3 450 10.4 15 x 6 780 40 0.040
4 350 9.4 13 x 6 733 45 0.045
5 100 5.9 6x5 534 95 0.095
Diffuser 5 100 --- --- --- --- 0.040
Total 0.300

P06 = P05 = 0.095 in. wg

L6 = 120 ft
0.095(100)
P06 = = 0.079 in. wg 100 ft
120
D6 = 8.3 in. (11 x 5 rectangle)
V6 = 660 ft min
P07 = P04 + P05 = 0.045 + 0.095 = 0.140 in. wg
L7 = 130 ft
0.140(100)
P07 = = 0.108 in. wg 100 ft
130
D7 = 5.8 in. (6 x 5 rectangle)
V7 = 550 ft min
P09 = P03 + P07 = 0.040 + 0.140 = 0.180 in. wg
L9 = 190 ft
0.180(100)
P09 = = 0.095 in. wg 100 ft
190
D9 = 8.3 in. (10 x 6 rectangle)
V9 = 660 ft min
P08 = P09 + P02 = 0.180 + 0.025 = 0.205 in. wg
L8 = 130 ft
0.205(100)
P08 = = 0.158 in. wg 100 ft
130
D8 = 5.4 in. (6 x 4 rectangle)
V8 = 641 ft min
 The resulting velocities for section 8 and 9 are slightly high but are probably acceptable.

The previous examples have shown the balanced-capacity method to be straight-forward

and to produce much detailed information about the duct system, particularly with respect to
the duct velocities and the placement of dampers. However, the calculation procedure is
cumbersome and time-consuming when carried out for a complex system as shown. To alleviate
these undesirable features, a spreadsheet can be devised. Example No. 5 has been solved using
a spreadsheet, and the results are shown in Table 12-17. The odd diameters may be converted
to rectangular sizes using Table 12-7.

Table 12-17: Solution of Example 5 with a Spreadsheet

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
Section Le, ft cfm De / wh, P/L V, fpm P0 = P0
No. in. Actual (2)(5)/100  (7)
1 55 800 12.8 0.100 900 0.055 0.055
2 25 700 12.1 0.100 871 0.025 0.080
3 40 450 10.4 0.100 780 0.040 0.120
4 45 350 9.4 0.100 733 0.045 0.165
5 95 100 5.9 0.100 534 0.095 0.26
Diffusers 0.04 0.30

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

Branch Pi = Le, ft Pi/L = cfm De / wh, V, fpm
Section P0d – (10)100/(11) in.
No. (8) - Pd
8 0.205 130 0.158 100 5.4 641
9 0.180 190 0.095 250 8.3 660
7 0.140 130 0.108 100 5.8 550
6 0.095 120 0.079 250 8.3 660

The completed spreadsheet makes a good record and provides a check on the velocities in
each section. A check for computational errors may be made by summing the pressure losses
horizontally in columns 8 and 10 plus the lost pressure for the diffuser.

6.4 Return Air System.

The design of the return system may be carried out using the methods described earlier. In
this case the air flows through the branches into the main duct and back to the fan. Although
the losses in constant-flow fittings are the same regardless of the flow direction, divided-flow
fittings behave differently and different equivalent lengths or loss coefficient must be used.
 Table 12-12 gives loss coefficient for typical divided-flow fittings used in return systems. Low-
velocity return systems are usually designed using the equal-friction method. The total pressure
loss for the system is then estimated as discussed for supply duct systems. Dampers may be
required just as with supply systems. In large commercial systems a separate fan for the return
air may be required.

7. High-Velocity Duct Design

Because space allocated for ducts in large commercial structures is very limited due to the high
cost of building construction, alternatives to the low-velocity central system are often sought. One
way this can be done is to move the air at much higher velocities. Figure 12-21 indicates that high-
velocity systems may use velocities as high as 4500 ft/min (23 m/s) and lost pressures as high as 0.7
in. wg per 100 ft (5.7 Pa/m). The use of high velocities reduces the duct sizes dramatically, but
introduces some new problems like noise, higher energy required to move the air, and duct leakage
problem.
Total pressure losses must be estimated carefully using the loss-coefficient method, because the
equivalent-length method is not reliable at the velocities used with high-velocity systems. The most
efficient fittings from the standpoint of lost pressure should be selected. For example, an ordinary
square entrance to a duct from a plenum may be used in a low-velocity system, but when used with
high-velocity air, the lost pressure becomes prohibitive. Similar savings in total pressure may be
achieved in the selection of branch fittings. Manufacturer’s data should be consulted and the best
fitting selected. The designer should become acquainted with the standard practices for duct
construction.
There are a number of duct design procedures that may be used for high-velocity systems. The
design procedures are relatively independent of the type of air-distribution system involved. For
example, a variable-air-volume duct system should be designed for the full-load condition when air
flow is at a maximum. At full load the VAV system operates the same as a constant-volume system.
However, a VAV system may be very extensive, serving zones that peak at much different times. In
such a case, each section of the duct system must be sized to handle the maximum amount of air
required.

7.1 Static Regain Method

This method systematically reduces the air velocity in the direction of flow in such a way that
the increase (regain) in static pressure in each transition just balances the pressure losses in the
following section. This method is suitable for high-velocity, constant-volume systems having
long runs of duct with many takeoffs. With this procedure approximately the same static
pressure exists at the entrance to each branch, which simplifies terminal unit selection and
system balancing. The main disadvantages of the method are that (1) very low velocities and
large duct sizes may result at the end of long runs; (2) the bookkeeping and trial-and-error
aspects of the method are tedious; (3) the total pressure requirements of each part of the duct
system are not readily apparent; and (4) the method does not yield a balanced system.
The general procedure for use of the static regain method is to first select a velocity for the
duct attached to the fan or supply plenum. With the capacity, this establishes the size of this
main duct. The run of duct that appears to have the largest flow resistance is then designed first,
using the most efficient fittings and layout possible. A velocity is assumed for the next section in
the run, and the static pressure regain is compared with the lost pressure for that section.
Usually about two velocities must be checked to find a reasonable balance between the static
pressure regain and the losses of a section. It must also be kept in mind that standard duct sizes
must be used, which usually prevents an exact balance between regain and losses. The spiral
duct is available in diameters of 3 to 24 in. with increments of 1 in., and 24 to 50 in. with
increments of 2 in. Standard metric pipe ranges from about 8 to 60 cm in 1 cm increments and
from 60 to 120 cm in 2 cm increments.

Example No. 6
Design the duct system shown in Figure 12-33 using the static regain method. Each outlet has a
terminal box that requires a minimum of 0.5 in. wg total pressure. Other pertinent data are
shown on the sketch.

Given: Figure 12-33

Terminal box total pressure = 0.5 in. wg
Required: Design of the duct system
Solution:
The first step in the solution is to select a velocity for the section of duct connected to the
plenum. Figure 12-21 indicates that a maximum velocity of 2500 fpm should be used when the
duct system carries 2000 fpm in order to stay within the acceptable range of P/L for high
velocity systems. The section may then be sized using Figure 12-21. A 12 in. duct will result in a
velocity of about 2550 fpm, which is acceptable.
Then
D1 = 12 in. , V1 = 2547 fpm , Pv1 = 0.404 in. wg
From Table 12-11B assume a loss coefficient for the formed entrance of 0.03, and from Figure
12-21 a pressure loss per 100 ft of duct of P’01 = 0.78 in. wg/100 ft.
Then
(P0 )p = 0.03Pv1 = 0.03(0.404) = 0.012 in. wg
(P0 )pa = P01L = 0.78(50) = 0.390 in. wg

100 100
and
P01 = 0.012 + 0.390 = 0.402 in. wg
The total pressure required at the plenum to meet the needs of section 1 is then given by
P0p = P01 + Pv1 = 0.402 + 0.405 = 0.807 in. wg
If the static-regain method could be followed exactly, this would be the system total pressure,
exclusive of the terminal box requirement, because velocity pressure is to be converted to static
pressure to offset the lost pressure.
The run of duct with the largest flow resistance appears to be section 1-2-3-4, but this must
be checked at the conclusion of the design. To size section 2 it is required that the increase in
static pressure (decrease in velocity pressure) from point a to point b must be equal to the lost
pressure from point a to point c. This is equivalent to
Pa − Pc = Pvc − Pva + (P0 )ab + (P0 )bc = 0 (29)
or

Pa − Pc = Pv 2 − Pv1 + (P0 )ac = 0 (31)
and this may be generalized as
Pu − Pd = Pvd − Pvu +  (P )
0 ud =0 (32)
where the subscript u an d refer to the upstream and downstream, respectively. To size section
2 a diameter of 11 in. will be assumed and calculations made to check against Equation 32:
D2 = 11 in. , V2 = 2273 fpm ,  = 0.70 in. wg 100 ft
P02
P = 0.32 in. wg
v2 Q = 1500 cfm
2
(P0 )ab = 0.03 in. wg (assumed; see Table 12-12B)

(P0 )bc = 0.70(20) = 0.140 in. wg

100
 (P0 )ac = 0.03 + 0.140 = 0.170 in.wg
Then using Equation 31,
Pa − Pc = 0.32 − 0.404 + 0.170 = 0.086 in. wg
This indicates that a larger increase in static pressure than required was achieved in the
transition. Although the next smaller pipe size could be tried, the 11 in. duct would prove to be
the best solution.
The same general procedure is used to size section 3 assuming a 10-in. diameter duct:
D3 = 10 in. , V3 = 1834 fpm ,  = 0.52 in. wg 100 ft
P03
P = 0.21 in. wg
v3 Q = 1000 cfm
3
(P0 )cd = 0.015 in. wg (assumed; see Table 12-12B)

(P0 )de = 0.52(30) = 0.156 in. wg

100
 (P0 )ce = 0.015 + 0.156 = 0.171 in.wg
Pc − Pe = 0.21− 0.32 + 0.171 = 0.061 in. wg
Assume another diameter for section 3:
D3 = 11 in. , V3 = 1515 fpm ,  = 0.32 in. wg 100 ft
P03
P = 0.14 in. wg
v3 Q = 1000 cfm
3
(P0 )cd = 0.017 in. wg (assumed; see Table 12-12B)
 (P0 )de = 0.32(30) = 0.096 in. wg
100
 (P0 )ce = 0.017 + 0.096 = 0.113 in.wg
Pc − Pe = 0.14 − 0.32 + 0.113 = −0.067 in. wg
This is a very good solution for section 3. It is obvious that the design of a system using the
foregoing procedure can become quite tedious. A tabular form reduces the work considerable
and will be used to conclude this design. Table 12-18 contains all the design calculations for this
example. Again a spreadsheet can be used.
Table 12-18: Static-Regain Design Method
Section Item D, in. Q, cfm V, Pv, L, ft P’0 or C, P0, in. P0, Pu – P d , (Pu –
Number fpm in. wg in. wg/100 wg in. wg in. wg Pd), in. wg
ft
1 Duct 12 2000 2547 0.404 50 0.78 0.390
Entrance 0.03 0.012 0.402 0.402 0.402
2 Duct 11 1500 2273 0.320 20 0.70 0.140
Fitting 0.030 0.170 0.086 0.488
3 Duct 11 1000 1515 0.140 30 0.32 0.096
0.017 0.113 -0.067 0.421
4 Duct 10 600 1100 0.075 30 0.20 0.060
Fitting 0.40 0.030 0.090 0.025 0.446
Branch 7 off section 3
7 Duct 9 400 906 0.051 60 0.155 0.093
Fitting 0.012
Fitting 0.20 0.010 0.115 0.026 0.447
Branch 6 off section 2
6 Duct 9 500 1132 0.080 40 0.24 0.096
Fitting 0.50 0.040 0.136 -0.104 0.384
Branch 5 off section 1
5 Duct 8 500 1433 0.128 30 0.43 0.129
Fitting 0.50 0.064 0.193 -0.083 0.319

The total pressure requirement for the system is determined by the run with the maximum
cumulative static pressure loss plus the velocity pressure in section 1:
P0 = (P )1237 + Pv1 = 0.447 + 0.404 = 0.851 in. wg
where P1237 = (Pu – Pd) from Table 12-18. However, this does not include the pressure loss for
the terminal box. In allowing for this pressure, remember that the total pressure just upstream
of the box is equal to the velocity pressure. Section 7 has a velocity pressure of 0.051 in. wg.
Because the terminal box requires at least 0.5 in. wg, the system total pressure requirement
should be increased to
P0 = 0.851+ (0.5 − 0.051) = 1.3 in. wg
The system balance and total pressure required in the plenum may also be checked by
summing the lost pressure P0 for each run plus the velocity pressure in the last section of each
run. For run 1-2-3-4
P0p = (0.402 + 0.170 + 0.113 + 0.090) + 0.075 = 0.850 in. wg
To allow for the terminal box,
P0p = 0.850 + (0.5 − 0.075) = 1.275 in. wg
For run 1-2-3-7
P0p = (0.402 + 0.170 + 0.113 + 0.115) + 0.051 = 0.851 in. wg
and allowing for the terminal box,
 P0 = 0.851+ (0.5 − 0.051) = 1.3 in. wg
The same procedure yields P0p of 1.21 in. w.g. and 1.10 in. wg for runs 1-2-6 and 1-5,
respectively. It is clear that the system is not perfectly balanced, because the loss in total
pressure is unequal for different runs. The balanced-capacity method could be used to size the
branches where a large imbalance may occur. Trial and error will still be required, due to the
need to use loss coefficient for the fittings.

8. Duct Construction (Carrier System Design Manual)

The sheet metal gage used in the ducts and the reinforcing required depends on the
pressure conditions of the system. There is also a wide variety of joins and seams used to form
the ducts which also depend on pressure conditions in the duct system.

8.1 Low Pressure Systems

Table 14 lists the recommended construction for rectangular ducts made of aluminum or
steel.

The method of bracing and reinforcing and types of joints and seams are included in the
table. Round duct and Spira- Pipe construction are included in Table 15 and 16 which apply
for low and high pressure system. Fig. 58 illustrates the more common seams and joins used
in low pressure systems.
8.2 High Pressure System
Table 17 contains the construction recommendations for rectangular duct made of
aluminum or steel. The table includes the required reinforcing and bracing and types of joins
and seams used in high pressure duct systems.
 Fig. 59 shows the common joint used for rectangular ducts in high pressure systems. The
ducts are constructed with a Pittsburg lock or grooved longitudinal seams (Fig. 58).

Table 15 shows the recommended duct construction for round ducts. The data applies
for either high or low pressure systems. Fig. 60 illustrates the seams and joins used in round
duct systems. The duct materials for Spira-Pipe are given in Table 16.
 Fitting are normally used to join sections of Spira-Pipe as shown in Fig. 61. Sealing
compound is used to join Spira-Pipe to fittings.
8.3 WEIGHTS OF DUCT MATERIALS
Table 18 gives the weights of various materials used for duct systems.

- End - `
 5.1 Piping Design – General

1. MATERIALS
The materials most commonly used in piping systems are the following:
1. Steel – black and galvanized
2. Wrought iron – black and galvanized
3. Copper – soft and hard

Table 1 illustrates the recommended materials for the various services. Minimum standards, as
shown, should be maintained. Table 2 contains the physical properties of steel pipe and Table 3 lists
the physical of copper tubing.
2. SERVICE LIMITATIONS
The safe working pressure and temperature for steel pipe and copper tubing, including fittings,
are limited by the codes. Check those codes when there is doubt about the ability of pipe, tubing, or
fittings to withstand pressures and temperatures in a given installation. In many instances cost can
be reduced and over – design eliminated. For example, if the working pressure is to be 175 psi at
250 F, a 150 psi, class A, carbon steel flange can be safely used since it can withstand a pressure of
225 psi at 250 F. If the code is not checked, a 300 psi flange must be specified because the 175 si
working pressure exceeds the 150 rating of the 150 psi flange.
The safe working pressure and temperature for copper tubing is dependent on the strength of
the fittings and tube, the composition of the solder used for making a joint, and on the temperature
of the fluid conveyed. Table 4 indicates recommended service limits for copper tubing.

3. EXPANSION OF PIPING
All pipe lines which are subject to changes in temperature changes are anticipated, piping
members capable of absorbing the resultant movement must be included in the design. Table 5 give
the thermal linear expansion of copper tubing and steel pipe.
 There are three methods commonly used to absorb pipe expansion and contraction:
1. Expansion loops and offsets.
2. Expansion joints – There are two types available the slip type and the bellows type.
3. Flexible metal and rubber hose – Flexible hose, to absorb expansion, is recommended for
smaller size pipe or tubing only. It is not recommended for larger size pipe since an
excessive length is required.

4. PIPING SUPPORTS AND ANCHORS

All piping should be supported with hangers that can withstand the combined weight of pipe,
pipe fittings, valves, fluid in the pipe, and the insulation. They must also be capable of keeping the
pipe in proper alignment when necessary. Where extreme expansion or contraction exists, roll –
type hangers or saddles should be used. The pipe supports must have a smooth, flat bearing
surface, free from burrs or other sharp projections which would wear or cut the pipe.
The controlling factor in the spacing of supports for horizontal pipe lines is the deflection of
piping due to its own weight, weight of the fluid, piping accessories, and the insulation. Table 7 lists
the recommended support spacing for Schedule 40 pipe, using the listed conditions with water as a
fluid.

The support spacing for copper tubing is given in Table 8 which includes the weight of the tubing
filled with water.

Tables 7 and 8 are for “dead level” piping. Water and refrigerant lines are normally run level;
steam lines are pitched. Water lines are pitched when the line must be drained.
Unless pipe lines are adequately and properly anchored, expansion may put excessive strain on
fittings and equipment. Anchors are located according to job conditions. For instance, on a tall
building, i.e. 20 stories, the risers could be anchored on the 5th floor and on the 15th floor with an
 expansion device located at the 10th floor. This arrangement allows the riser to expand in both
directions from the 5th and 15th floor, resulting in less pipe travel at headers, whether they are
located at the top or bottom of the building or in both locations.
On smaller buildings, i.e. 5 stories, risers are anchored but once. Usually this is done near the
header, allowing the riser to grow in one direction only, either up or down depending on the header
location.
5. VIBRATION ISOLATION OF PIPING SYSTEMS
The undesirable effects caused by vibration of the piping are:
1. Physical damage to the piping, which results in the rupture of joints. For refrigerant piping, loss
of refrigerant charge results.
2. Transmission of noise thru the piping itself or thru the building construction where piping comes
into direct contact.

It is always difficult to anticipate trouble resulting from vibration of the piping system. For this
reason, recommendations made toward minimizing the effects of vibration are divided into two
categories:
1. Design consideration – These involve design precautions that can prevent trouble effectively.
2. Remedies or repairs – These are necessary where precautions are not taken initially or, in a
minority of cases, where the precautions prove to be insufficient.
6. FITTINGS
Elbows are responsible for a large percentage of the pressure drop in the piping system. With
equal velocities the magnitude of this pressure drop depends upon the sharpness of the turn. Long
radius rather than short radius elbows are recommended wherever possible.
When laying out offsets, 45 ells are recommended over 90 ells wherever possible. See Figure 1
Tees should be installed to prevent “bullheading” as illustrated in Figure 2. “Bullheading” causes
turbulence which adds greatly to the pressure drop and may also introduce hammering in the line. If
more than one tee is installed in the line, a straight length of 10 pipe diameters between tees is
recommended. This is done to reduce unnecessary turbulence.
 To facilitate erection and servicing, unions and flanges are included in the piping system. They
are installed where equipment and piping accessories must be removed for servicing.
7. GENERAL PURPOSE VALVES
An important consideration in the design of the piping system is the selection of valves that give
proper performance, long life and low maintenance.
The design, construction and material of the valve determine whether or not it is suited for the
particular application. Table 9 is for quick reference in selecting a valve for a particular application.
There are six basic valves which are commonly used in piping systems. These are gate, globe, check,
angle, “Y” and plug cock.
 Each valve has a definite purpose in the control of fluids in the system.
Before discussing the various valve types, the construction details that are similar in all of the
valves are presented. These construction details are made available to familiarize the engineer with
the various aspects of valve selection.

8. VALVE CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

8.1 Bonnet and Body Connections
The bonnet and body connections are normally made in five different designs, namely threaded,
union, bolted, welded and pressure – seal. Each design has its own particular use and
advantage.
a. Threaded bonnets are recommended for low pressure service. They should not be used in a
piping system where there may be frequent dismantling and reassembly of the valve, or
where vibration, shock, and other server conditions may strain and distort the valve body.
Threaded bonnets are economical and very compact. Figure 3 illustrates a threaded or
screwed – in bonnet and body connection in an angle valve.

b. Union bonnet and body constructions illustrated in Figure 4.This type of bonnet is normally
not made in size above 2 in. because it would require an extremely large wrench to
dismantle. A union bonnet connection makes a sturdy, tight joint and in easily dismantled
and reassembled.
c. Bolted bonnets are used on practically all large size valves; they are also available for small
sizes. This type of joint is readily taken apart of reassembled. The bolted bonnet is practical
for high working pressure and is of rugged, sturdy construction. Figure 5 is a gate valve
illustrating a typical bolted bonnet and body valve construction.
d. Welded bonnets are used on small size steel valves only, and then usually for high pressure,
high temperature steam service (Figure 6) . Welded bonnet construction is difficult to
dismantle and reassemble. For the reason these valves are not available in larger sizes.

e. Pressure – seal bonnets are for high temperature steam. Figure 7 illustrates a pressure –
seal bonnet and body construction used on a gate valve. Internal pressure keeps the bonnet
joint tight. This type of bonnet construction simplifies “making” and “breaking” the bonnet
joint in large high pressure valves.
8.2 Valve stem operation
In most applications the type of stem operation does not affect fluid control. However, stem
construction may be important where the need for indication of valve position is required or
where head room is critical. There are four types of stem construction: rising stem with outside
screw ; rising stem with inside screw ; non – rising stem with inside screw ; and sliding stem (
quick opening).
a. Rising stem with outside screw is shown in Figure 5. The gate valve illustrated in this figure
has the stem threads outside of the valve body in both the open and closed position. Stem
threads are, therefore, Rising.
b. Stem with inside screw is probably the most common type found in the smaller size valves.
This type of stem is illustrated in an angle valve in Figure 3, and in a globe valve in Figure 4.
The stem turns and rises on threads inside the valve body. The position of the stem also
indicates position of the valve disc. The stem extends beyond the bonnet when the valve is
open and, therefore, requires more headroom. In addition it is subject to damage.
c. Non – rising stem with inside screw is generally used on gate valves. It is undesirable for use
with fluids that may corrode or erode the threads since the stem is in the path of flow.
Figure 8 shows a gate valve that has a non – rising stem with the threads inside the valve
body. The non – rising stem feature makes the valve ideally suited to applications where
headroom is limited. Also, the stem cannot be easily damaged. The valve disc position is not
indicated with this stem.

d. Sliding stem (quick opening) is useful where quick opening and closing is desirable. A lever
and sliding stem is used which is used which is suitable for both manual or power operation
as illustrated in Figure 9. The handwheel and stem threads are eliminated.
8.3 Pipe Ends and Valve Connections
It is important to specify the proper end connection for valves and fittings. There are six
standard methods of joints available. These are screwed, welded, brazed, soldered, flared, and
flanged ends, and are described in the following:
a. Screwed ends are widely used and are suited for all pressures. To remove screwed end
valves and fittings from the line, extra fittings (unions) are required to avoid dismantling a
considerable portion of the piping. Screwed end connections are normally confined to
smaller pipe sizes since it is more difficult to make up the screwed joint on large pipe sizes.
Figure 4 is a globe valve with screwed ends that connect to pipe or other fittings.
b. Welded ends are available for steel pipe, fittings, and valves. They are used widely for all
fitting connections, but for valves they are used mainly for high temperature and high
pressure services. They are also used where a tight, leak – proof connection is required over
a long period of time. The welded ends are available in two designs, butt weld or socket
weld. Butt weld valves and fittings come in all sizes; socket weld ends are usually limited to
the smaller size valves and fittings. Figure 7 illustrates a gate valve with ends suitable for
welding.
c. Brazed ends are designed for brazing alloys. This type of joint is similar to the solder joint
but can withstand higher temperature service because of the higher melting point of the
brazing alloy. Brazing joints are used principally on brass valves and fittings.
d. Soldered ends for valve and fitting are restricted to copper pipe and also for low pressure
service. The use of type of joint for high temperature service is limited because of the low
melting point of the solder.
e. Flared end connections for valves and fittings are commonly used on metal and plastic
tubing. This type of connection is limited to pipe sizes up to 2 in. Flared connections have
the advantage of being easily removed from the piping system at any time.
f. Flanged ends are higher in first cost than any of the other end connections. The installation
cost is also greater because companion flanges, gaskets, nuts and bolts must be provided
 and installed. Flanged end connections, although made in small sizes, are generally used in
larger size piping because they are easy to assemble and take down. It is very important to
have matching flange facing for valves and fittings. Some of the common flange facings are
plain face, raised face, male and female joint, tongue and groove joint, and a ring joint.
Flange facings should never be mixed in making up a joint. Figure 5 illustrates a gate valve
with a flanged end.
9. GATE VALVES
A gate valve is intended for use as a stop valve. It gives the best service when used in the fully
open or closed position. Figures 5 and 7 thru 11 are typical gate valves commonly used in piping
practice.
An important feature of the gate valve is that there is less obstruction and turbulence within the
valve and, therefore, a correspondingly lower pressure drop than other valves. With the valve wide
open, the wedge or disc is lifted entirely out of the fluid stream, thus providing a straight flow area
thru the valve.
9.1 Disc Construction
Gate valves should not be used for throttling flow except in an emergency. They are not
designed for this type of service and consequently it is difficult to control flow with any degree
of accuracy. Vibration and chattering of the disc occurs when the valve is used for throttling.
This results in damage to the seating surface. Also, the lower edge of the disc may be subject to
severe wire drawing effects. The wedge of disc in the gate valve is available in several forms:
solid wedge, split wedge , flexible wedge, and double disc parallel seat. These are described in
the following:
a. Solid wedge disc is the most common type. It has a strong, simple design and only one part.
This type of disc is shown in Figures. 5 and 8 . It can be installed in any position without
danger of jamming or misalignment of parts. It is satisfactory for all types of service except
where the possibilities of extreme temperature changes exist. Under this condition it is
subject to sticking.
b. Split wedge disc is designed to prevent sticking, but it is subject to undesirable vibration
intensity. Figure 10 is a typical illustration of this type of disc.
 c. Flexible wedge disc construction is illustrated in Figure 7 which is primarily used for high
temperature, high pressure application and where extreme temperature changes are likely
to occur. It is solid in the center portion and flexible around the outer edge. This design
helps to eliminate sticking and permits the disc to open easily under all conditions.
d. Double disc parallel seat (Fig. 11) has an internal wedge between parallel discs. Wedge
action damage at the seats is minimized and transferred to the internal wedge where
reasonable wear does not prevent tight closure.

10. GLOBE, ANGLE AND “ Y ” VALVES

These three valves are of thee same basic design, use and construction. They are primarily
intended for throttling service and give close regulation of flow. The method of valve seating
reduces wire drawing and seat erosion which is prevalent in gate valves when used for throttling
service.
The angle or “Y” valve pattern is recommended for full flow service since it has a substantially
lower pressure drop at this condition than the globe valve. Another advantage of the angle valve is
that it can be located to replace an elbow, thus eliminating one fitting.
Figure 4, is a typical illustration of a globe valve, and Figure 3, shows an angle valve. The “Y”
valve is illustrated in Figure 12.
 Globe, angle and “Y” valves can be opened or closed substantially faster than a gate valve
because of the shorter lift of the disc. When the valves are to be operated frequently of
continuously, the globe valve provides the more convenient operation. The seating surfaces of the
globe, angle or “Y” valve are less subject to wear and the discs and seats are more easily replaced
than on the gate valve.
10.1 Disc Construction
There are several different disc and seating arrangements for globe, angle and “Y”
valves, each of which has its own use and advantage. The different types are plug disc,
narrow seat ( or conventional disc ), needle valve, and composition disc.
a. The plug disc has a wide bearing surface on a long, tapered disc and matching seat. This
type of construction offers the greatest resistance to the cutting effects of dirt, scale
and other foreign matter. The plug type disc is ideal for the toughest flow control
service such as throttling, drip and drain lines, blow – off , and boiler feed lines., It is
available in a wide variety of pressure temperature ranges. Figure 4, shows a plug disc
seating arrangement in a globe valve.
b. Narrow seat ( or conventional disc ) is illustrated in an angle valve in Figure 3. This type
of disc does not resist wire drawing or erosion in closely throttled high velocity flow. It is
also subject to erosion from hard particles. The narrow seat disc design is not applicable
for close throttling.
c. Needle valves, sometimes referred to as expansion valves, are designed to give fine
control of flow in small diameter piping. The disc is normally an integral part of the stem
and has a sharp point which fits into the reduced area seat opening. Figure 13 is an
angle valve with a needle type seating arrangement.
 d. Composition disc is adaptable to many services by simply changing the material of the
disc. It has the advantage of being able to seat tight with less power than the metal type
discs. It is also less likely to be damaged by dirt or foreign material than the metal disc. A
composition disc is suitable to all moderate pressure services but not for close
regulation and throttling. Figure 12 shows a composition disc in a “Y” valve. This type of
seating design is also illustrated in Figure 16 in a swing check valve and in Figure 17 in a
lift check valve.
11. PLUG COCKS
Plug cocks are primarily used for balancing in a piping system not subject to frequent changes in
flow. They are normally less expensive than globe type valves and the setting cannot be tampered
with as easily as a globe valve.
Plug cocks have approximately the same line loss as a gate valve when in the fully open position.
When partially closed for balancing, thus line loss increases substantially. Fig. 14 is a lubricated type
plug valve.
12. REFRIGERANT VALVES
Refrigerant valves are back – seating globe valves of either the packed or diaphragm packless
type. The packed valves are available with either a hand wheel or a wing type seal cap. The wing
type seal cap is preferable since it provides the safety of an additional seal.
Where frequent operation of the valve is required, the diaphragm packless type is used. The
diaphragm acts as a seal and is illustrated in the “Y” valve construction in Fig. 15 . The refrigerant
valve is available in sizes up to 1 5/8 in OD. For larger sizes the seal cap type packed valve is used.

13. CHECK VALVES

There are two basic designs of check valves, the swing check and the lift check.
The swing check valve may be used in a horizontal or a vertical line for upward flow. A typical
swing check valve is illustrated in Figure 16. The flow thru the swing check is in a straight line and
without restriction at the seat. Swing checks are generally used in combination with gate valves.

The lift check operates in a manner similar to that of a globe valve and, like the globe valve, its
flow is restricted as illustrated in Figure 17. The disc is seated by backflow or by gravity when there
is no flow, and is free to rise and fall, depending on the pressure under it. The lift check should only
be installed in horizontal pipe lines and usually in combination with globe, angle and “Y” valves.
14. SPECIAL SERVICE VALVES
There are several types of valves commonly used in different piping applications that do not
necessarily fall into the classification of general purpose valves. Expansion, relief, and solenoid
valves are some of the more common special purpose valves.
A relief valve is held closed by a spring or some the line or container pressure in excess of its
setting. In general a relief valve should be installed wherever there is any danger of the fluid
pressure rising above the design working pressure of the pipe fittings or pressure vessels.

- End -
 5.2 Water Piping

1. Introduction
There are many different types of piping systems used with HVAC components, and there are
many specially items and refinements that make up these systems. The main thrust of the discussion
to follow is to develop methods for the design of basic piping systems used to distribute hot and
chilled water.

2. Open-loop System
A typical open-loop piping system is shown in Fig. 10-20. Characteristically an open-loop system
will have some part of the circuit open to the atmosphere. The cooling tower of Fig. 10-18 shows the
usual valves, filters, and fittings installed in this type of circuit. It is important to protect the pump
with a filter. The isolation valves provide for maintenance without complete drainage of the system,
whereas a ball or plug valve should be provided at the pump outlet for adjustment of the flow rate.
Expansion joints and a rigid base support, to isolate the pump.

3. Closed-loop System
A closed-loop system has no more than one interface with a compressible gas or flexible surface
such as an open or closed expansion tank. There is no motivation of flow by static head in a closed
system and the entire system is filled with liquid. Figure 10-19 shows the fundamental component
of a closed hydronic system. There are two main groups of components: thermal and hydraulic. The
thermal components are the source, chiller or boiler, the load, cooling or heating coils, and the
expansion tank. The hydraulic components are the distribution system, the pump, and the
expansion tank. The expansion tank serves both the thermal and hydraulic functions. Actual systems
will have additional components such as isolation and control valves, flow meters, expansion joints,
pump and pipe supports.
4. Pipe Sizing Criteria
Piping systems often pass through or near occupies spaces where noise generated by the
flowing fluid may be objectionable. Therefore, a velocity limit of 4 ft/sec or 1.2 m/s for 2 in. pipe and
smaller is generally imposed. For larger sizes a limit on the head loss of 4 ft per 100 ft of pipe is
imposed. This corresponds to about 0.4 kPa/m in SI units. These criteria should not be treated as
hard rules but rather as guides. Noise is caused by entrained air, locations where abrupt pressure
drops occur, and turbulence in general. Open systems such as cooling tower circuits are usually
remote from occupied spaces. Therefore, somewhat higher velocities may be used in such a case. A
reasonable effort to design a balanced system will prevent drastic valve adjustments and will
contribute to a quieter system.
The piping layout for a heating and air-conditioning system depends on the location of the
central and terminal equipment and the type of system to be used. All of the piping may be located
in the central equipment room, or piping may run throughout the building to terminal units in every
room. In the latter case the available space may be a controlling factor. Piping for domestic hot and
cold water, sewage, and other services must be provided in addition to the heating and air-
conditioning requirements. The designer must check to make sure the piping will fit into the allowed
space.

5. Pipe Sizing
After the piping layout has been complete, the problem of sizing the pipe consists mostly of
applying the design criteria discussed before. Where possible the pipes should be sized so that
drastic valve adjustments are not required. Often an ingenious layout helps in this respect. The
system and pump characteristics are useful in the design process.
To facilitate pipe sizing and computation of head loss, charts such as those shown in Figs. 10-20
and 10-21 for pipe and copper tubing have been developed.
 These figures are based on 60 F (16 C) water and give head losses that are about 10 percent high
for hot water. Examination of Figs. 10-20 and 10-21 shows that the head loss may be obtained
directly from the flow rate and nominal pipe size or from flow rate and water velocity. When the
head loss and flow rate are specified, a pipe size and velocity may be obtained.
Pipe fittings and valves also introduce losses in head. These losses are usually allowed for by use
of a resistance coefficient K, which is the number of velocity heads lost because of the valve or
fitting. Thus.
V2
lf = K
2g
Comparing this for the lost head for incompressible flow in pipes which is
L V2
lf = f
D 2g
It can be seen that
L
K=f
D
The ratio L/D is the equivalent length, in pipe diameters, of straight pipe that will cause the same
pressure drop as the valve or fitting under the same flow conditions.

This is a convenient concept to use when one is computing head loss in a piping system.
Representative values of resistance coefficients for some common valves and fittings are given in
Fig. 10-22a. Conversion between K, L/D, and L can be obtained for various pipe sizes by the use of
Fig. 10-22b, using the nominal pipe size. The equivalent length in meters may then be determined
using the inside diameter D in meters. The lost head for a given length of pipe of constant diameter
and containing fittings is computed as the product of the lost head per unit length from Fig. 10-20
and 10-21 and the total equivalent length of the pipe and fittings.
Example No. 1
Compute the lost head for a 150-ft run of standard pipe, having a diameter of 3 in. The pipe run has
three standard 90 degree elbows, a globe valve, and a gate valve. One hundred gpm of water flows
in the pipe.
Given:
150-ft of standard pipe, 3 in nominal dia., three 90 degree elbows, a globe valve, and a gate valve.
Flow = 100 gpm of water.
Required:
Lost head
Solution:
The equivalent length of the various fittings will first be determined by using Figurs. 10-22a and 10-
22b.

Globe valve: K1 = 340ft, ft = 0.018 (Fig. 10-22a and Table 10-2)

K1 = 340(0.018) = 6.1
L = 87 ft (Fig. 10-22b)
Or L can be computed from
L
K=f
D
With D = 3.068 in inside diameter
 (340 f ) 3.068 
L=
KD
=  12  = 87 ft
f f
Elbow: K = 30 ft, ft = 0.018
K = 30(0.018) = 0.54
L = 8 ft
Or L can be computed from
L
K=f
D
With D = 3.068 in inside diameter
(30 f ) 3.068 
L=
KD
=  12  = 8 ft
f f
Gate valve: K = 8 ft, ft = 0.018
K = 8(0.018) = 0.14
L = 2 ft
Or L can be computed from
L
K=f
D
With D = 3.068 in inside diameter
(8 f ) 3.068 
L=
KD
=  12  = 2 ft
f f
The total equivalent length is then
Actual length of pipe 150 ft
One globe valve 87 ft
Three elbows 24 ft
One gate valve 2 ft
Total 263 ft

From Fig. 10-20 the lost head l’f is 2.3 ft per 100 ft of length, or
l’f = 2.3 x 10-2 ft/ft of length
The lost head for the complete pipe run is then given by
lf = Lel’f = (262)(2.3 x 10-2) = 6.0 ft

The lost head for control valves, check valves, strainers, and other such devices is often given in
terms of a coefficient Cv. The coefficient is numerically equal to the flow rate of water at 60 F in
gpm, which will give a pressure loss of 1 lbf/in2. (2.31 ft of water). Because the head loss is
proportional to the square of the velocity, the pressure loss or lost head may be computed at other
flow rates:
l f 1  Q1 
2

= 
l f 2  Q 2 
In terms of the coefficient Cv.
  Q 
2

l f = 2.31 
 Cv 
where Q and Cv are both in gpm and lf is in feet of water.
It may be shown that the flow rate of any fluid is given by
 P (62.4) 
12

Q = C v  
  
where P is in lbf/in and  is in lbm/ft3.
2

There is a relationship between Cv and the resistance coefficient K. We can show that
0.208D 2
Cv =
K
where D is in feet. In SI units a flow coefficient Cvs is defined as the flow rate of water at 15 C in m3/s
with a pressure loss of 1 kPa given by
1.11D 2
C vs =
K
where D is in meters.

Example No. 2
A strainer has a Cv rating of 60. It is to be used in a system to filter 50 gpm of water. What head loss
can be expected?
Given
Cv = 60
Q = 50 gpm
Required:
Head loss.
Solution:
2
 50 
l f = 2.31  = 1.6 ft of water
 60 

Heating and cooling units and terminal devices usually have head-loss information furnished by
the manufacturer. The head loss is often used to indicate the flow rate for the adjustment of the
system.
There is no one set procedure for pipe sizing. The following example will demonstrate some
approaches to the problem.

Example No. 3
Figure10-23 shows a two-pipe water system such as might be found in a central equipment room.
The terminal units a, b, and c are air-handling units that contain air-to-water finned tube heat
exchangers. An actual system would probably contain both a heater and a chiller: only one or the
other is to be considered here. Size the piping and specify the pumping requirements.
Figure 10-23

Given:
Figure 10-23

Required:

Size of the piping and pumping requirement

Solution:

The first step is to select criteria for sizing of the pipe. Because the complete system is confined to a
central equipment room, the velocity and head loss criteria may be relaxed somewhat. Let the
maximum velocity be 5 ft/sec and the maximum head loss be about 7 ft per 100 ft in the main run.
Somewhat higher values may be used in the parallel circuits. By using Fig. 10-20 we select pipe sizes
as follows. The equivalent lengths for fittings, Lf, are assumed values for this example. As the various
sections are sized it is helpful to create Table 10-3.
 Table 10-3 Sizing of Pipes for Example 3.
Pipe Flow Nominal Fluid Lost Pipe Fittings Total Total
Section Rate, Size, in. Velocity, Head Length, Equiv. Length, Lost
No. gpm ft/sec per/ 100 ft Length, ft Head, ft
ft, ft
ft/100 ft
8-1 60 2½ 4.0 2.6 55 20 75 1.9
2-3 60 2½ 4.0 2.6 35 30 65 1.7
3-4 30 1½ 4.8 6.5 10 5 15 1.0
7-8 30 1½ 4.8 6.5 10 5 15 1.0
4-5 10 1 3.8 6.5 10 18 28 1.8
6-7 10 1 3.8 6.5 16 16 32 2.1
4-7 20 1¼ 4.0 6.2 6 39 45 2.8
3-8 30 1½ 4.8 6.5 6 34 40 2.6
Chiller 60 14.0
Unit a 30 15.0
Unit b 20 10.0
Unit c 10 10.0

The lost head for the three parallel circuits that begin at 3 and end at 8 may now be determined
from the data in the table.
Hc = l34 + l45 + lc + l67 + l78
Hc = 1.0 + 1.8 + 10.0 + 2.1 + 1.0 = 15.9 ft
Hb = l34 + l45 + lb + l78
Hb = 1.0 + 2.8 +10.0 +1.0 = 14.8 ft
Ha = l38 + la = 2.6 + 15.0 = 17.6 ft

At this point notice that the three parallel paths have different lost heads, with the specified flow
rate for each coil. In order to balance out the required flow rates, paths b and c require some
adjustment by a balancing valve to increase their lost head to that for path a, 17.6 ft. Each coil will
then have the specified flow rate. Now the required pump head may be estimated by adding the
parallel circuits to section 8-1, the chiller, and section 2-3:
Hp = l81 + lch + l23 + l38 + la
Hp = 1.9 + 14.0 + 1.7 + 2.6 +15.0 = 35.2 ft
The pump may then be specified to produce 60 gpm at about 35 ft of head.

6. The Expansion Tank

The expansion tank is a much more important element of a piping system than generally
assumed. The expansion tank provides for changes in volume, may be part of the air-elimination
system, and establishes a point of constant pressure in the system. This last purpose is very
important. A point of constant pressure is necessary to establish the pressure at other points of the
closed-loop system; otherwise the system would be like an electrical circuit without a ground. One
rule can be stated that has no exceptions. A system, no matter how large or complex, must have
only one expansion tank.
Sizing of the expansion tank is important and depends on the total volume of the system, the
maximum and minimum system requires and temperatures, the piping material, the type of tank,
and how it is installed. Expansion tanks are of two types. The first type is simply a tank where air is
compressed above the free liquid-air-interface by system pressure. The second type has a balloon
like bladder within the tank that contains the air. The bladder does not fill the complete tank and is
inflated, prior to filling the system, to the pressure setting of the makeup water pressure regulator.
Either type can be used in hot or chilled water systems; however, the first type is usually used in hot
water systems because it provides a convenient place for air to collect when released from the
heated water in the boiler. The second, bladder type is usually applied with chilled water systems
because cold water tends to absorb the air in the free surface type of tank and release it elsewhere
in the system, where it is removed. This process may eventually lead to a waterlogged system where
no compressible volume exists. Drastic structural damage can occur with a water-logged system.
Relations may be derived for sizing of the expansion tanks by assuming that the air behaves as
an ideal gas. The type of tank and the way it is employed in the system then influence the results.
Consider the free liquid-air interface type where the water in the tank always remains at its initial
temperature (uninsulated and connected by a small pipe); the expansion and compression of the air
in the tank is isothermal; and the air in the tank is initially at atmospheric pressure. The resulting
relation for the tank volume is
 v 
Vw  2 − 1 − 3t
 v1 
VT = 
Pa Pa
−
P1 P2
where:
VT = expansion tank volume, ft3 or m3
Vw = volume of water in the system, ft3 or m3
Pa = local barometric pressure, psia or kPa
P1 = pressure at lower temperature, t1 (regulated system pressure), psia or kPa
P2 = pressure at higher temperature, t2 (some maximum acceptable pressure), psia or kPa
t1 = lower temperature (initial fill temperature for hot water system or operating temperature
for chilled water system, F or C
t2 = higher temperature (some maximum temperature for both hot and chilled water systems), F
or C
v1 = specific volume of water at t1, ft3/lbm or m3/kg
v2 = specific volume of water at t2, ft3/lbm or m3/kg
 = linear coefficient of thermal expansions for the piping, F-1 or C-1; 6.5 x 10-6 F-1 (11.7 x 19-6
C-1) for steel pipe, and 9.3 x 10-6 F-1 (16.74 x 10-6 C-1) for copper pipe
t = higher temperature minus the lower temperature, F or C

If the initial air charge in the tank is not compressed from atmospheric pressure but rather is forced
into the tank at the design operating pressure, as with a bladder-type tank, and then expands or
compress isothermally, the following relation results:
  v 
Vw  2 − 1 − 3t
 v1 
VT = 
P
1− 1
P2
where the variables are as defined.

Example No. 4
Compute the expansion tank volume for a chilled water system that contains 2000 gal of water. The
system is regulated to 10 psig at the tank with an operating temperature of 45 F. It is estimated that
the maximum water temperature during extended shutdown would be 100 F and a safety relief
valve in the system is set for 35 psig. Assume standard barometric pressure and steel pipe.
Given:
System volume = 2000 gal = Vw
P1 = 10 + 14.696 = 24.696 psia
P2 = 35 + 14.696 = 49.696 psia
Operating temperature = 45 F
Maximum temperature = 100 F
Pa = 14.696 psia
Steel pipe
Required:
Volume of expansion tank
Solution:
A bladder type would be the best choice; however, calculations will be made for both types.
At 100 F, v2 = 0.01613 ft3/lbm
At 45 F, v1 = 0.01602 ft3/lbm

For free liquid-air interface type tank

 v 
Vw  2 − 1 − 3t
 v1 
VTF = 
Pa Pa
−
P1 P2
 0.01613 
2000 ( )
− 1 − 3 6.5 10 −6 (100 − 45)
 0.01602 
VTF =
14.696 14.696
−
24.696 49.693
VTF = 38.7 gal = 5.2 ft 3

For bladder-type tank

 v 
Vw  2 − 1 − 3t
 v1 
VTB = 
P
1− 1
P2
  0.01613 
2000 ( )
− 1 − 3 6.5 10 −6 (100 − 45)
VTB =  0.01602 
24.696
1−
49.693
VTB = 23.0 gal = 3.1 ft 3

Note that the volume of the bladder-type tank is less than the free-surface type. This is an
advantage in large systems.

7. Air Elimination
Air is a source of problems in closed-circuit liquid-circulation systems; therefore, measures must
be taken to eliminate it. The primary source of air is from dissolved gases in the makeup water to
the system. The amount of air that can be dissolved in water depends on the pressure and
temperature of the water.
7.1 Hot Water Systems
Air elimination devices such as the vortex type must be installed in the circulating part of the
system. Therefore, when the compression tank and system makeup is piped as shown in Figure
10-26a (connected to the boiler air vent), the air elimination device should be installed
downstream of the boiler dip tube and upstream of the pump. When the compression tank and
makeup water are connected to the boiler discharge, the air elimination device may be
incorporated in the assembly as shown in Figure 10-26b.
7.2 Chilled Water Systems
Air elimination will generally be incorporated with the compression tank and makeup water
system in this case, and will usually be upstream of a pump, where the pressure is lowest.
Diaphragm-type-compression tanks are usually used in chilled water systems; therefore, the air
elimination device is the only way of removing air from the system (Figure 10-26c).
- End -
 5.3 Refrigerant Piping

1. APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
A refrigerant piping system requires the same general design considerations as any fluid flow
system. However, there are additional factors that critically influence system design:
1.1 The system must be designed for minimum pressure drop since pressure losses decrease the
thermal capacity and increase the power requirement in a refrigeration system.
1.2 The fluid being piped changes in state as it circulates.
1.3 Since lubricating oil is miscible with Refrigerants 12, 22, 500 and 502, some provision must be
made to:
1.3.1 Minimize the accumulation of liquid refrigerant in the compressor crankcase.
1.3.2 Return oil to the compressor at the same rate at which it leaves.

2. CODE REGULATIONS
System design should conform to all codes, laws and regulations applying at the site of an
installation.
In addition the Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration (USAA-B9.1) and the Code for
Refrigeration Piping (USAS-B31.5) are primarily drawn up as guides to safe practice and should also
be adhered to. These two codes, as they apply to refrigeration, are almost identical, and are the
basis of most municipal and state codes.

3. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
3.1 Objectives
Refrigerant piping systems must be designed to accomplish the following:
3.1.1 Insure proper feed to evaporators.
3.1.2 Provide practical line sizes without excessive pressure drop.
3.1.3 Protect compressors by –
3.1.3.1 Preventing excessive lubricating oil from being trapped in the system.
3.1.3.2 Minimizing the loss of lubricating oil from the compressor at all times.
3.1.3.3 Preventing liquid refrigerant from entering the compressor during operation
and shutdown.

3.2 Friction Loss and Oil Return

In sizing refrigerant lines it is necessary to consider the optimum size with respect to
economics, friction loss and oil return. From a cost standpoint it is desirable to select the line
size as small as possible. Care must be taken, however, to select a line size that does not cause
excessive suction and discharge line pressure drop since this may result in loss of compressor
capacity and excessive hp/ton. Too small a line size may also cause excessive liquid line pressure
drop. This can result in flashing of liquid refrigerant which causes faulty expansion valve
operation.
The effect of excessive suction and Hot gas line pressure drop on compressor capacity and
horse power is illustrated in Table 16.
 Pressure drop is kept to a minimum by optimum sizing of the lines with respect to
economics, making sure that refrigerant line velocities are sufficient to entrain and carry oil
along at all loading conditions. For Refrigerants 12, 22, 500 and 502, consider the requirements
for oil return up vertical risers.
Pressure drop in liquid lines is not as critical as in suction and discharge lines. However, the
pressure drop should not be so excessive as to cause gas formation in the liquid line or
insufficient liquid pressure at the liquid feed device. A system should normally be designed so
that the pressure drop in the liquid line is not greater than one to two degrees change in
saturation temperature. In terms of pressure drop, this corresponds to about 1.8 to 3.8 psi for R-
12, 2.9 to 6 psi for R-22, 2.2 to 4.6 psi for R-500 and 3.1 to 6.3 psi for R-502.
Friction pressure drop in the liquid line includes accessories such as solenoid valve, strainer,
drier and hand valves, as well as the actual pipe and fittings from the receiver outlet to the
refrigerant feed device at the evaporator.
Pressure drop in the suction line means a loss in system capacity because it forces the
compressor to operate at a lower suction pressure to maintain the desired evaporator
temperature. Standard practice is to size the suction line for a pressure drop of approximately
two degrees charge in saturation temperature. In terms of pressure loss at 40 F suction
temperature, this corresponds to about 1.8 psi for R-12, 2.9 psi for R-22, 2.2 psi for R-500, and
3.1 psi for R-502.
Where a reduction in pipe size is necessary to provide sufficient gas velocity to entrain oil
upward in vertical risers at partial loads, a greater pressure drop is imposed at full load. To keep
the total pressure drop within the desired limit, excessive riser loss can be offset by properly
sizing the horizontal and “down” lines.
It is important to minimize the pressure loss in hot gas lines because these losses can
increase the required compressor horsepower and decrease the compressor capacity. It is usual
practice not to exceed a pressure drop corresponding to one to two degrees change in
saturation temperature. This is equal to about 1.8 to 3.8 psi for R - 12 , 2.9 to 6 psi for R – 22 ,
2.2 to 4.6 psi for R – 500, and 3.1 to 6.3 psi for R – 502.

4. REFRIGERANT PIPE SIZING

Charts 7 thru 21 are used to select the proper steel pipe and copper tubing size for the
refrigeration lines. They are based on the Darcy – Weisbach formula :
L V2
h= f
D 2g

where h = loss of head in feet of fluid

 f = friction factor
L = length of pipe in feet
D = diameter of pipe in feet
V = velocity in fps
g = acceleration of gravity = 32.17 ft /sec/sec
The friction factor depends on the roughness of pipe surface and the Reynolds number of the
fluid. In this case the Reynolds number and the Moody chart are used to determine the friction
factor.
5. Use of Pipe Sizing Charts
The following procedure for sizing refrigerant piping is recommended:
a. Measure the length in feet ) of straight pipe.
b. Add 50 % to obtain a trail total equivalent length.
c. If other than a rated friction loss is desired, multiply the total equivalent length by the
correction factor from the table following the appropriate pipe or tubing size chart.
d. If necessary, correct for suction and condensing temperatures.
e. Read pipe size from Charts 7 thru 21 to determine size of fittings.
f. Find equivalent length (in feet) of fittings and hand valves from Table 11.2 and add to the length
of straight pipe (step a ) to obtain the total equivalent length.
g. Correct as in Steps c and d of necessary.
h. Check Pipe size.

In some cases, particularly in liquid and suction lines, it may be necessary to find the actual pressure
drop. To do this, use the procedure described in Steps i thru k :

i. Convert the friction drop (F from Step c) to psi, using refrigerant tables.
j. Find the pressure drop thru automatic valves and accessories from manufacturers’ catalogs. If
these are given in equivalent feet, change to psi by multiplying by the ratio: Step (i) / Step(f).
k. Add Steps i and j.

In systems in which automatic valves and accessories may create a relatively high pressure drop,
the line size can be increased to minimize their effect on the system.
Example No. 1 – Use of Pipe Sizing Charts
Given:
Refrigerant 12 system
Load – 46 tons
Equivalent length of piping – 65 ft
Saturated suction – 30 F
Condensing temperature – 100 F , no subcooling
Type L copper tubing
Find:
Suction line size for pressure drop corresponding to 2 F.
Actual pressure drop in terms of degrees F for size
selected.
Solution:
See Chart 7.
a. Line size for 40 F saturated suction and 105 F condensing temperature are shown on Chart 7.
Determine the correction factor for a 30 F suction temperature of 1.18 from table in note
following Chart 9.
b. Determine adjusted tons to be used in Chart 7 by multiplying correction factor in Step 1 by load
in tons: 1.18 x 46 = 55 tons
c. Enter Chart 7 and project upward from 55 tons, to the 0oF subcooling line of a 2 5/8 in OD pipe
size, then to a 31/8 in. OD pipe size. At 25/8 in. OD, a 2 F drop is obtained with 34 ft of pipe; at 3
 1/8 in. OD a 2 F drop is obtained with 80 ft of pipe. Select a 31/8 in. OD pipe to obtain less than
a 2 F drop.
d. Use the following equation to determine actual pressure drop in terms of degrees F in the 3 1/8
in. OD pipe with a 46 ton load:
Actual pressure drop
equivalent ft of pipe
= 2F
piping allowed for 2 F drop
65
=  2 F = 1.8 F
71

6. LIQUID LINE DESIGN

Refrigeration oil is sufficiently miscible with these refrigerants in the liquid phase to insure
adequate mixing and oil return. Therefore low liquid velocities and traps in liquid lines do not pose
oil return problems.
The amount of liquid line pressure drop which can be tolerated is dependent on the number of
degrees subcooling of the liquid. Usually this amounts to 5 F to 15 F as the liquid leaves the
condenser. Liquid lines should not be sized for more than a F drop under normal circumstances. In
addition, liquid lines passing thru extremely warm spaces should be insulated.

7. Friction Drop and Static Head (Liquid Line)

With an appreciable friction drop and / or a static head due to elevation of the liquid metering
device above the condenser, It may be necessary to resort to some additional means of liquid
subcooling to prevent flashing in the liquid line. Increasing the liquid line pipe size minimizes pipe
friction and flashing due to friction drop.
In large systems where the cost is warranted, a liquid pump may be used to overcome static
head. An arrangement shown in Fig. 57 illustrate a method which may be used to overcome the
effect of excessive flash gas caused by a high static head in the system. This arrangement does not
prevent the forming of flash gas, but does offset the effect it might have on the operation of the
evaporator and valves.
8. Liquid Subcooling
Where liquid subcooling is required, it is usually accomplished by one or both of the following
arrangements:
a. A liquid suction heat interchanger (heat dissipates internally to suction gas).
b. Liquid subcooling coils in evaporative condensers and air – cooled condensers (heat dissipates
externally to atmosphere).

The amount of liquid subcooling required may be determined by use of a nomograph, Chart 22 or by
calculation.
 Example No. 2 – Liquid Subcooling From Nomograph
Given:
Refrigerant 12 system
Condensing temperature - 100 F (131.6 psia)
Liquid line pressure drop (incl. liquid lift) 29.9 psi
Find:
Amount of liquid subcooling in degrees F required to prevent flashing of liquid refrigerant.
Solution:
Use Chart 22.
1. Determine pressure at expansion valve: 131.6 – 29.9 = 101.7 psia
2. Draw line from point A (100 F cond temp) to point B (101.7 psia at expansion valve).
3. Draw line from point C (intersection of AB with line Z) thru point D (0% flash gas) to point E
(intersection of CD with liquid subcooling line).
4. Liquid subcooling at point E = 18 F. Liquid subcooling required to prevent liquid flashing = 18 F.

Example No. 3 – Liquid Subcooling by Calculation

Given:
Refrigerant 12 system
Condensing temperature – 100 F
Liquid lift – 35 ft
Piping friction loss – 3 psi
Losses thru valves and accessories – 7.4 psi
Find:
Amount of liquid subcooling required to prevent flashing of
liquid refrigerant.
Solution:
1. Pressure loss due to pipe friction = 3.0 psi
Pressure loss due to valves and accessories = 7.4 psi
Pressure loss due to 35 ft liquid lift = 35/1.8* = 19.5 psi
Total pressure loss in liquid line = 29.9 psi
2. Condensing pressure at 100 F = 116.9 psig
Pressure loss in liquid line = 29.9 psi
Net pressure at liquid feed valve = 87 psig
3. Saturation temperature at 87 psig = 82 F (from refrigerant property tables)
4. Subcooling required = condensing temp – saturation temp at 87 psig
= 100 – 82 = 18F
Liquid subcooling required to prevent liquid flashing = 18 F.
* At no.rmal liquid temperatures the static pressure loss due to elevation at the top of a liquid lift is
one psi for every 1.8 ft of Refrigerant 12, 2.0 ft of Refrigerant 22, and 2.1 ft of Refrigerant 500.

9. Sizing of Condenser to Receiver Lines(Condensate Lines)

Liquid line piping from a condenser to a receiver is run out horizontally (same size as the
condenser outlet connection) to allow for drainage of the condenser. It is then dropped vertically a
sufficient distance to allow a liquid head in the line to overcome line friction losses. Additional head
is required for coil condensers where the receiver is vented to the inlet of the coil. This additional
head is equivalent to the pressure drop across the condenser coil. The condenser line is than run
horizontally to the receiver.
 Table 17 shows recommended sizes of the condensate line between the bottom of the liquid leg
and the receiver.

10. SUCTION LINE DESIGN

Suction lines are the most critical from a design standpoint. The suction line must be designed to
return oil from the evaporator to the compressor under minimum load conditions.
Oil which leaves the compressor and readily passes thru the liquid supply lines to the
Evaporators is almost completely separated from the refrigerant vapor. In the evaporator a
distillation process occurs and continues until an equilibrium point is reached. The result is a mixture
of oil and refrigerant rich in liquid refrigerant. Therefore the mixture which is separated from the
refrigerant vapor can be returned to the compressor only by entrainment with the returning gas.
Oil entrainment with the return gas in a horizontal line is readily accomplished with normal
design velocities. Therefore horizontal lines can and should be run “dead “ level.

11. Suction risers

Most refrigeration piping systems contain a suction riser. Oil circulating in the system can be
returned up the riser only by entrainment with the returning gas. Oil returning up a riser creeps up
the inner surface of the pipe. Whether the oil moves up the inner surface is dependent upon the
mass velocity of the gas at the wall surface. The larger the pipe diameter, the greater the velocity
required at the center of the pipe to maintain a given velocity at the wall surface.
Table 18 Shows the minimum tonnages required to insure oil return in upward flow suction
risers. Vertical risers should, therefore, be given special analysis and should be sized for velocities
that assure oil return at minimum load. A riser selected on this basis may be smaller in diameter
than its branch or than the suction main proper and, therefore, a relatively higher pressure drop
may occur in the riser.
 This penalty should be taken into account in finding the total suction line pressure drop. The
horizontal lines should be sized to keep the total pressure drop within practical limits.
Because modern compressors have capacity reduction features, it is often difficult to maintain
the gas velocities required to return oil upward in vertical suction risers. When the suction riser is
sized to permit oil return at the minimum operating capacity of the system, the pressure drop in this
portion of the line may be too great when operating at full load. If a correctly sized suction riser
imposes too great a pressure drop at full load, a double suction riser should be used (Fig . 58).
12. Double Suction Risers
There are applications in which single suction risers may be sized for oil return at minimum load
without serious penalty at design load. Where single compressors with capacity control are used,
minimum capacity corresponds to the compressor capacity at its minimum displacement. The
maximum to minimum displacement ratio is usually three or four one, depending on compressor
size.
The compressor capacity at minimum displacement should be taken at an arbitrary figure of
approximately 20 F below the design suction temperature and 90 F liquid temperature and not the
design suction temperature for air conditioning applications.
Where multiple compressors are interconnected and controlled so that one or more may shut
down while another continues to operate, the ratio of maximum to minimum displacement
becomes much greater. In this case a double suction riser may be necessary for good operating
economy at design load. The sizing and operation of a double suction riser is described as follows:
a. In Fig. 58 the minimum load riser indicated by A is sized so that it returns oil at the minimum
possible load.
b. The second riser B which is usually larger than riser A is sized so that the parallel pressure drop
thru both risers at full load is satisfactory, providing this assures oil return at full load.
c. A trap is introduced between the two risers as shown in Fig. 58. During partial load operation
when the gas velocity is not sufficient to return oil through both risers, the trap gradually fills
with oil until the second riser B is sealed off. When this occurs, the gas travels up riser A only
and has enough velocity to carry oil along with it back into the horizontal suction main.

The fittings at the bottom of the riser must be close coupled so that the oil holding capacity of
the trap is limited to a minimum. If this is not done, the trap can accumulate enough oil on partial
load operation to seriously lower the compressor crankcase oil level. Also, larger slug – backs of oil
to the compressor occur when the trap clears out on increased load operation. Fig. 58 shows that
the larger riser B forms an inverted loop and enters the horizontal suction line form the top. The
purpose of this loop is to prevent oil drainage into this riser which may be “ idle “ during partial load
operation.
Example 4 – Determination of Riser Size – (Single Riser )
Given:
Refrigerant 502 system
Refrigeration load – 20.0 tons
Condensing temperature – 105 F, 15 F subcooling
Suction temperature – 0° F, 15 F superheat
Minimum load – 4 tons
(One of four cylinders operating at – 20 F sst, 15 F superheat, 90 F liquid temperature.)
Type L copper tubing
Height of riser -10 ft (see Fig. 58 A for general arrangement )
Allowable pressure drop in suction line is 2 F
Find:
Size of riser
Suction line pressure drop

Solution:
1. Estimated total equivalent length equals 1 ½ times the actual lineal length. 1.5 x 70 = 105 ft.
From Chart 10, a 25/8 in line will carry 20 tons for 165 ft at a pressure drop of 2 F with 15 F
subcooling.
2. The actual equivalent length of the suction line is determined in two parts, as follows:
a. Riser section at evaporator – 10 ft plus one 2 5/8 in.ell at 4.1 ft. = 14.1 ft.
b. Balance of suction line system 60 ft plus seven 2 5/8 in ells at 4.1 ft = 88.7 ft total equivalent
length = 102.8 ft.
3. From Table 18, R – 502, the minimum load for returning oil up a 2 5/8 in riser at - 20 F suction is
6.6 x 1.00 = 6.6 tons. This is greater than the minimum load. Thus, the riser must be sized at 2
1/8 in. which will return oil down to 3.8 x 1.00 = 3.8 tons.
4. Determine if the 2 1/8 in. riser is adequate to carry full load at 0º F suction without exceeding
the specified pressure drop. The equivalent length of the riser is : 10 ft + one 2 1/8 in. ell at 3.3 ft
= 13.3 ft. From chat 10, the 2 1/8 in. riser will carry 20 tons for 58 ft at a pressure drop of 2 F.
The loss in the riser for 13.3 ft:
13.3 ft
 2 F = 0.46 F
58.0 ft
The loss in the balance of the suction line:
88.7 ft
 2 F = 1.07 F
165 ft
The total loss = .46 + 1.07 = 1.53 F which is within the 2 F specified.
Example 4 A – Determination of Riser Size – (Double Riser )
Given:
Refrigerant 12 system
Refrigeration load – 98.5 tons
Condensing temperature – 105 F, no subcooling
Suction temperature – 40 F, 15 F superheat
Minimum load – 7.0 tons
(Two of 16 cylinders operating at 20 F SST,
15 F superheat, 105 F liquid temperature.)
Type L Copper tubing
Height of riser – 10 ft (See Fig. 58 A for general arrangement)
Allowable pressure drop in suction line is 2 F
Find:
Size of Riser
Suction line pressure drop
Solution:
1. Estimated total equivalent length equals 1 ½ times the actual lineal length 1.5 x 70 = 105 ft.
From Chart 7, a 4 1/8 in. line will carry 98.5 tons for 110 ft at a pressure drop of 2 F with no
subcooling.
2. The actual equivalent length of the suction line equals 70 ft plus eight 4 1/8 in. ells at 6.7 ft =
123.6 ft. This is greater than 110 ft which gives a 2 F loss for the 41/8 in. size. Therefore, select a
a pressure drop 2 F.
3. The actual equivalent length of the suction line is determined in two parts, as follows:
a. Riser section at evaporator – 10 ft + one 5 1/8 in. ell at 8.2 ft = 18.2 ft.
b. Balance of suction line system – 60 ft + seven 5 1/8 in. ell at 8.2 ft = 117.4 ft. Total
equivalent length = 135.6 ft.
4. From Table 18, R –12, a 2 1/8 in. riser will return oil when carrying 5.1 x .925 = 4.7 tons at 20 F
suction temperature.
5. Determine if the 2 1/8 in. riser is adequate to carry full load at 40 F suction without exceeding
the specified pressure drop. The equivalent length of the riser is 10 ft + one 21/8 in. ell at 3.3 ft =
13.3 ft. The pressure drop in the balance of the suction line is :
117.4 ft
 2 F = 0.69 F
340 ft
The pressure drop allowed for the riser is then 2 F - .69 F or 1.31 F. The chart equivalent length
of a 2 1/8 in. line having a pressure drop or 1.31 F is:
2F
13.3 ft = 20 ft
1.31 F
Chart 7 at 20 ft shows the a 2 1/8 in. line is only capable of carrying 42 tons. Thus a Second riser
is necessary.

6. Fig. 58B illustrates a recommended arrangement of double suction risers. Riser A size would be
the 21/8 in. selected in Step 4. Riser B must be sized by a “cut and try“ method. As a first trail,
size Riser B one size smaller than the selected suction line of 41/8 in. Equivalent lengths for
Risers A and B are as follows:
Equivalent pipe lengths
One 2 1/8 in. ell 3.3
One 2 1/8 in.branch tee 10.0
One 5 1/8 in.reducing tee 13.0
Actual pipe length 13.0
Total eguivalent length 39.3 ft
Riser B
Equivalent pipe lengths
Three 4 1/8 in. ells 20.1
One 5 1/8 in. reducing tee 12.0
One 4 1/8 in. branch tee 21.0
One 4 1/8 in. “U” 17.0
Actual pipe length 13.0
Total equivalent length 83.1 ft
Pressure drop available for the riser is 1.31 F from Step 5.

For Riser A, the chart equivalent length of a 21/8 in. line is:
2F
 39.3 ft = 60.0 ft
1.31 F
For Riser B, the chart equivalent length of a 41/8 in. line is:
2F
 83.1 ft = 127.0 ft
1.31 F
From Chart 7, the 2 1/8 in. line is capable of carrying 23 tons and the 41/8 in. line is capable of
carrying 92 tons. The combined capacity is 115 tons , which is acceptable. Riser pressure drop is
equal to:
98.5 tons
1.31 F = 1.12 F
115 tons
Total pressure drop = 1.12 F + .69 F = 1.81 F
13. DISCHARGE ( HOT GAS ) LINE DESIGN
The hot gas line should be sized for a practical pressure drop. The effect of pressure drop is shown in
Table 16.

14. Discharge Risers

Even though a low loss is desired in the hot gas line, the line should be sized so that refrigerant
gas velocities are able to carry along entrained oil. In the usual application this is not a problem,
However, where multiple compressors are used with capacity control, hot gas risers must be sized
to carry oil at minimum loading;
Table 19 shows the minimum tonnages required to insure oil return in upward flow discharge
risers. Friction drop in the risers in degrees F per 100 ft equivalent length is also included.

15. Double Discharge Risers

Sometimes in installations of multiple compressors having capacity control a vertical hot gas line
sized to entrain oil at minimum load has an excessive pressure drop at maximum load. In such a case
a double gas riser may be used in the same manner as it is used in suction line. Fig. 59 shows the
double riser principle applied to a hot gas line.
Sizing of double hot gas risers is made in the same manner as double suction risers described
earlier.
16. REFRIGERANT CHARGE
Table 20 is used to determine the piping system refrigerant charge required. The system charge
should be equal to the sum of the charges in the refrigerant lines, compressor, evaporator,
condenser and receiver (minimum operation charge).

- End -
 5.4 Fans

1. Fans
The fan is an essential component of almost all heating and air-conditioning systems. Except in
those cases where free convection creates air motion, a fan is used to move air through ducts and to
induce air motion in the space. An understanding of the fan performance is necessary if one is to
design a satisfactory duct system.
The centrifugal is the most widely used, because it can efficiently move large or small quantities
of air over a wide range of pressures. The principle of operation is similar to the centrifugal pump in
that a rotating impeller mounted inside a scroll-type housing imparts energy to the air or gas being
moved. Figure 12-1 shows the various components of a centrifugal fan. The impeller blades may be
forward-curved, backward-curved, or radial. The blade design influences the fan characteristics.

The vaneaxial fan is mounted on the center line of the duct and produces an axial flow of the air.
Guide vanes are provided before and after the wheel to reduce rotation of the air stream. The
tubeaxial fan is quite similar to the vaneaxial fan but does not have the guide vanes. Figure 12-2
illustrates both types.
 Axial flow fans are not capable of producing pressures as high as those of the centrifugal fan, but
can move large quantities of air at low pressure. Axial flow fans generally produce higher noise
levels than centrifugal fans.

2. Fan Performance
The performance of fans is generally given in the form of a graph showing pressure, efficiency,
and power as a function of capacity. The energy transferred to the air by the impeller results in an
increase in static and velocity pressure; the sum of the two pressures gives the total pressure. These
quantities are often expressed in inches millimeters of water. For a fan with elevation effects
neglected and constant density assumed, the following equation is applied:
gc w gc  P1 P2  1 2
g
=  −  +
g     2g
( )g  P −P 
V1 − V22 = c  01 02 
g  
(1)

In this form the equation expresses the increase in total head of the air. Multiplying Equation 1 by
g/gc gives
P −P
w = 01 02 (2)

which is an expression for the energy imparted to the air per unit mass. Multiplication of Equation 2
by the mass flow rate of the air produces an expression for the total power imparted to the air:
 (P01 − P02 )
m
W t = (3)

The static power is the part of the total power that is used to produce the change in static pressure:
 (P1 − P2 ) 
m
W s = = Q(P1 − P2 ) (4)

where:
Q = volume flow rate, ft3/min or m3/s

Fan efficiency may be expressed in two ways. The total fan efficiency is the ratio of total air power
Ẇt to the shaft power input Ẇsh:
 W t m  (P01 − P02 )  (P01 − P02 )
t = = =Q (5)
W sh W sh W sh
It has been common practice in the United States for Q to be ft3/min, P01 – P02 to be in in. wg,
and Ẇsh to be in horsepower. In this special case
Q (P01 − P02 )
t = (6)
6350W sh
The static fan efficiency is the ratio of the static air power to the shaft power input:
W m (P1 − P2 )  (P1 − P2 )
s = s = =Q (7)
W sh W sh W sh
Using the units of Equation
Q (P1 − P2 )
s = (8)
6350W sh
Figure 12-3, 12-4, 12-5, and 12-6 illustrate typical performance curves for centrifugal and vaneaxial
fans. Note the difference in the pressure characteristics for the different types of blade. Also note
the point of maximum efficiency with respect to the point of maximum pressure. The power
characteristics of vaneaxial fans are distinctly different from those of centrifugal fans. Note that the
power increases as the flow rate approaches zero for a vaneaxial fan, which is opposite to the
behavior of a centrifugal fans. Also note that the power curve for vaneaxial and backward-tip fans
reaches a peak and decreases as flow becomes high.
 A conventional representation of fan performance is shown in Figure 12-8 for a specific
backward-curved blade fan. In this case total pressure and total efficiency are also given. Note that
the zone for desired application is marked. When data from this zone are plotted on a logarithmic
scale, the curves appear as shown in Figure 12-9. This plot has some advantages over the
conventional representation. Many different fan speeds can be conveniently show, and the system
characteristic is a straight line parallel to the efficiency lines.
 The noise emitted by a fan is of great importance in many applications. For a given pressure the
noise level is proportional to the tip speed of the impeller and to the air velocity leaving the wheel.
Furthermore, fan noise is roughly proportional to the pressure developed, regardless of the blade
type. However, backward-curved fan blades are generally considered to have the better (lower)
noise characteristics.
Figure 12-10 shows fan characteristics for a forward-curved blade fan using SI units, except that
the capacity is in m3/min instead of m3/s.
 There are several simple relationships between fan capacity, pressure, speed, and power, which
are referred to as the fan laws. The first three fan laws are the most useful and are stated as follows:
a. The capacity is directly proportional to the fan speed.
b. The pressure (static, total, or velocity) is proportional to the square of the fan speed.
c. The power required is proportional to the cube of the fan speed.
The other three fan laws are:
d. The pressure and power are proportional to the density of the air at constant speed and
capacity.
e. The speed, capacity, and power are inversely proportional to the square root of the density
at constant pressure.
f. The capacity, speed , and pressure are inversely proportional to the density, and the power
is inversely proportional to the square of the density at a constant mass flow rate.
Example No. 1
A centrifugal fan is operating as shown in Fig. 12-7 at point 1. Estimate the capacity, total pressure,
and power requirement when the speed is increased to 1050 rpm. The initial power requirement is
2 hp.

Given:
rpm1 = 1050 rpm
rpm2 = 900 rpm
Q1 = 5000 cfm
P01 = 1.5 in. wg.
W1 = 2 hp
Required:
New capacity, total pressure, and power requirements
Solution:
 The first three fan laws may be used to estimate the new capacity, total pressure, and power.
Capacity:
Q1 rpm1
=
Q 2 rpm2
So that
 rpm2 
 = 5000
1050 
Q 2 = Q1   = 5833 ft min(cfm)
3

 rpm1   900 
Total pressure:
2
P01  rpm1 
= 
P02  rpm2 
2
 rpm2  2
 = 1.5
1050 
P02 = P01   = 2.04 in. wg
 rpm1   900 
Power:
3
W1  rpm1 
= 
W2  rpm2 
3
 rpm2  3
 = 2
1050 
W2 = W1   = 3.2 hp
 rpm1   900 

3. Fan Selection
The engineer is faced with selecting the right fan for an application. The following discussion
explains the specific characteristics of different types of fans as they relate to their selection. Radial-
bladed fans are not usually used on HVAC systems and are not discussed.

3.1 Backward-curved Blade Fans

This type is used for general heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems, especially
where the system size offers significant horsepower savings. Such fans can be used in low-,
medium-, and high-pressure HVAC systems. These are the highest efficiency designs of all
centrifugal fan types. For a given duty, these fans will operate at the highest speed of the
different centrifugal fans.
These fans are also used in industrial applications where power savings will be significant.
The airfoil-type blade should be used only in those applications where the air is clean and the
blade is not subject to erosion or corrosion.

3.2 Forward-curved Blade Fans

This type of fan is usually used in low-pressure HVAC applications, such as domestic
furnaces, central station units, and packaged air-conditioning equipment. This design tends to
have the lowest efficiency and will operate at the lowest speed of the various centrifugal fans.
 The pressure curve is less steep than that of the other designs. There is a dip in the pressure
curve to the left of peak pressure, and the highest efficiency occurs just to the right of peak
pressure. The fan should be applied well to the right of the peak pressure point. The horsepower
curve rises continuously toward free delivery, and this must be taken into account when the fan
is applied and the motor is selected.

3.3 Vaneaxial Fans

This type if fan is becoming more commonly used in HVAC systems in low-, medium-, and
high-pressure applications and is particularly advantageous where straight-through flow is
required.
Vaneaxial fans usually have blades if airfoil design, which permits medium- to high-pressure
capability at relatively high efficiency.
Some fans of this design have the capability of changing the pith of the blade to meet
different application requirements. In some cases this is accomplished by shutting the fan down,
changing the blade angle to a new position, and restarting the fan. In other cases, the pitch of
the fan blade can be changed with the fan in operation. This latter method provides good
control characteristics for the fan in VAV systems.

3.4 Performance Data

To select a fan for a given system it is necessary to know the capacity and total pressure
requirement of the system. To assist in the actual fan selection, manufacturers furnish graphs
such as those in Figures 12-8 and 12-9 with the areas of preferred operation shown. The static
pressure is often given, but not the total pressure. The total pressure may be computed from
the capacity and the fan outlet dimensions. Data pertaining to noise are also available from
most manufacturers.
In many cases manufacturers present their fan performance data in the form of tables.
Tables 12-1a and 12-1b are examples of such data for two forward-curved blade fans. Note that
the static pressure is given instead of the total pressure; however, the outlet velocity is given,
which makes it convenient to calculate the velocity pressure to find the total pressure.
 It is important that the fan be quiet. Generally a fan will generate the least noise when
operated near the peak efficiency. Operation considerable beyond the point of maximum
efficiency will be noisy. Forward-curved blades operated at high speed will be noisy, and straight
blades are generally noisy, especially at high speed. Backward-curved blades may be operated
on both sides of the peak efficiency at relatively high speeds with less noise than other types of
fans.

Example No. 2
A duct system requires a fan that will deliver 6 m3/s of air at 1.2 kPa total pressure, Is the fan of
Table 12-1b suitable? If so, determine the speed, shaft power, and total efficiency.
Given:
Table 12-1b
Q = 6 m3/s
P0 = 1.2 kPa
Required:
Suitability of Table 12-1b, speed, shaft power, and total efficiency
Solution:
The required volume flow rate falls between 5.75 and 6.23 m3/s in the left-hand column of Table
12-1b. The corresponding outlet velocities are 12 and 13 m/s and the velocity pressure for each
case is
2
(12)2
(Pv )5.75 = a V = 1.2 = 86.4 Pa
2 2
2
(13)2
(Pv )6.25 = a V = 1.2= 101.4 Pa
2 2
Assuming 1.1 kPa static pressure, the total pressure at 5.75 m3/s is
(P0 )5.75 = 1100 + 86.4 = 1186.4 Pa
And at 6.23 m3/s
(P0 )6.23 = 1100 +101.4 = 1201.4 Pa
By interpolation the total pressure at 6 m3/s is
 6 − 5.75
(P0 )6.0 = 1186.4 + (1201.4 − 1186.4) = 1190 Pa = 1.19 kPa
6.23 − 5.75
Although the total pressure at 6 m3/s is barely adequate, the fan speed can be increased to
obtain total pressures up to almost 1.3 kPa at a capacity of 5.75 to 6.23 m3/s.
The fan speed may be determined by interpolation to be
6 − 5.75
rpm = 840 − (840 − 825) = 832
6.23 − 5.75
and the shaft power is likewise found to be
6 − 5.75
Wsh = 10.5 + (0.5) = 10.76 kW
6.23 − 5.75
The total power imparted to the air is given Equation 9:

Wt = (P01 − P02 ) = Q (P01 − P02 )
m
(9)

where Q is in m3/s, (P01 – P02) is in N/m2 (Pa), and Wt is in watts. Then
(6)(1.2)(1000)
Wt = = 7.2 kW
1000
The total efficiency is then given by
W 7.2
t = t = = 0.67
Wsh 10.76
Fans are rated at standard sea level conditions. Therefore, it may be desirable to adjust those
parameters that depend on local barometric pressure. At constant speed, a fan delivers the
same volume flow rate regardless of local conditions. However, the total pressure, mass flow
rate, and shaft power depend on local mass density of air. In the case of rated total pressure
given in in. wg instead of in. of air, the rated pressure must be adjusted as follows:
 P
P0 = P0 ,std = P0 ,std
 std Pb ,std
where P0 refers to local barometric pressure. The adjusted mass flow rate is then given by
m = Q 
and since the power depends on the mass flow rate,
  
W = W std  
  std 
These corrections should be considered for elevations greater than about 2500 ft (750 m).

4. Fan Installation
The performance of a fan can be reduced drastically by improper connection to the duct system.
In general, the duct connections should be such that the air may enter and leave the fan as
uniformly as possible with no abrupt changes in direction or velocity. Space is often limited for fan
installation, and less than optimum connections may have to be used. In this case, the designer
must be aware of the penalties (loss in total pressure and efficiency).
 If a fan and system combination does not seem to be operating at the volume flow rate and
pressure specified, the difficulty may be that the system is not the same as specified in the design.
The point of operation will not be at the design point of rating on the fan curve. In Fig. 12-11 point B
is the specified point of operation, but test may show that the actual point of operation is point A.
The important thing to notice in this case is that the difference is due to a change in the system
characteristic curve and not the fan. The fan curve is in its original position, and the problem is
simply to get the system characteristics curve to cross the fan curve at the appropriate points.

4.1 System Effect Factors

The total pressure requirements of a fan are the result of pressure losses in ductwork,
fittings, heating and cooling coils, dampers, filters, process equipment, and similar sources. All of
these sources of pressure loss are based on uniform velocity profiles. The velocity profile at the
fan outlet is not uniform, and fittings at or near the fan outlet will develop pressure losses
greater than the rated value.
Fans are normally tested with open inlets so that the flow to the wheel is uniform. In actual
installations many other inlet configuration are encountered, and these will adversely affect the
performance. This effect on fan performance is in addition to the usual, normally computed
pressure loss due to ductwork, fittings, and equipment.
In order to apply the fan properly, the inlet and outlet effects must be taken into account
and the pressure requirements of the fan as normally calculated must be increased. These
effects, identified as system effect factors, may be estimated by using the procedure outlined
next.
4.2 Fan Outlet Condition
As shown in Fig. 12-12, the outlet velocity profiles of fans are not uniformly distributed
across the outlet duct until the air has traveled through a certain length of the duct. This length
is identified as one effective duct length. To make best use of energy developed by the fan, this
length of duct should be provided at the fan outlet. Preferably, the outlet duct should be the
same size as the fan outlet, but good flow can be obtained if the duct is not greater in area than
about 110 percent nor less in area than about 85 percent of the fan outlet. The slope of
transition elements should be greater than 15 degrees for the converging elements not greater
than 7 degrees for the diverging elements.

One effective duct length is a function of fan outlet velocity as shown in Table 12-2. If the
duct is rectangular, the equivalent duct diameter is given by
D = (4  H  W  )1 2 (10)
where:
D = equivalent duct diameter, ft or m
H = rectangular duct height, ft or m
W = rectangular duct width, ft or m
In those cases where a shorter discharge duct is used, an additional pressure loss will occur, and
this additional pressure must be added to the fan total pressure requirements. The additional
pressure is calculated by
P0 = C 0  Pv (11)
and
2
V 
Pv =    (12)
k 
where:
P0 = pressure loss, in. wg or Pa
Pv = velocity pressure, in. wg or Pa
 = air density, lbm/ft3 or kg/m3
Ṽ = velocity at outlet plane, ft/min or m/s
K = constant: 1097 for English units; 1.414 for SI

The blast area, shown in Fig. 12-12, is smaller than the outlet area due to the cutoff.
The blast area ratio used in determining loss coefficient is defined as
Blast area ratio = blast area / outlet area
The blast area should be obtained from the fan manufacturer for the particular fan being
considered. For estimating purposes values of the blast area ratio are given in Table 12-3.
 Table 12-4 gives loss coefficients for the case of a fan discharging into a plenum. Note that
at least 50 percent effective duct length is required for best fan performance.

To obtain the rated performance from the fan, the first elbow fitting should be at least one
effective duct length from the fan outlet (Fig. 12-13). If this length cannot be provided, an
additional pressure loss will result and must be added to the fan total pressure requirements.
The additional pressure loss may be determined from Equation 11 with a loss coefficient from
Table 12-5.
 The coefficients in Table 12-5 are for single-wheel single-inlet (SWSI) fans. For double-wheel
double-inlet (DWDI) fans, apply multipliers of 1.25 for position B, 0.85 for position D, and 1.0 for
position A and C.

4.3 Inlet Conditions

If it is necessary to install an elbow on the fan inlet, a straight run of duct is recommended
between the elbow and the fan, and a long-radius elbow should be used (Figure 12-14). Inlet
elbows create an additional loss, which must be added to the fan total pressure requirements.
Table 12-6 shows loss coefficients for both vaned and unvaned elbows.
4.4 Enclosure Restrictions
In those cases where a fan (or several fans) is built into a fan cabinet construction or is
installed in a plenum, it is recommended that the walls be at least one inlet diameter from the
fan housing and that a space of at least two inlet diameters be provided between fan inlets. If
these recommendations cannot be met, additional pressure losses will result and must be added
to the fan total pressure requirements. Every effort must be made to keep the inlet of the fan
free of obstructions (other equipment, walls, pipes, beams, columns, and so on), since such
obstructions will degrade its performance.

Example No. 3
A single-wheel single-inlet (SWSI) backward-curved blade fan is operating with both inlet and
outlet duct elbows. The outlet duct elbow is in position C, Fig. 12-13, and is located one duct
diameter from the fan outlet. The average velocity in the duct is 4000 ft/min. The fan inlet is
configured as shown in Fig. 12-14d, with a duct length ratio of 2 and R/H of 0.75.
Given:
Outlet duct elbow, position C, Fig. 12-13
Inlet, Fig. 12-14d
Duct length ratio = 2
R/H = 0.75
Average velocity = 4000 ft/min
Required:
Total lost pressure for inlet and outlet system effects
Solution:
The first consideration is the effective duct length for the outlet. From Table 12-2, 1
effective duct length is 4 duct diameters for a duct velocity of 4000 ft/min. However, the elbow
is located at 1 duct diameter, therefore, an additional pressure loss will result for both the outlet
and the elbow. The relative effective duct length is ¼, or 25 percent. The blast area ratio is 0.7
from Table 12-3. The discharge duct loss coefficient is then 1.0 from Table 12-5, and the
additional lost pressure for the duct, using Equations 11 and 12 and assuming standard
atmospheric pressure, is
2
 4000 
P0d = 1.0  0.075  = 1.00 in. wg
 1097 
The inlet duct elbow loss coefficient is given as 1.2 in Table 12-6 for the Fig. 12-14d
configuration with a duct length ratio of 2 and R/H of 0.75. Then, using Equation 11 and
assuming the fan inlet velocity is equal to the outlet velocity,
2
 4000 
P0i = 1.2  0.075  = 1.2 in. wg
 1097 
Finally, the total lost pressure for inlet and outlet system effects is
P0 = P0d + P0i
P0 = 1.00 + 1.2 = 2.2 in. wg
 This must be added to the computed system total pressure to obtain the actual pressure
that the fan must produce. This is illustrated in Fig,. 12-15. Notice that a fan selected on the
basis of zero system effect would operate at point C instead of point B. The fan selected, taking
into account the system effect, operates at point A, producing the desired flow rate.

- End -
 5.5 Air Conditioning Apparatus

1. TYPES OF APPARATUS
Air conditioning apparatus may be classified into two major groups:
a. Coil equipment in which the conditioning medium treats the air thru a closed heat transfer
surface.
b. Washer equipment in which the conditioning medium contacts the air directly.

These two groups may be sub-classified as shown Chart 3.

2. STANDARDS AND CODES

The application and installation of air conditioning apparatus should conform to all codes, laws
and regulations applying at the job site.
Applicable provisions of the American Standard Safety Code B 9.1 and ARI , ASHRAE and AMCA
Standards govern the testing, rating and manufacture of air conditioning apparatus.

3. FAN–COIL EQUIPMENT
As the term implies, the primary constituents of a fan – coil unit are a fan to produce a flow of
air and a chilled water or direct expansion coil to cool and dehumidify the air.

Accessories such as a heating coil, a humidifier and a filter section are normally available to
perform, if necessary, the remaining air conditioning functions. The required components may be
assembled into a factory – fabricated, cabinet style package. Figures 24 and 25 show respectively a
single zone and a multi–zone fan – coil unit.
A spray coil section is shown in Fig. 26. Since such equipment in intended for incorporation in a
built up apparatus, it is not fan–coil equipment. However, because of the similarity of function,
spray coil equipment is discussed in this section. Differences in application and layout will be noted
as they exist.
 Figure 27 illustrates a spray fan – coil unit.

Single zone and multi–zone fan–coil units differ physically in the location of the fan relative to
the cooling coil. In a single zone unit, the fan is located downstream of the cooling coil. Therefore,
this type of unit is often termed a “draw–thru” unit. A multi-zone unit may be referred to as a blow–
thru” unit since the fan is located upstream of the coil. Figures 28 and 29 indicate the flow of air thru
the two types of central station fan–coil apparatus.
 Typical variations occurring in total pressure, static pressure and velocity pressure, as air passes
thru a fan – coil unit, are illustrated in Fig. 30 and 31. The use of a fan equipped with a diffuser helps
to convert velocity pressure to static pressure with a minimum energy loss.

Fan–coil units are furnished with either forward or backward–curved blades. Forward-curved
blade fans are well suited for such use, since they perform at slower speeds than other types of fans.
Fan wheel construction is lighter in weight, more compact and less expensive than with backward–
curved blades. Longer fan shafts are permissible because of the slower speeds.
4. APPLICATION
The application of air conditioning equipment is influenced by the cooling load characteristics of
the area to be served and the degree of temperature and humidity control required.
A single zone unit most effectively serves an area characterized by a relatively constant or
uniformly varying load. Ideally, this would be a single large room. However, multi–room applications
are practical, provided a given variation in load occurs in all rooms simultaneously and in the same
proportion. If required, zoning may be accomplished by reheat or air volume control in the branch
ducts.
In a multi–room application where load components vary independently and as a function of
time, a multi–zone apparatus provides individual space control with a single fan unit. For this type of
load a multi–zone installation is less expensive than a single zone installation with a multiplicity of
duct reheat coils.
Since a multi–zone unit permits outdoor air to bypass the cooling coil at partial loads, its use is
particularly adapted to applications with high sensible heat factors and minimum of outdoor air. If
humidity control is required with a multi–zone unit, a precooling coil may be installed in the
minimum outdoor air duct.
A standard fan-coil unit affords a close temperature control only. A measure of humidity control
may be obtained by providing a unit humidifier such as a city water spray package. However, if more
certain humidity control is required, a spray coil section or spray fan-coil unit is better suited to the
application.
Spray coil equipment may be utilized for summer cooling and dehumidification, winter
humidification and evaporative cooling in intermediate seasons. Its use is preferred for applications
where humidity control is required, such as in industrial processes, hospitals, libraries and museums.
Spray coil equipment may also be equipped with a spray water heater to provide simultaneous
cooling or heating and humidification.
Standard fan-coil equipment, both single zone and multi-zone, may be obtained for air deliveries
as high as 50,000 cfm. Multiple spray coil sections are available for air quantities exceeding 60,000
cfm. Where the size of available factory-fabricated equipment is exceeded the apparatus must be
constructed of individual cooling coils or spray coil sections.
Static pressure limitations on fan-coil unit fans vary widely with the manufacturer considered.

5. UNIT SELECTION
The selection of fan-coil equipment is a matter of achieving the required performance at the
maximum economy. The economic aspect includes not only the particular unit and coil chosen but
also the effect of that choice on other system components, such as piping, ductwork and
refrigeration equipment.
The selection procedure involves choosing the unit size and the coil. A coil selection includes the
determination of the coil depth in rows required, the 0ptimum coil fin spacing and, in the case of
chilled water coils, the appropriate circuiting.

6. Unit Size
With the dehumidified air quantity known, the choice of unit size normally precedes the coil
selection. In most cases, the size is determined by the cooling coil face velocity.
When selecting a coil face velocity, it is suggested that the highest allowable face velocity he
used in the interest of economy. Manufacturers rate their (coils at maximum face velocities proven
by tests to be satisfactory, with respect to both the entrainment of moisture droplets and air
resistance. However, if simultaneous reheat and dehumidification is required of the unit, the
 maximum recommended cooling coil face velocity may be less than that otherwise allowed,
depending on the design of the particular unit in question.
Since a unit reheat coil is not as deep as the cooling coil and does not condense moisture,
limiting the unit size by limiting the heating coil face velocity is not economically justifiable.
Manufacturers of fan-coil equipment have design their internal heating coils to provide optimum
performance at recommended cooling coil face velocities.

7. Coil Selection
A particular cooling coil is selected to produce a desired effect on the air passed thru it, in
accordance with the sensible, latent and total cooling loads calculated for the space and with the
condition of the air entering the coil. However, the final selection defines also the required chilled
water flow, the pressure drop at that flow and the required entering water temperature; or in the
case of a direct expansion coil, the refrigerant temperature. Therefore, the coil selection should be
made with regard to refrigerant side or chilled water side performance as well as to air side
performance.
Thus, each coil selection has two facets which may be regarded as independent for the purposes
of selection. Air side and refrigerant side performance should be considered separately and then
matched to produce the final economically optimum coil selection. The apparatus dewpoint method
of coil selection provides means for matching air side and refrigerant side performances.
The two-step concept of coil selection is presented as follows:
1. Make a tentative coil selection in terms of rows and fin spacing, based on the bypass
factor required by established air conditions. Coil bypass factor determines apparatus
dewpoint.
2. Determine the refrigerant side performance, using the apparatus dewpoint found in the
first step. This involves finding the required refrigerant temperature for direct expansion
coils or the chilled water quantity, temperature and resulting pressure drop for water
coils.

Thus, the coil can be tentatively selected without regard to the final refrigeration machine
selection. If the first coil selection does not provide satisfactory refrigerant side performance,
another coil with adequate air side performance may be tried. The optimum selection assures
proper performance at the least owning and operating cost.
The various types of coil ratings and selection techniques encountered either use directly, or are
derived from, one of two methods. They are the apparatus dewpoint (effective surface
temperature) method and the modified basic data method. The latter involves calculating coil
performance from basic heat transfer data and equations. It combines air side and refrigerant side
performance determination into a single operation. However, the basic data method requires
assumptions which are usually modified later in the selection, and is therefore a trial-and-error
procedure. Calculated coil depth may be a decimal figure which must be rounded to a whole
number, in turn necessitating a recalculation of performance. The apparatus dewpoint method is
derived from the two-step concept of coil selection arid implements its use. Coil rows are dealt with
in terms of standard whole numbers only.
Charts 4 and 5 are conversion charts used to evaluate the air side performance of any cooling
coil, with entering and leaving air conditions established. This performance is in terms of coil bypass
factor and apparatus dewpoint. A straight edge, fixed at the entering dry-bulb temperature and
rotated to pass thru the various intersections of the coil bypass factor and the line connecting
entering and leaving wet-bulb temperatures, indicates the coil bypass factor which satisfies the
leaving dry-bulb temperature. The apparatus dewpoint can be read at the chosen intersection.
Where the bypass factor for a particular coil is unknown, the coil performance may he plotted on
the chart, and the bypass factor may he read at the intersection of the entering-leaving wet-bulb
and dry-bulb lines. The bypass factors of various coils may thus be directly compared.
 When selecting a cooling coil in conjunction with an air conditioning load estimate form, the
bypass factor of the coil selected should agree reasonably with the bypass factor assumed in the
estimate.
 Refrigerant side coil ratings presume a tentative coil selection when based on the apparatus
dewpoint. Chart 6 and Table 7 illustrate apparatus dewpoint refrigerant side ratings for chilled water
and direct expansion coils respectively. Such charts are used in the second step of the two-step
approach described above.
 Table 8 shows the entering wet-bulb type of rating for direct expansion coils. This method of
presentation is used frequently and may or may not be derived from the apparatus dewpoint
method.

For a direct expansion coil, optimum coil circuiting is incorporated by the manufacturer into the
coil design. A direct expansion coil experiences a decreased capacity with an increased refrigerant
pressure drop caused by a greater coil circuit length. This is true even with a given coil surface.
Chilled water coils are usually offered with two or more circuiting arrangements, and the final
coil selection prescribes the circuiting. The coil with the least number of circuits has the greatest
number of passes back and forth across the coil face and vice versa. The minimum circuited coil has
a greater capacity and produces a higher chilled water temperature rise at a given water quantity.
However, the greater number of passes of a minimum circuited coil results in a pressure drop
higher than that thru a coil of the same size but with more circuits and less passes. Minimum
circuited coils are often used on large extensive systems in which the greater pumping head
required is more than offset economically by the reduced first cost of piping and insulation.
 With the required air side coil performance given, the greater the difference between apparatus
dew-point and entering chilled water temperature the smaller the required water quantity will be.
Therefore, the choice of a chilled water temperature may involve an economic analysis of the first
costs and operating costs of the refrigeration plant versus the cost of the piping system.
The selection of the water temperature should not be arbitrary; however, experience has shown
that a temperature approximately 5 degrees below the apparatus dewpoint is the maximum water
temperature that should be used to effect an economical system design. If the resulting water
quantities seem to be too high , a lower temperature can be assumed, and its influence on the
refrigeration machine size, power input and piping costs should be studied. With a given coil, load
and apparatus dewpoint, when the chilled water temperature is reduced , the required water
quantity decreases and the temperature rise increases.
By using a coil which requires a smaller water quantity at a higher temperature rise, the
following advantages may be realized:
1.
a. A smaller refrigeration machine may be selected, or
b. The horsepower requirement may be reduced for the same size machine by operating at an
increased evaporator temperature, or
c. The condenser piping or heat rejection equipment may be reduced for the same size
machine by operating at a higher condensing temperature with less condenser water.
d.
2. Lower chilled water distribution costs with saving in piping, pump and insulation may be
obtained.

Manufacturer’s recommendations regarding maximum and minimum direct expansion coil

loadings should be followed. Selections at loadings below the minimum may result in unsatisfactory
oil return, poor refrigerant distribution and coil frosting.

8. Atmospheric Corrections
Cooling coil ratings are based upon the standard atmospheric conditions of 29.92 in. Hg
barometric pressure. For atmospheric pressures significantly different, such as at altitudes
exceeding 2500 feet, a correction should be applied to the air quantity before making the coil
selection.

9. ACCESSORIES
9.1 Heating Coils
Unit heating coils for fan-coil equipment are available in a variety of depth and fin spacing
combinations and in both the nonfreeze steam and U-bend types. The latter type may be used
with hot water or steam and may be obtained in different combinations of tube face and fin
spacing to produce different rises with the same entering air temperature, face velocity, and
steam pressure or hot water temperature. Heating coils are also usually capable of being
mounted before or after the cooling coil.
9.2 Humidifiers
On a fan-coil unit not equipped with recirculated water sprays, humidification may be
obtained by means of a city water spray humidifier, a steam pan humidifier, a steam grid
humidifier or a humidifying pack. Spray coil and steam grid equipment provides the most
effective humidity control.
A city water spray humidifier consists of a header, spray nozzles and strainer. Either
atomizing or nonatomizing sprays are available. The latter type requires a lower water pressure.
In either case, the spray density or amount of water circulated per square foot of cooling coil
face area is considerably less than that of a recirculated spray coil. Therefore, although lower in
first cost, the city water spray humidifier is less efficient than a recirculated spray coil. An
eliminator is not usually required for a city water spray.
The use of copper fins on copper tubes with spray humidifiers is suggested when city water
has a specific electrical conductance of 500 or more micromhos at 77 F. Aluminum fins may be
used if city water is of the proper quality. The use of copper fins should be considered where
industrial gases such as hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide or carbon dioxide are present and
where salty atmospheres prevail.
If air flow is not maintained thru a spray section when it is operating, wetting of the unit and
leakage may result. Therefore, a solenoid valve should be installed or other suitable precautions
taken to stop the sprays when the unit fan is not running. To maintain a minimum coil air flow
when utilizing face and bypass dampers, a minimum closure device should be provided on the
face dampers.
The spraying of heating coils may result in scaling onthe coil and the production of odors.
This practice should therefore be avoided.
The use of spray humidifiers with a multi-zone unit should be avoided. Since the coil is
subjected to a positive static pressure, spray water may leak from the unit cabinet. If sprays are
used, they should be of the atomizing type. A grid or pan humidifier is preferred for this usage.
Grid humidifiers are lengths of perforated steam piping wrapped with wicking such as
asbestos. The pipe is mounted in an open pan, pitched to facilitate condensate drainage. The
condensate drain line from the unit should be trapped to provide a water seal. Steam pressures
should not exceed 5 psig for this application, and the steam used should be free of odors.
The mixing of steam with conditioned air normally produces a negligible increase in the air
dry-bulb temperature. This type of humidification, therefore, approximates a vertical line on a
psychrometric chart. Figure 32 illustrates the process. When designing a system using a grid
humidifier, the temperature of the air entering the humidifier should be high enough to permit
a moisture content at saturation (point C) equal to or greater than the desired air moisture
content.
 Pan humidifiers include a pan to hold water, a steam coil to evaporate the water, and a float
valve for water make-up. For this application, a steam pressure of 20 psig is suggested for
maximum humidifying efficiency.
Humidifying packs use a fill (often of glass fibers) as an evaporative surface. The pack is
located in the air stream and water is sprayed over the fill.

9.3 Spray Water Heaters

Spray coil equipment may be provided with a spray water heater to permit simultaneous
cooling or heating and humidification. Such flexibility is required during winter operation or
where the volume of outdoor air is large in relation to the total air quantity. Typical applications
include certain industrial processes or hospital operating rooms.

9.4 Face and Bypass Dampers

On applications employing face and bypass control of coil equipment, the fan selection anti
air distribution system should be based on an air quantity 10% above the design dehumidified
air volume. This additional air quantity compensates for leakage thru a fully closed bypass
damper and for air quantity variations occurring when face and bypass dampers are in an
intermediate position. With the bypass dampers fully open, system static pressure may be
reduced and air quantity and fan brake horsepower increased. Therefore, on face and by
applications especially, fan motors should be selected so that nominal horsepower ratings are
not exceeded.
Where a fixed bypassed air quantity is required, the bypass damper may be provided with a
minimum closure device. However, some control range is sacrificed with this method. If face and
bypass control is not to be used, a fixed bypass may be obtained by using a face and bypass
damper section with the face dampers removed.
The bypass of outside and return air mixtures introduces high humidity air directly to the
conditioned space. When employing face and bypass control, it is preferable to bypass return air
only. This may be accomplished as shown in Fig. 33.

9.5 Vibration Isolation

Four types of isolators are normally used to absorb the vibrations produced by fan-coil
equipment as well as other types of rotating or reciprocating machinery. In order of decreasing
effectiveness and first cost, they are:
1. Steel coil springs
2. Double rubber-in-shear
3. Single rubber-in-shear
 4. Cork

Steel spring or rubber-in-shear isolators are available for floor-mounted or suspended

equipment. Ribbed neoprene pads may be bonded to any of the isolators noted above for floor-
mounted units. These pads resist horizontal movement, compensate for slight irregularities in
the floor surface, and protect floors from marring.
The proper bearing surface should be provided for cork pad isolators as recommended by
the isolator manufacturer. Under-loading does not permit the full resiliency to be utilized, while
overloading may result in permanent deformation of the cork structure.
Similarly, if spring or rubber isolators are loaded past the point of full compression, binding
occurs and there is no isolation.

9.6 Filters
Factory–fabricated filter sections for both high velocity or low velocity filters are normally
obtainable from the manufacturer of a fan–coil unit. Either throw–away or cleanable filters can
be used. For built – up apparatus field – assembled filter frames are available.
If high velocity filters are to be used in a low velocity filter section, the full area of air flow is
not required. Rather than fill up the entire section with high velocity filters operating at a low
velocity, bank–off pieces may be installed, thus lowering the effective area. Blank-offs should be
located uniformly across the face of the filter section instead of concentrated in one place.

10. INSTALLATION
10.1 Location
Two of the most important factors in the location of air conditioning equipment are the
availability of outdoor air and the ease of air return. Outdoor air may be brought to a unit
thru a wall, roof or central building chase. It is preferable to locate outdoor air intakes so
that they do not face walls of spaces where noise would be objectionable. Air may be
returned thru a duct system or directly to the equipment room.

10.2 Layout
A fan-coil unit may be of the vertical or horizontal type, depending upon the direction of
air flow entering the fan cabinet. It may be floor-mounted or, in the case of a horizontal
unit, suspended from above. The choice of unit style and mounting usually depends upon
space requirements and optimum duct layout. A support base may be employed, if
necessary.

10.3 Insulation
In a fan-coil unit the casing housing the fan section, cooling coil section and components
downstream of the cooling coil are usually internally insulated. This insulation is adequate
for normal interior applications. The outdoor air intake duct should be insulated and vapor
sealed to prevent condensation on the duct during cold weather.
If the intake is kept as short as possible, insulation costs are minimized. Insulation and
vapor sealing of the mixing box may be required, depending on the quantity of outdoor air
introduced and on the winter design temperature. Intakes for units circulating 100%
outdoor air should be insulated up to the preheater.
Units located outdoors should be completely covered and caulked with weatherproofing
material. If the outdoor air temperature can fall below the dewpoint of the air within the
unit, the unit should be externally insulated, vapor sealed and weather-proofed to prevent
 interior condensation and to minimize heat losses. The insulation on the top surfaces of the
unit should be slightly crowned so that water can run off.

11. CONTROL
If an air conditioning apparatus is to perform satisfactorily under a partial load in the
conditioned area, a means of effecting a capacity reduction in proportion to the instantaneous load
is required. The three methods most commonly employed for capacity control are air bypass
control, chilled water control and air volume control.

12. WASHER EQUIPMENT

The most commonly applied type of washer equipment is the central station washer (Fig. 37),
designed for incorporation into a field-built apparatus. Figure 38 is a cutaway view of the same type
of washer and indicates the direction of air flow.
 This washer consists of a rectangular steel chamber, closed at the top and sides and mounted on
a shallow watertight tank of steel or concrete. Inlet baffles located at the air-entering end of the
washer promote uniform air velocities thru the washer and minimize the spraying back of water into
the entrance chamber as a result of air eddy currents. At the air-leaving end of the washer,
eliminators are provided to remove entrained water droplets.
Within the washer spray chamber two banks of opposing spray nozzles provide finely divided
droplets of water uniformly distributed. After contacting the air, the water is collected in the tank
and is returned to the sprays by a recirculating pump.
A central station washer may be designed for use as a humidifier or as a dehumidifier. The
physical arrangement is the same in either case. A dehumidifier is normally shorter in airway length
than a humidifier.

- End -
 5.6 Unitary Equipment

1. INTRODUCTION
A unitary air conditioning unit, sometimes referred to as packaged equipment, consists of one or
more factory fabricated assemblies designed to provide the functions of air moving, air cleaning,
cooling and dehumidification. The functions of heating and humidifying are also usually possible
with such equipment. Heat pump versions are available for most types of apparatus.
Unitary equipment includes a direct expansion or chilled water cooling coil and a compressor-
Condenser combination or water chiller in addition to fans, auxiliaries and internal wiring and
piping. If more than one assembly is required, the separate assemblies are designed for use with
each other, and combined equipment ratings are based on matched assemblies of equal or differing
nominal capacities.
The design of unitary equipment is often styled for installation within the conditioned space.

2. TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
Unitary equipment may be classified as either a self-contained or a split system. A self-contained
unit houses all components in a single assembly. Split system equipment incorporates the following
assemblies
a. A coil and compressor combined with a remote condenser.
b. A coil combined with a remote condensing unit.
c. A coil combined with a remote water chiller.
A self-contained unit is illustrated in Fig. 50. The self-contained concept is further described in
Fig. 51. Figure 52 shows an air-cooled condensing unit — one component of a two-component split
system as described in Item 2 above.
 The use of matched components differentiates unitary equipment from the fan-coil equipment.
Unitary equipment thus affords less flexibility of arrangement and less choice of cooling coil surface.
Also, face and bypass control is usually unavailable in packaged equipment.
Split system apparatus provides in packaged form a measure of flexibility not usually obtainable
with self-contained equipment.

3. APPLICATION
The use of unitary equipment should be considered for applications where the following
advantages are of primary importance:
a. Low first cost of equipment and installation.
b. Immediate air conditioning benefits and prompt delivery.
c. Ease of installation or removal, if necessary, with a minimum of disturbance.
d. The ability to provide air conditioning in increments without cost penalty.
e. Economical operation during periods of non-uniform loading.
f. High salvage value and longer warrantee periods.
g. Simplified field engineering.
h. Factory assembly of balanced and tested components.
Packaged equipment is particularly well suited to applications requiring summer cooling only,
and is readily used in conjunction with existing or separate heating facilities of sufficient capacity.
 Such equipment may effectively augment central station apparatus by serving relatively small
areas with special design requirements. Typical applications of this nature are laboratories and
dining areas.
Applications completely conditioned with unitary equipment include existing office buildings
and hotels, motels, shopping center tenant areas, department stores, industrial facilities and
residences.
Equipment components are usually matched to provide 300 to 500 cfm per ton of air
conditioning at sensible heat ratios of 0.65 to 0.85, in the case of self-contained equipment.
Therefore, packaged equipment is most economically applied where these values are specifically
required. As mentioned previously some additional application flexibility may be obtained by
employing split system equipment. Sensible heat ratios as high as 0.95 are attainable. Such
equipment also affords greater choice of location and mounting method.
Self-contained equipment is commonly available in capacities up to 60 tons, while up to 75 tons
may be obtained with a split system. The trend has recently been toward larger packaged
equipment .
Water-cooled, air-cooled or evaporative condensing may be utilized with unitary apparatus.

4. STANDARDS AND CODES

Applicable provisions of the American Standard Safety Code B9.1, ARI Standard 210 and
Underwriters’ Laboratories Standards govern the testing, rating and construction of unitary air
conditioning equipment.
The application and installation of such equipment should conform to pertinent government
agency regulations and to all codes and laws prevailing at the job site.

5. UNIT SELECTION
5.1 SELECTION RATINGS
Unit size is usually determined by the required cooling capacity and air quantity, adjusted to
suit the sensible heat ratio. Cooling ratings present total and sensible heat capacities, based on
air quantity, evaporator entering air wet-bulb temperature and, in the case of water-cooled
equipment, condensing temperature. A typical cooling rating table is illustrated in Fig. 53.
Although tabular cooling ratings are most common, some manufacturers present graphical data
in place of, or in addition to, tabular ratings.
Cooling ratings (Fig. 53) may be expanded to apply to more than one evaporator entering air
dry-bulb temperature. If they are not expanded, deviation corrections are usually suggested.
Cooling rating also may indicate grand sensible heat factor rather than total sensible heat
capacity.
For air-cooled condensing or evaporative condensing, selection ratings are normally based
upon condenser entering air dry-bulb temperature or wet-bulb temperature respectively,
instead of condensing temperature.
Self-contained equipment is rated as a system with no individual component ratings. A split
system apparatus is usually rated both as an individual item of equipment and in combination
with its intended components. For example, an air-cooled condensing unit may be rated in
terms of cooling capacity available from the package when the condensing unit is used with a
particular fan-coil unit at different evaporator wet-bulb and outdoor dry-bulb temperatures.
 5.2 ECONOMICS
Economy of equipment selection may also be promoted by the following methods:
a. Select equipment to be fully loaded, taking advantage of room temperature swing, storage
effects and reduced safety factors.
b. Avoid the arrangement of unit by zones where selections must be made for peak loads.
Diversity benefits may be realized if more than one exposure is served by a unit.
c. Consider operation at relatively high condensing temperatures with possible savings.
d. Introduce the least outdoor air possible at peak apparatus load.

5.3 ATMOSPHERIC CORRECTIONS

Unitary equipment ratings are based on air at standard atmospheric conditions of 70 F and
29.92 in. Hg barometric pressure. For applications deviating significantly from this standard such
as at altitudes exceeding 2500 feet, ratings should be adjusted for the difference in air density.

6. COIL FREEZE-UP PROTECTION

The freezing of hot water coils located downstream of the cooling coil may occur during the
cooling season. This is particularly possible in packaged fan-coil equipment because of the proximity
of the heating and cooling coils and because of the relatively low settings usually employed on the
low pressure compressor cutoff switch to prevent excessive cycling. At lower evaporator wet-bulb
temperatures, equipment components balance at diminished suction temperatures. Hot water coil
freeze-up may occur under these conditions.
Although coil freeze-up may be prevented by the draining of the hot water coil or by the use of a
properly inhibited antifreeze solution, the use of a protective thermostat to cycle the compressor is
suggested instead in the interest of economy. The thermostat should be mounted outside of the air
stream with the bulb at the entering face of the hot water coil. An air temperature of approximately
35 F is suggested as a compressor shutoff point.
Coil freeze-up may sometimes be traced to reduced air quantities resulting from dirty filters in
the apparatus.
7. INSTALLATION
7.1 LOCATION
Unitary air conditioning equipment may usually be located either outdoors or indoors.
Possible specific locations include basements, crawl spaces, attics, garages, roofs, and on the
ground as well as within the conditioned space or in an equipment room. Such equipment may
be mounted on the floor, suspended from the ceiling or installed in a wall opening, transom or
window. Since packaged apparatus is sometimes designed for a specific location such as on a
roof or under a window, the manufacturer’s literature should be studied for location
recommendations.

7.2 LAYOUT
Unitary apparatus is available in both horizontal and vertical arrangements and it is usually
designed for use with or without duct systems. However, distribution systems should be simple
in design and limited in extent.
Often, unitary equipment may conveniently use the same air distribution system as an
existing heating system. This is particularly true in residential applications. In such an installation
appropriate shutoff or diverting dampers may be required if the heating and cooling functions
are in parallel. Existing duct sizes should be checked for adequacy in handling the dehumidified
air quantity.
For roof-top installations the roof must be of adequate strength, and the equipment weight
should be evenly distributed on the support members. If any doubt exists as to the adequacy of
support, a structural engineer should be consulted. Appropriate framing around roof openings,
flashing, counter flashing and pitch pockets should be provided.
External vibration isolation of packaged equipment is seldom required because the
individual Components are usually isolated within the cabinet.
However, for critical installations and light building construction, vibration isolation should
be considered for unitary equipment as for any other type of equipment.
Layout and location of unitary equipment are influenced by the availability of service
facilities such as gas, city water and electrical power.

8. CONTROL
The reduction of packaged equipment capacity at partial loads is usually effected by cycling
the compressor or compressors in accordance with the setting of a room dry-bulb thermostat.
Decreasing compressor capacity by the unloading of cylinders is another widely employed
method of control.
Unit fans may be created continuously or cycled with the compressor. Continuous operation
of fans provides continuous air circulation. However, alternately condensing moisture from the
air and reevaporating coil moisture produces fluctuations in room humidity conditions. Cycling
of fans requires the use of a room thermostat rather than a return air thermostat.

- End -
 5.7 Centrifugal Pumps

1. Centrifugal Pumps
The centrifugal pump is by far the most frequently used type of pump in HVAC systems. The
essential parts of a centrifugal pump are the rotating member, or impeller, and the surrounding
case. The impeller is usually driven by an electric motor, which may be close-coupled (on the same
shaft as the impeller) or flexible coupled. The fluid enters the center of the rotating impeller, is
thrown into the volute, and flows outward the diffuser (Fig. 10-13). The fluid leaving the impeller
has high kinetic energy that is converted to static pressure in the volute and diffuser as efficiency as
possible. Although there are various types of impellers and casing, the principle of operation is the
same. The pump shown in Fig. 10-10 is a single-suction pump because the fluid enters the impeller
from only one side. The double-suction type has fluid entering from both sides. A pump may be
staged with more than one impeller on the same shaft with one casing. The fluid leaves the first
stage and enters the impeller of the second stage before leaving the casing.
 Pump performance is most commonly given in the forms of curves. Figure 10-11 is an example
of such data for a pump that may be operated at two different speeds with several different
impellers. For each speed a different curve is given for each impeller diameter. These curves give the
total dynamic head, efficiency, shaft power, and the net positive suction head as a function of
capacity.
 The total dynamic head furnished by a pump to the fluid entering and leaving the pump is:
wgc g c (P1 − P2 ) V12 − V22
Hp = = + + (z1 − z 2 ) (1)
g g 2g
The lost head is unavailable as useful energy and is omitted from the equation. Losses are
typically accounted for by the efficiency, defined as the ratio of the useful power actually imparted
to the fluid to the shaft power input:
W m  w Q w
F = = = (2.1)
W s W s W s
The shaft power may be obtained from Equation (2.1)
 w Q w Q H pg
m
W s = = = (2.2)
p p  p gc
Therefore a definite relationship exists between the curves for total head, efficiency, and shaft
power in Fig. 10-11.
If the static pressure of the fluid entering a pump approaches the vapor pressure of the liquid
too closely, vapor bubbles will form in the impeller passages. This condition is detrimental to pump
performance, and the collapse of the bubbles is noisy and may damage to pump. This phenomenon
is known as cavitation. The amount of pressure in excess of the vapor pressure required to prevent
cavitation (expressed as head) is known as the required net positive suction head (NPSHR). This is a
characteristic of a given pump and varies considerable with speed and capacity. NPSHR is
determined by the actual testing of each model.
Whereas each pump has its own NPSHR, each system has its own available net positive suction
head (NPSHA).
 Ps gc Vs2 Pv gc
NPSHA = + − (3)
g 2g g
where:
gcPs/g = static head at the pump inlet, ft or m, absolute
Vs2/2g = velocity head at the pump inlet, ft or m
gcPv/g = static vapor pressure head of the liquid at the pumping temperature, ft or m, absolute

The net positive suction head available must always be greater than the NPSHR or noise and
cavitation will result.

Example No. 1
Suppose the pump of Fig. 10-11 is installed in a system as shown in Fig. 10-12. The pump is operated
at 3500 rpm with the 6 in. impeller and delivering 200 gpm. The suction line is standard 4 in. pipe
that has an inside diameter of 4.026 in. Compute the NPSHA, and compare it with the NPSHR. The
water temperature is 60 F.

Given:
Speed = 3500 rpm
Impeller diameter = 6 in
Flow rate = 200 gpm
Suction line = 4 in pipe, 4.026 in ID
Required:
NPSHA and compare to NPSHR.
Solution:
From Figure 10-11 the NPSHE is 10 ft of head. The available net positive suction head is computed
from Equation (3) with some changes.
PBgc Ps gc Vs2
= + + zs + l f
g g 2g
Ps gc Vs2 PBgc
or + = − zs − l f
g 2g g
Then Equation (3) becomes
 PBgc Pg
NPSHA = − zs − l f − v c (4)
g g
Assuming standard barometric pressure.
PBgc 29.92
= 13.55 = 33.78 ft of water
g 12
Pv gc 29.92 144
= = 0.59 ft of water
g 62.4
where Pv is read from steam tables. Then from Equation (4).
NPSHA = 33.78 −10 − 5 − 0.59 = 18.19 ft of water
which is almost twice as large as the NPSHR. If the water temperature is increased to 160 F and
other factors remain constant, the NPSHA becomes
 4.74 144 
NPSHA = 33.78 − 10 − 5 −   = 7.6 ft of water
 61 
which is less than the NPSHR of 10 ft. Cavitation will undoubtedly result.
In an open system such as a cooling tower, the pump suction (inlet) should be flooded; that is,
the inlet must be lower than the free water surface to prevent entrainment of air from the vortex
formed at the pipe entrance. An inlet velocity of less than 3 ft/s (1 m/s) will minimize vortex
formation. Long runs of suction piping should be eliminated whenever possible, and care should be
taken to locate the pump in a space where freezing will not occur and where maintenance may be
easily performed.
The pump foundation, usually concrete, should be sufficiently rigid to support the pump base
plate. This is particularly important for flexible-coupled pumps to maintain alignment between the
pump and motor. The pump foundation should weight from 1 ½ to 3 times the total pump and
motor weight for vibration and sound control.
Expansion joints are required on both the action and discharge sides of the pump to isolate
expansion and contraction forces, and the piping must be supported independently of the pump
housing.
2. Combined System and Pump Characteristics
The combination of the system and pump characteristics (head versus capacity) is very useful in
the analysis and design of piping systems. Figure 10-13 is an example of how a system with parallel
circuit behaves with a pump installed. Recall that the total head Hp furnished by the pump is given
by Equation (1). Note that the combination operates at point t, where the characteristics cross. The
pump and system must both operate on their characteristics; therefore, the point where they cross
is the only possible operating condition. This concept is very important in understanding more
complex systems. The flow rate for each of the parallel circuits in Figure 10-13 is quite obvious
because the required change total head from 1 to 2 is the same for both circuits.
 Figure 10-14 illustrates a series-type circuit. When the valve is open, the operating point is at a
with flow rate Qa and total head Ha. Partial closing of the valve introduces additional flow resistance
(head loss) and is similar to adding series resistance in an electrical circuit. The new system
characteristic crosses the pump curves at point c and the flow rate is Qc with total head Hc. All piping
system should contain valves for control and adjustment purposes and to provide for isolation when
service is needed.
A typical design problem is one of pump selection.

Example No. 2
A water piping system has been designed to distribute 150 gpm, and the total head requirement is
36 ft. Select a pump, using the data of Figure 11, and specify the power rating for the electric motor.
Given:
Flow rate = 150 gpm
Total head = 36 ft
Required:
Power rating for the electric motor
Solution:
 Figure 10-15 shows the characteristic for the piping system as it was designed. Point 0 denotes the
operating capacity desired. Examination of Figure 10-11 indicates that the low-speed version of the
given pump covers the desired range. The desired operating point lies between the curves for the 6
½ and 7 in. impellers. The curves are sketched in Figure 10-15. Obviously, the pump with the 7 in.
impeller must be selected, but the flow rate will be about 160 gpm as indicated by point 1.
Therefore a valve must be adjusted (closed slightly) to modify the system characteristic as shown, to
obtain 150 gpm at point 2. Again referring to Figure 10-11a, we read the shaft power requirement as
about 2.3 hp. Note that this pump will operate near the maximum efficiency, which is desirable.
Electric motors usually have an efficiency of 85 to 90 percent, and a 3 hp motor should be specified.

3. Variable Pump Speed

It is common to vary the impeller rotational speed in controlling a water-distribution system.
The flow rate, head, and shaft power are related to the new and old speeds. The laws governing this
relationship are known as the affinity laws for pumps. They may be stated as
rpmn
Q n = Q o (5)
rpmo
2
 rpmn 
H pn = H po   (6)
 rpmo 
3
 rpmn 
Wsn = Wso   (7)
 rpmo 

The affinity laws may be used in conjunction with the system characteristic to generate a new pump
head characteristic. The total system will operate where the new pump characteristic and old
system characteristic cross.
Example No. 3
The 1750 rpm pump with 7 in. impeller of Figure 10-11 is operating in a system as shown as point 1
of Figure 10-16. It is desired to reduce the pump speed until the flow rate is 100 gpm. Find the new
pump head, shaft power, and efficiency.
Given:
rpmo = 1750 rpm
Impeller diameter = 7 in.
Qo = 100 gpm
Required:
New pump head, shaft power, and efficiency
Solution:
From the system characteristic it may be observed that the pump must produce 25 ft of head at a
flow rate of 100 gpm. This is one point on the new pump characteristic. The new pump speed can be
found from either Equation (5) or (6). Using Equation (5)
 Q 
rpmn = rpmo  n 

 Qo 
 100 
rpmn = 1750  = 1346
 130 
The new shaft power is given by Equation (7) with Wso = 2.1 hp from Figure 10-11.
3
1346 
Wsn = 2.1 = 0.96 hp
1750 
The pump efficiency could be recalculated using Equation 2.1. However, it may be deduced from
the affinity laws that the efficiency will remain constant at about 68.4 percent. Thus
 pn Q nH pn Wsn
= =1

po oQ H W
po so

- End -
 5.8 Cooling Towers

1. Cooling Towers
The function of the cooling tower is to reject heat to the atmosphere by reducing the
temperature of water circulates through condenser or other heat-rejection equipment. For this
reason the state of the air and its path on the psychrometric chart are of little interest.
Counterflow mechanical draft tower are commonly found in air-conditioning applications. The
main advantage of counterflow is its adaptability to limited space. The thermal capability of any
cooling tower can be defined by the following parameters:
a. Entering and leaving water temperature
b. Entering air wet bulb temperature
c. Water flow rate
The difference between the entering and leaving water temperature is the cooling range, while the
difference in temperature between the cold water and the entering air wet bulb is the approach.
The thermal capability of cooling towers for air-conditioning is usually stated in terms of nominal
refrigeration tonnage based on heat rejection of 15,000 Btu/hr per ton (1.25 kW/kW) and a flow
rate of water of 3 gpm per ton (0.054 L/s per kW) with the water cooled from 95 to 85 F (35 to 29 C)
at 78 F (26 C) wet bulb temperature.
The performance of a cooling tower for an air-conditioning system is shown in Fig. 13-7. The
presentation contains all the variables required to define the thermal capability of the tower and
therefore can be used to evaluate tower performance. The tower of Fig. 13-7 is rated at the
standard condition of 10 F (5.6 C) cooling range, 7 F (3.9 C) approach, and 3 gpm per ton[0.054 L/(s-
kW)]. Each curve of Fig. 13-7 is often given as a family of curves with variable cooling range to allow
a more comprehensive evaluation. To simplify the figure, only three curves for one fixed cooling
range are used here, with a different flow rate for each.

An approximate theoretical analysis can be carried out using Equation (1) for the total energy
total energy transfer to the air:
 Gadi = Gl cl dt l = hd am (hi − h)dL (1)
To avoid consideration of the interfacial conditions, an overall coefficient Ui is adopted that
relates the driving potential to the enthalpy hl at the bulk water temperature tl. Equation (1) then
becomes
Gadi = Gl cl dt l = Ui am (hi − h)dL (2)
and when Equation (2) is integrated,
Ui am L dt l
= (3)
Gl c l hi − h
Now
m l = Gl Ac and V = Ac L
Then
Ua V dt l
N= i m = (4)

ml cl hi − h
where:
N = number of transfer units, NTU
Ui = overall mass-transfer coefficient between the water and air, lbm/(hr-ft2) or kg/(s-m2)
Am = mass-transfer surface area per unit volume associated with Ui, ft2/ft3 or m2/m3
V = total cooling tower volume, ft3 or m3
ml = mass flow rate of water through the tower, lbm/hr or kg/s
cl = specific heat of the water, Btu/(lbm-F) or kJ/(kg-C)
tl = water temperature at a particular location in the tower, F or C
hl = enthalpy of saturated moist air at tl, Btu/lbm or kJ/kg
h = enthalpy of the moist air at temperature t, Btu/lbm or kJ/kg

The left-hand side of Equation (4) is a measure of the cooling tower size and has the familiar form
of the NTU parameter used in heat-exchanger design.
Equation (4) cannot be integrated in a straightforward mathematical way, however, step-by-step
approach can be used.

Example No. 1
Water is to be cooled from 100 to 85 F in a counterflow cooling tower when the outside air has a 75
F wet bulb temperature. The water-to-air flow ratio (ml/ma) is 1.0. Calculate the transfer units as
defined by Equation (4).
Given:
Water from 100 F to 85 F
Outside air wet bulb = 75 F
Required:
Number of transfer units = NTU
Solution:
Figure 13-8 is the cooling diagram for the given conditions. As the water is cooled from tl1 to tl2, the
enthalpy of the saturated air hl follows the saturation curve from A to B. The air entering at wet bulb
temperature twb1 has enthalpy h1. (This assumes that the air enthalpy is only a function of wet bulb
temperature.) The leaving water temperature tl2 and the enthalpy h1 define point C, and the initial
driving potential is represented by the distance BC. The enthalpy increase of the air is a straight-line
of the air operating line CD is therefore clml/ma.
 Point C represents the air condition at the inlet, and point D represents the air conditions
leaving the tower. Note that the driving potential gradually increases from the bottom to the top of
the tower. Counterflow integration calculations start at the bottom of the tower where the air
condition are known. Evaluation of the integral of Equation (4) may be carried out by plotting tl
versus 1/(hl – h); however, another method will be used here. The step-by-step procedure is shown
in Table 13-1.Water temperatures are listed in column 1 in increments of one or two degrees.
Smaller increments will give greater accuracy. The film enthalpies shown in column 2 are the
enthalpy of saturated air at the water temperatures. Column 3 shows the air enthalpy, which is
determined from Equation (5):
cm 
h = l l t l (5)
ma
where the initial air enthalpy hi is 38.5 Btu/lbma, cl = 1.0 Btu/(lbmw-F), ml/ma = 1.0, and Dt is read in
column 1 of Table 13-1. The data of column 4 and 5 are obtained from columns 2 and 3. Column 6 is
 the average of two steps from column 5 multiplied by the water temperature increment (column 1)
for the same step. The number of transfer units is then given in column 7 as the summation of
column 6. Column 8 gives the temperature range over which the water has been cooled. The last
entry in column 7 is the number of transfer units required for this problem.

Table 13-1 Counterflow Cooling Tower Integrating Calculations

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Water Enthalpy Enthalpy Enthalpy Reciprocal Average, Summation, Cooling
Temperature of Film, of Air, h, Difference, of t l t l Range, F
tl, F hl,, Btu/lbma hl – h, Enthalpy hl − h
,  hl − h
,
Btu/lbma Btu/lbma Difference, F- F-lbma/Btu
1 lbma/Btu
,
(hl − h)
lbma/Btu
85 49.4 338.5 10.9 0.0917
0.0905 0.0905 1
86 50.7 39.5 11.2 0.0893
0.1748 0.2653 3
88 53.2 41.5 11.7 0.0855
0.1661 0.4314 5
90 55.9 43.5 12.4 0.0806
0.1558 0.5872 7
92 58.8 45.5 13.3 0.0752
0.1451 0.7323 9
94 61.8 47.5 14.3 0.0699
0.1348 0.8671 11
96 64.9 49.5 15.4 0.0649
0.1248 0.9919 13
98 68.2 51.5 16.7 0.0599
0.1148 1.1067 15
100 71.7 53.5 18.2 0.0549

It is evident from Table 13-1 that either an increase in the cooling range or a decrease in the
leaving water temperature will increase the number of transfer units. These two factors are quite
important in cooling tower design. The heat exchangers with which the cooling tower is connected
should be designed with the cooling tower in mind. It may be more economical to enlarge the heat
exchangers and/or increase the flow rate of the water than to increase the size of the cooling tower.
To continue the problem of tower design, we need information on the overall mass-coefficient
per unit volume, Uiam. There is little theory to predict this coefficient; therefore, we must rely on
experiments. After many tests have been made on towers of a similar type, it is possible to predict
Uiam with reasonable accuracy.
Then the volume of the tower required for a given set of conditions is given by
Nm  l cl
V= (6)
Ui am
where N is the number of transfer units given by Equation (5). The cross-sectional area of the tower
is defined by
 ma m 
Ac = = l (7)
Ga G l
and the height of the tower is given by
V
L= (8)
Ac

Example No. 2
Suppose the cooling tower of Example No. 1 must handle 1000 gpm of water. It has been
determined that an air mass velocity of 1500 lbma/(hr-ft2) is acceptable without excessive water
carry-over (drift). The overall mass-transfer coefficient per unit volume Uiam is estimated to be 120
lbm/(hr-ft3) for the type of tower to be used. Estimate the tower dimensions for the required duty.
Given:
Result of Example No. 1
Flow rate = 1000 gpm
Air mass velocity = 1500 lbma/(hr-ft2)
Uiam is 120 lbm/(hr-ft3)
Solution:
The transfer units N required for the tower were found to be 1.1067 in Example No. 1. Then the
total volume of the tower is given by Equation (6) as
1.1067(1000)(8.33)(60)(1.0)
V= = 4609 ft 3
120
The cross-sectional area of the tower may be determined from Equation (7) using the mass velocity
of the air and the water-to-air ration:
m m  m   
m
Ac = a =  a  l  = (1.0) l
Ga  m  l  Ga  Ga
1000(8.33)(60)
Ac = = 333 ft 2
1500
which is equivalent to an 18 x 18 cross section. Then from Equation (8)
V 4609
L= = = 13.8 ft
Ac 333

2. Catalog Data
For many HVAC applications, factory-assembled cooling towers are used. Performance data are
usually presented in a form such that a certain standard size may be selected. Figure 13-9 and Table
13-2 are an example of what might be furnished by a manufacturer for a line of towers. The entering
water temperature, air wet bulb temperature, and the water flow rate determine the model to be
selected for a fixed leaving water temperature of 85 F. The example shown as a dashed line
illustrates use of the chart. This procedure usually causes the tower to be slightly oversized. The
cooling range may be computed from the entering water temperature and flow rate, plus the tower
capacity.
 In Table 13-2 the nominal rating in tons refers to a typical refrigeration system with which the
cooling tower may be used and includes the heat transferred to the evaporator plus the power to
the compressor, about 15,000 Btu/hr per refrigeration ton.

Example No. 3
Select a cooling tower using Fig. 13-9 and Table 13-2 for the conditions of Examples 1 and 2.
Compute the cooling range, approach, and heat-transfer rate.
Given:
Results of Examples No. 1 and 2.
Required:
Cooling range, approach, and heat-transfer rate.
Solution:
The entering water temperature and air wet bulb temperature are 100 F and 75 F, respectively, with
a water flow rate of 1000 gpm. Referring to Fig. 13-9, a model L would be the obvious choice (or two
model G). With a cooling range of 15 F the tower capacity is
q = m
 w cpw t r = 500 gpm  t
q = 500(1000)(15) = 7.5 106 Btu hr
of about 500 tons (Table 13-2).
Suppose that the heat exchangers (condensers) in the circuit could be changed so that the water
would enter the tower at 103 F with a flow rate of 835 gpm. This is still the same duty of about 7.5 x
106 Btu/hr. Referring back to Fig. 13-9, a model K tower fits this situation. The cooling range is
tl1 − tl 2 = 103 − 85 = 18 F
and the approach is
tl 2 − twb1 = 85 − 78 = 10 F
The reader is referred to the HVAC Systems and Equipment Volume of the ASHRAE Handbook,
which has a great deal of information on cooling tower performance and selection.

- End -
 5.9 Refrigeration Equipment

1. RECIPROCATING REFRIGERATION MACHINE

The main component of these machines is the reciprocating compressor which is a positive
displacement device employing the vapor compression cycle, and which is applied with refrigerants
having low specific volumes and relatively high-pressure characteristics.
A reciprocating refrigeration machine may be classified as one of the following:
a. A compressor unit consisting of a compressor, motor, and safety cantors mounted as a unit.
b. A condensing unit consisting of a compressor unit plus an interconnected water-cooled or air-
cooled condenser mounted as a unit.
c. A water-chilling unit consisting of either a compressor unit or a condensing unit, plus an
interconnected water cooler and operating controls minted as a unit.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 show a compressor unit, condensing unit, and water-chilling unit respectively.
1.1 TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Compressors may be classified as either open or hermetic.
OPEN COMPRESSOR
An open compressor requires an external drive (Fig. 1) and may be direct driven thru a
coupling or belt driven to operate at a specific speed, depending on load requirements. The type
of the drive (electric motor, internal combustion engine or steam turbine) may be selected to
provide sufficient horsepower to match the job requirement. This compressor may use any type
of electric motor.
HERMETIC COMPRESSOR
A hermetic compressor has an electric motor and a compressor built into an integral
housing (Fig. 4) The motor and compressor utilize a common shaft and bearings. The motor is
generally cooled by suction gas passing thru the windings but may, in some cases, be water-
 cooled. These compressors eliminate problems of motor mounting, coupling alignment, motor
lubrication, and refrigerant leakage at the shaft seal.

The compressor operating limits depend on the refrigerant used and the horsepower output
of the motor. Generally, the motor horsepower is matched to the compressor and a refrigerant
so that the motor does not overload when the unit operates within normal air conditioning
levels. Hermetic compressors may be classified as either (1) sealed (requiring factory service for
repairs) or (2) accessible (permitting service on the job).

1.2 APPLICATION
Refrigeration applications up to 60 tons generally utilize reciprocating compressors. From 60
to 200 tons either reciprocating compressors or other types such as centrifugal water chillers or
absorption machines are used.
A compressor unit must be combined with a device such as an air-cooled, water-cooled or
evaporative condenser to condense the refrigerant. In a field built-up system this combination
or a factory-assembled condensing unit can be applied with direct expansion evaporator coils in
fan-coils equipment or a built-up apparatus. It may also be applied to a water or brine chiller or
for any other type of refrigeration duty.
A water-chilling unit maybe applied to an air conditioning system or to any process requiring
chilled water. Package water-chilling units can be obtained complete with or without a water-
cooled condenser so that an air-cooled or evaporative condenser so that an air-cooled or
evaporative condenser can be utilized if desired. When two units are required, they may be
applied with their coolers piped in parallel or series water flow. Series connected coolers can be
used on high rise water systems to effect a saving in the over-all horsepower per ton required
for the system.

1.3 STANDARDS AND CODES

 The location and installation of a reciprocating compressor should be in accordance with
local and other code requirements.
The equipment should be manufactured to conform to the USAS B9.1 Safety Code for
Mechanical Refrigeration.
The cooler, condenser and accessories of the system should be built to conform to the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. This code covers the minimum construction requirements
for design, fabrication, inspection and certification of unfired pressure vessels.
ARI Standards for open and sealed compressors establish recommended specifications for
(1) standard equipment, (2) methods of testing and rating, including Standard Rating Conditions,
and (3) provisions for safety. The Standard Rating Condition usually published by the
manufacturer for a compressor unit used for air conditioning duty is Group IV which is based on
an entering saturated refrigerant vapor temperature of 40 F, an actual entering refrigerant
vapor temperature of 55 F, a leaving saturated refrigerant vapor temperature of 105 F an
ambient temperature of 90 F, and no liquid subcooling.
ARI Standards for a Reciprocating Liquid Chilling Package establish a Standard Rating
Condition for a water-cooled model of a leaving chilled water temperature of 44 F, a chilled
water range of 10 F, a 0.0005 fouling factor in the cooler and condenser, a leaving condenser
water temperature of 95 F, and a condenser water rise of 10 degrees. The Standard Rating
Condition for a condenserless model is a leaving chilled water temperature of 44 F, a chilled
water range of 10 degrees, a .0005 fouling factor in the cooler, and a condensing temperature of
105 F or 120 F.
These Standard Rating Conditions can be used to make comparisons between compressors.
When comparing catalog ratings of compressors of different manufactures, the rating conditions
must be known, particularly the amount of subcooling and superheating needed to produce the
capacities shown.
Specifications should call for conformance to these standards and codes to assure a high
quality product.

1.4 UNIT SELECTION

The selection of a reciprocating refrigeration machine is influenced by the economic aspects of
the complete system; a balance between first cost and operation cost should be considered. The
evaporator as well as the heat rejection equipment should be included in the analysis.

2. CENTRIFUGAL REFRIGERATION MACHINE

Centrifugal refrigeration equipment is built for heavy duty continuous operation and has a
reputation for dependability in all type of commercial and industrial applications.
A centrifugal refrigeration machine consists basically of a centrifugal compressor, a cooler and a
condenser. The compressor uses centrifugal force to raise the pressure of a continuous flow of
refrigerant gas from the evaporator pressure to the condenser pressure. A centrifugal compressor
handles high volumes of gas and, therefore, can use refrigerants having high specific volumes. The
cooler is usually a shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the refrigerant in the shell side. The
condenser is also a shell-and-tube type utilizing water as a means of condensing; it may be an air-
cooled or evaporative condenser for special applications.

2.1 TYPE OF CENTRIFUGAL REFRIGERATION MACHINES

Centrifugal refrigeration machine nay be classified by the type of compressor:
a. Open compressors have a shaft which projects outside the compressor housing, requiring a
seal to isolate the refrigerant space from the atmosphere.
b. Hermetic compressors have the driver built into the unit, completely isolating the
refrigerant space from the atmosphere.

OPEN MACHINE
Open type equipment may be obtained for refrigeration duty in single units up to
approximately 4500 tons capacity at air conditioning temperature levels. The compressor is
normally designed with one or two stages, and is driven by a constant or variable speed drive.
Compressors are usually driven at speeds above 3,000 rpm and may operate up to 18,000 rpm.
The centrifugal drive may be an electric motor, steam turbine, gas engine, gas turbine or
diesel engine. An electric motor, gas engine or diesel engine usually requires a speed-increasing
gear between the drive and the compressor. Gas turbines operating at high speeds may require
a speed-decreasing gear between the turbine and the machine. Steam turbines are usually
directly connected to the compressor.
Figure 14 illustrates the three basic components, compressor, cooler and condenser, as well
as the refrigerant cycle.
 Capacity can be varied to match the load by means of a constant speed drive with variable
inlet guide vanes or suction damper control, or a variable speed drive with the suction control.

HERMETIC MACHINE
Standard hermetic equipment may be obtained in single units up to approximately 2000
tons capacity. They are normally designed with either one or two stages and are driven at a
single speed. The drive motor may be either refrigerant- or water-cooled.
A hermetic machine nay be drive at motor speed or, by means of a speed-increasing gear
between the motor and compressor, at a single higher speed. Figure 15 illustrates the three
basic components, compressor motor, cooler and condenser, as well as the refrigerant cycle.

Most machines use variable inlet guide vanes for capacity control.

2.2 APPLICATION
Centrifugal refrigeration machines were developed to fill the need for single refrigeration
units of large capacity. A single centrifugal machine can be used in place of many reciprocating
units.
Since the original on was installed (Fig. 16), centrifugal refrigeration machines have been known
for:
a. Reliability
b. Compactness
c. Low maintenance costs
d. Long life
e. Ease of operation
f. Quietness
 Open centrifugal machines are essentially multipurpose machines. They are used in special
and industrial applications requiring higher temperature lifts than normally encountered at air
conditioning levels. They are flexible in regard to speed selection and staging, and are used for
standard water chilling applications where one or more large capacity machines are required, or
where a steam turbine, gas engine, gas turbine, diesel engine or special motor drive is desired.
The application of a gas engine or gas turbine drive to a centrifugal machine is particularly
attractive when the engine or turbine exhaust gases can generate steam in a waste heat boiler
to produce additional refrigeration from absorption machine equipment.
Hermetic centrifugal machines are single purpose machines and are generally used for
water chilling applications. They are low in first cost because they are a factory package. They
can be installed easily and quickly with a minimum of field problems involving motor mounting,
coupling and alignment.

2.3 STANDARDS AND CODES

Equipment installation should conform to all codes, laws and regulations applying at the
site. The equipment should be manufactured to conform to the ASA B9.1 Safety Code for
Mechanical Refrigeration. This safety code requires conformance to the ASME Unfired Pressure
Vessel Code Specifications should call for conformance to these standards and codes to assure a
high quality product.
Pressure vessels are ASME stamped when required by the code.

2.4 UNIT SELECTION

The factors involved in the selection of a centrifugal machine are load, chilled water or brine
quantity, temperature of the chilled water or brine, condensing medium to be used, quantity of
 the condensing medium and its temperature, type and quantity of power available, fouling
factor allowance, amount of usable space available, and the nature of the load, whether variable
or constant.
The final selection is usually based on the least expensive combination of machine and heat
rejection device as well as a reasonable machine operating cost.

3. ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION MACHINE

The absorption refrigeration machine is a water chilling package which uses heat directly
without the use of a prime mover, thus utilizing the heating facilities on a full time, year-round basis.
Because of its compactness and vibration less operation, it can be installed anywhere space and a
heat source is available, from basement to roof. It uses the cheapest, safest and most available of all
refrigerants, ordinary tap water. Its absorbent is a simple salt.

3.1 APPLICATION
Since heat in the form of steam or hot water is generally the operating force of an absorption
machine, the following situations are favorable to the application of absorption refrigeration
machines:
a. Where low cost fuel is available, as in natural gas regions.
b. Where electric rates are high. Whenever the cost of steam in dollars per thousand pounds is
less than fifty times the cost of electricity in dollars per kilowatt, a lower operating cost can
be expected for the absorption machine. This is approximately the break-even point in
operating cost (at design) between this machine and the electrically driven compressor.
c. Where steam or gas utilities are desirous of promoting summer loads.
d. Where low pressure heating boiler capacity is largely or wholly unused during the cooling
season.
e. When waste steam is available.
f. Where there is a lack of adequate electric facilities for installing a convention compression
machine. Since the absorption machine uses only 2-9% of the electric power required by
compression type equipment, its use becomes attractive where emergency stand-by power
is required, as in hospitals.

The absorption machine can be installed in practically any location in a building where the
floor is of adequate strength and reasonably level. The absence of heavy moving parts
practically eliminates vibrations and reduces the noise level to a minimum.
Absorption machine may be applied also in conjunction with gas engines or turbines and
with centrifugal machine can use as its heat source the steam or hot water made in a waste heat
boiler or the jacket cooling water from a gas engine (250 F or higher).

3.2 STANDARDS AND CODES

 The location and installation of absorption machines should be made in accordance with
local and other code requirements. Water and/ or steam piping to and from the machine should
conform to applicable codes.
The Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration ASA B9.1 requires conformance with the
ASME Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Specifications should require conformance with these
standards to assure a high quality product. Pressure vessels are ASME stamped when required
by the code.

3.3 DESCRIPTION
The absorption machine is a water-chilling package using water as a refrigerant and a salt
solution such as lithium bromide as an absorbent. It consists of the following major
components:
1. Evaporator Section where the chilled water is cooled by the evaporation of the refrigerant
which is sprayed over the chilled water tubes.
2. Absorber Section where the evaporated water vapor is absorbed by the absorbent. The heat
of absorption is removed by condenser water circulated thru this section.
3. Generator Section where heat is added in the form of steam or hot water to boil off the
refrigerant from the absorbent to reconcentrate the solution.
4. Condenser Section where the water vapor produced in the generator is condensed by
condenser water circulated thru this section.
5. Evaporator Pumps which pumps the refrigerant over the tube bundle in the evaporator
section.
6. Solution Pumps which pump the sat solution to the generator and also to the spray header
in the absorber.
7. Heat Exchanger where the dilute solution being pumped to the generator from the absorber
is heated by the hot concentrated solution which is returned to the absorber.
8. Purge Unit which is used to remove noncondensables from the machine and to maintain a
low pressure in the machine.

Figure 27 shows a schematic of an absorption cycle. The machine may be constructed in

one, two or more shells or sections depending on the manufacturer or the application.
3.4 UNIT SELECTION
The factors influencing the selection of an absorption machine are load, chilled water
quantity, temperature of the chilled water, condenser water source, condenser water
temperature, condenser water quantity, fouling factor allowance, and heat source. The final
selection is usually based on the least expensive combination of machine and cooling tower as
well as a reasonable machine operating cost. The absorption machine can be utilized with any
conventional open or closed circuit chilled water system.
Load, chilled water quantity, and temperature rise are all related to each other so that,
when any two are known, the third can be found by the formula.
4. HEAT REJECTION EQUIPMENT
In order for the refrigeration cycle to be complete, the heat absorbed in the evaporator and the
heat equivalent of the work required to raise the pressure of the refrigerant must be removed and
dissipated. This is the function of heat rejection equipment. Heat may be dissipated by sensible heat
transfer or by a combination of sensible heat transfer and latent heat transfer (mass transfer). The
means of heat rejection is the basis of equipment classification.
4.1 TYPES OF EQUIPMENT
There are three types of heat rejection equipment commonly used. They are:
a. Air-cooled condenser, in which heat is rejected directly to the air by sensible, heats transfer.
b. Evaporative condenser, in which sprayed coils are used to dissipate heat to the air by
sensible and latent heat transfer.
c. Water-cooled condenser, in which heat is sensible, transferred to water. Although this
water may then be wasted, it is usually conserved by a process of sensible and latent cooling
in a cooling tower. The water is then recalculated it the condenser. For this reason, the
water-cooled condenser and the cooling tower should be examined together as a single
heat rejection device.

Figures 43, 44, 45 and 46 show an air-cooled condenser, an evaporative condenser, a water-
cooled condenser, and a cooling tower respectively.
4.2 APPLICATION
An evaluation of owning and operating costs is usually the basis for selection of a means of
heat rejection. Customer preference and provision for future condition may influence the choice
as well. Local design factors such as air and water conditions and the system application affect
the selection insofar as they affect the economics.
In an economic analysis, system size is important since the installed costs per ton of the
various condensing methods decrease at different rates with increasing size. All factors being
equal, air-cooled condensing is often chosen for capacities up to 75 tons. Evaporative
condensing is a primary alternative in the 50-150 ton range. Above 100 tons, water-cooled
condensing, in conjunction with a mechanical draft-cooling tower, is the most common choice.
There are many applications where well, river or lake water is used for water-cooled condensing
purposes. The installed cost per ton of once thru water-cooled condensing where the water is
wasted is wasted remains constant with system size.
In the capacity range where all three condensing methods are alternatives, air-cooled
condensing is usually the highest in first cost. However, maintenance costs for sir-cooled
condensers are considerably lower for a given capacity. Therefore, air-cooled condensing is well
suited to system where service is infrequent or incomplete. Similarly, long operating hours at
light loads favor air-cooled condensing. Over-all operating costs of this method for the
commonly applied capacity range are less than for water-cooled condensing, and compare
favorably with evaporative condensing.
Other factor supporting the choice of air-cooled condensing are the lack of make-up water
or drainage facilities, the availability of only foul water, high summer wet-bulb temperatures,
relatively low summer dry-bulb temperatures or high water costs. Installations featuring many
independent compressors may possibly be served more satisfactorily by multiple air-cooled
condenser or cooling tower. Also, if operation is required or at low outdoor temperatures, air-
cooled condensing presents no water freezing problems.
In the 50-150 ton capacity range, evaporative condensing usually has the lowest first cost.
Some other factors which encourage its use are low wet-bulb temperatures, high dry-bulb
temperatures, or the availability of inexpensive water of adequate quality.
Operating costs may be below those of air-cooled condensing, partially if the condensing
temperature considered is lower, with consequently smaller compressor power input
requirements.
In general, conditions favoring the use of evaporative condensing also favor water-cooled
condensing in combination with a cooling tower. When the heat rejection equipment is located
further away from the other refrigeration components, the use of a close-coupled water-cooled
condenser and a remote cooling tower becomes economically more attractive. This is because
the refrigerant piping necessary with sir-cooled or evaporative condensing is more costly than
water piping for a given capacity.
Once-thru water-cooled condensing may be the most practical and economical choice if
there is a nearby supply of eater of adequate temperature and quality such as a river, lake or
 well. Otherwise, city water costs, local codes for the use of water, or lack of adequate sewage
facilities may make a once-thru system prohibitive.

4.3 STANDARDS AND CODES

The application and installation of heat rejection equipment should conform to codes, lows
and regulation applying at the job site.
Method of testing and rating mechanical draft cooling tower are prescribed in the ARI
Standards, as are similar procedures for evaporative and air-cooled condensers. For water-
cooled condensers, design, testing and installation should be in accordance with the ASME
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code and the ASA B9.1 Safety code for Mechanical Refrigeration.

4.4 AIR-COOLED CONDENSERS

An air-cooled condenser consists of a coil, casing, fan and motor. It condenses the
refrigerant gas by means of a transfer of sensible heat to air passed over the coil. The relation
between condensing temperature and air temperature is shown in Fig. 47.

For a given surface and air quantity, the capacity of an air-cooled condenser varies, for
practical purposes, in direct proportion to the difference (TD) between the condensing
temperature and the entering air dry-bulb temperature. Therefore, assuming the heat rejection
requirement is constant, a fall or rise in entering air temperature results in an equal decrease or
increase in condensing temperature.
Values for TD range from 15-35 degrees, with condensing temperatures between 110 F and
135 F. In desert areas these temperatures may reach 140 F.
4.5 WATER-COOLED CONDENSERS
A water-cooled condenser consists of hot transfer tubes mounted within steel. Condenser
water passes thru the tubes, and the condensing refrigerant occupies the shell surrounding the
tubes. The shell is equipped with a hot gas inlet, liquid sump, purge connections, water
regulating valve connection, and a pressure relief device. The shell-and-coil condenser had a
spiral or trombone tube must be cleaned chemically instead of by reaming or brushing. Shell-
and-coil condensers are of relatively low cost and are often used in air conditioning applications.
At a given entering water temperature and condensing temperature, condenser capacity is
decreased by decreasing the water flow rate, thus increasing the water temperature rise.
Condensing temperatures usually range from 100-110 F, but may be a low as 80 F for Once-thru
City water condensing.

4.6 COOLING TOWERS

Atmospheric water cooling equipment includes spray ponds, spray-filled atmospheric
towers, natural draft atmospheric towers, and mechanical draft towers. Except for relatively
small installations on which the spray-filled atmospheric tower may be used, the mechanical
draft tower is the most widely used for air conditioning application. Of the types of equipment
available, the mechanical draft tower is the most compact, the lowest in silhouette, the lightest
and the best suited to meet exacting conditions of water temperature.
Air flow thru a mechanical draft tower may be forced or induced. Referring to the direction
of air flow relative to the water flow thru the fill, a tower may be classified as counter-flow,
cross-flow or parallel flow. The towers commonly used are induced draft, counter-flow or cross-
flow. The towers commonly used are induced draft, counter-flow or cross- flow.
A cooling tower consists of a casing, basin and sump, water distribution system, fill, fan,
motor and drive.
The relation between the enthalpy of the air and the water temperature is illustrated in Fig.
52 for a counter-flow tower. The rate of heat transfer from the water to the air depends on the
enthalpy of the air which is represented by wet-bulb temperature. This rate is independent of
the air dry-bulb temperature. For a given air and water quantity thru a tower, the rate of heat
transfer, or rated tower capacity, is increased by lowering the entering air wet-bulb temperature
requirement or by raising the temperature of the water entering the tower.
 Tower performance is specified in terms of water range and approach. Cooling range is the
difference between water entering and leaving temperatures and is equal to the temperature
rise thru the condenser. Approach is the difference between the water temperature leaving the
tower and the entering air wet-bulb temperature.

- End -
 6. Comfort condition

1. Introduction
Comfort is a major concern of the HVAC industry. Experience has shown that not everyone can
be made completely comfortable by one set of conditions, but a fairly clear understanding of what is
involved in providing comfort to most of the occupants in a controlled space has been developed.
Comfort involves control of temperature, humidity, air motion, and radiant sources interacting with
the occupants. Odor, dust (particulate matter), noise, and vibration are additional factors that may
cause one to feel uncomfortable. A well-designed HVAC system manages to keep these variable
within specified limits that have been set by the customer, building codes, and good engineering
judgment. Nonenvironmental factors such as dress and the activity level of the occupants must be
considered. The customer is becoming increasingly aware of the importance of comfort to those
who will occupy the building, and the engineer is challenged to utilize all of the available information
and tools to design systems that provide that comfortable environment.

2. Comfort – Physiological Considerations

The ASHRAE handbook of fundamentals gives a detailed discussion of the physiological
principles of human thermal comfort.
The amount of heat generated and dissipated by the human body varies considerably with
activity and age as well as with size and gender. The body has a complex regulating system acting to
maintain the deep body temperature of about 98.6F (36.9 C) regardless of the environmental
conditions. A normal, healthy person generally feels most comfortable when the environment is
maintained at conditions where the body can easily maintain a thermal balance with the
surroundings. ASHRAE Standard 55 specifies condition in which 80 percent or more of the occupants
will find the environment thermally acceptable.
The environmental factors that affect a person’s thermal balance and therefore which influence
thermal comfort are
a. The dry bulb temperature of the surrounding air
b. The humidity of the surrounding air
c. The relative velocity of the surrounding air
d. The temperature of any surfaces that can directly view any part of the body and thus
exchange radiation.
In addition the personal variables that influence thermal comfort are activity and clothing.
The basic mechanisms that the body uses to control body temperatures are metabolism, blood
circulation near the surface of the skin, respiration, and sweating. Metabolism determines the rate
at which energy is converted from chemical to thermal form within the body, and blood circulation
controls the rate at which the thermal energy is carried to the surface of the skin. In respiration, air
is taken in at ambient conditions but leaves saturated with moisture and very near the body
temperature. Sweating has a significant effect on the rate at which energy can be carried away from
the skin by heat and mass transfer.
The energy generated by a person’s metabolism varies considerably with that person’s activity.
A unit to express the metabolic rate per unit of body surface area is the met, defined as the
metabolic rate of a sedentary person (seated, quiet): 1 met = 18.4 Btu/(hr-ft2) (58.2 W/m2).
Metabolic heat generation rates typical of various activities are given in the ASHRAE Handbook,
Fundamentals Volume. The average adult is assumed to have an effective surface area for heat
transfer of 19.6 ft2 and will therefore dissipate approximately 360 Btu/hr (106 W) when functioning
in a quiet, seated manner. A table of heat generation by various categories of persons is available
for purposes of making cooling loads calculations.
 The other personal variable that affects comfort is the type and amount of clothing that a
person is wearing. Clothing insulation is usually described as a single equivalent uniform layer over
the whole body. Its insulating value is expresses in terms of “clo” units: 1 clo = 0.880 (F-ft2-hr)/Btu
[0.155 (m2-C)/W]. A heavy two-piece business suit with accessories has an insulation value of about
1 clo, whereas a pair of shorts has about 0.05 clo.

3. Environmental Comfort Indices

In addition to the personal factors of clothing and activity that affect comfort, there are four
environmental factors: temperature, humidity, air motion, and radiation. The first of these,
temperature, is easily measured and is alternatively called the air temperature or the dry bulb
temperature. The second factor, humidity, can be described, for a given pressure and dry bulb
temperature, using some of the terms defined in psychrometrics. These include the wet bulb and
dew point temperatures, which can be measured directly, and the relative humidity and humidity
ratio, which must be determined indirectly from measurement of the directly measurable variables.
The third environmental comfort factor, air motion, can be determined from measurement and,
to a certain extent, predicted from the theories of fluid mechanics.
The fourth environmental comfort factor involves the amount of radiant exchange between a
person and the surroundings. Cold walls or windows may cause a person to feel cold even though
surrounding air may be ay a comfortable level. Likewise, sunlight or warm surfaces such as stoves or
fireplaces or ceilings may cause a person to feel warmer than the surrounding air temperature
would indicate. Usually these surfaces do not surround a person but occur only one or two sides.
Exact description of the condition is difficult and involves not only the surface temperature but how
well that surface is “seen” by parts of one’s body. Computation involves the angle factor or
configuration factor used in radiation hear transfer. The basic index used to describe the radiative
conditions in a space is the mean radiant temperature, the mean temperature of individual exposed
surfaces in the environment. The most commonly used instrument to determine the mean radiant
temperature is Vernon’s globe thermometer, which consists of a hollow sphere 6 in. in diameter, flat
black paint coating, and a thermocouple or thermometer bulb at its center. The equilibrium
temperature assumed by the globe (the globe temperature) results from a balance in the convective
and radiative heat exchanges between the globe and its surroundings. Measurements of the globe
thermometer, air temperature, and air velocity can be combined as a practical way to estimate
values of the mean radiant temperature.
4
Tmrt = Tg4 + CV 1 2 (Tg − Ta ) (1)
where:
Tmrt = mean radiant temperature, R or K
Tg = globe temperature, R or K
Ta = ambient air temperature, R or K
Ṽ = air velocity, fpm or m/s
C = 0.103 x 109 (English units)
= 0.247 x 109 (SI units)

Other indices have been developed to simplify description of the thermal environment and to
take into account the combined effects of two or more of the environmental factors controlling
human comfort: air temperature, humidity, air movement, and thermal radiation. These indices fall
into two categories, depending on how they are developed. Rational indices depend on theoretical
concepts already developed. Empirical indices are based on measurements with subjects or on
simplified relationships that do not necessarily follow theory. The rational indices have the least
direct use in design, but they form a basis from which we can draw useful conclusions about comfort
conditions.
Considered to be the most common environmental index with the widest range of application,
the effective temperature ET* is the temperature of an environment at 50 percent relative humidity
that results in the same total heat loss from the skin as in the actual environment. It combines
temperature and humidity ratio into a single index so that two environments with the same
effective temperature should produced in the same thermal response even though the
temperatures and the humidities may not be the same. Effective temperature depends on clothing
and activity; therefore, it is not possible to generate a universal chart utilizing the parameter.
Calculations of ET* are tedious and usually involve computer routines, and a standard effective
temperature SET has been defined for typical indoor conditions. These conditions are
clothing insulation = 0.6 clo
moisture permeability index = 0.4
metabolic activity lever = 1.0 met
air velocity < 20 fpm
ambient temperature = mean radiant temperature
The operative temperature is the average of the mean radiant and ambient air temperatures,
weighed by their respective heat transfer coefficients. For the usual practical applications, it is the
mean of the radiant and dry bulb temperatures and is sometimes referred to as the adjusted dry
bulb temperature.
The humid operative temperature is the temperature of a uniform environment at 100 percent
relative humidity in which a person loses the same total amount of heat from the skin as in the
actual environment. It takes into account all three of the external transfer mechanisms that the
body uses to lose heat: radiation, convection, and mass transfer. A similar index is the adiabatic
equivalent temperature, the temperature of a uniform environment at 0 percent relative humidity
in which a person loses the same total amount of heat from the skin as in the actual environment.
Notice that these two indices have definitions similar to the effective temperature except for the
relative humidities.
The heat stress index is the ratio of the total evaporative heat loss required for thermal
equilibrium to the maximum evaporative heat loss possible for the environment, multiplied by 100,
for steady-state conditions, and with the skin temperature held constant at 95 F. Except for the
factor of 100, the skin wittedness is essentially the same as the heat stress index. It is the ratio of the
observed skin sweating to the maximum possible sweating for the environment as defined by the
skin temperature, air temperature, humidity, air motion, and clothing. Skin wittedness is more
closely related to the sense of discomfort or unpleasantness than to temperature sensation.
The wet bulb globe temperature twbg is an environmental heat stress index that combines the
dry bulb temperature tdbm a naturally ventilated wet bulb temperature tnwb, and the globe
temperature tg. It is a parameter that combines the effect of all four environmental factors affecting
comfort. The equation that defines this index is
twbg = 0.7t nwb + 0.2tg + 0.1tdb (2)
Equation (2) is usually used where solar radiation is significant. In enclosed environments the index
is calculated from
twbg = 0.7t nwb + 0.3tg (3)
Equations (2) and (3) are valid for any consistent unit of temperature.
The wind chill index WCI is an empirical index for the combined effect of wind and low
temperature. For wind velocities less than 50 mph (80 km/hr), the index seems to reliably express
 subjective discomfort due to cold. An index derived from the WCI is the equivalent wind chill
temperature, the ambient temperature that would produce, in a calm wind, the same WCI as the
actual combination of air temperature and wind velocity.

Example No. 1
Determine the operative temperature for a work station in a room near a large window where the
dry bulb and globe temperatures are measured to be 75 F and 81 F, respectively. The air velocity is
estimated to be 30 ft/min at the station.
Given:
Dry bulb temperature = 75 F
Globe temperature = 81 F
Air velocity = 30 ft/min
Required:
Operative temperature
Solution:
The operative temperature depends on the mean radiant temperature, which is given by Equation
(1):
4
Tmrt = Tg4 + CV 1 2 (Tg − Ta )
or
 
Tmrt = Tg4 + CV 1 2 (Tg − Ta )
14

= (81 + 460) + (0.10310 )(30) (81 − 75)

4 9 12 14
Tmrt
Tmrt = 546 R = 86 F
Notice that in Equation (1) absolute temperature must be used in the terms involving the fourth
power, but that temperature differences can be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius.
A good estimate of the operative temperatire is
t +t 75 + 86
t o = mrt a = = 80.5 F  81 F
2 2
The operative temperature shows the combined effect of the environment’s radiation and air
motion, which for this case gives a value of 6 degree F greater than the surrounding air temperature.
It will be seen that this is probably an uncomfortable environment. The discomfort is caused by
thermal radiation from surrounding warm surfaces, not from the air temperature. The humidity has
not been taken into account, but at this operative temperature a person would likely be
uncomfortable at any level of humidity.

4. Comfort Conditions
ASHRAE Standard 55 gives the conditions for an acceptable thermal environment. Most comfort
studies involve use of the ASHRAE thermal sensation scale. This scale relates words describing
thermal sensations to a corresponding number. These are given below:
+3 hot
+2 warm
+1 slightly warm
0 Neutral
-1 slightly cool
-2 cool
-3 cold
 Energy balance equations have been developed that use a predicted mean vote (PMV) index.
The PMV index predicts the mean response of a large group of people according to the ASHRAE
thermal sensation scale. The PMV can be used to estimate the predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD).
ISO Standard 7730 includes computer listing for facilitating the computation of PMV and PPD for a
wide range of parameters.
Acceptable ranges of operative temperatures and humidity for people in typical summer and
winter clothing during light and primarily sedentary activity (≤ 1.2 met) are given in Fig. 4-1. The
ranges are based on a 10 percent dissatisfaction criterion.

The coordinates of the comfort zones are:

Winter. Operative temperature to = 68 to 74 F (20 to 23.5 C) at 64 F (18 C) wet bulb and to = 69
to 76 F (20.5 to 24.5 C) at 36F (2 C) dew point. The slanting side boundaries of the winter zone
correspond to 68 and 74 F (20 and 23.5 C) effective temperature (ET*) lines and are loci of constant
comfort or thermal sensations.
Summer. Operative temperature to = 73 to 79 F (22.5 to 26 C) at 68 F (20 C) wet bulb and to = 74
to 81 F (23.5 to 27 C) at 36 F (2 C) dew point. The slanting side boundaries of the summer zones
correspond to 73 and 79 F (23 and 26 C), ET* lines. The wet bulb lines are based on a wittedness of
approximately 0.20.
In Fig. 4-1 the upper and lower humidity limits are based on considerations of dry skin, eye
irritation, respiratory health, microbial growth, and other moisture-related phenomena. Care must
also be taken to avoid condensation on building surfaces and materials by controlling those surface
temperatures.
It can be seen that the winter and summer comfort zones overlap. In this region people in
summer dress tend to approach a slightly cool sensation, but those in winter clothing would be near
a slightly warm sensation. In reality the boundaries shown in Fig. 4-1 should not be thought of as
sharp, since individuals differs considerable in their reactions to given conditions.
For sedentary persons it is necessary to avoid the discomfort of drafts, but active persons are
less sensitive. Figure 4-3 shows the combined effect of air speed and temperature on the comfort
zone of Figure 4-1. It can be seen that air temperatures can be raised in the summer if air velocities
can also be increased.

The acceptable operative temperature for active persons can also be calculated (for 1.2 < met <
3) from:
t o,active = t o,sedentary − 5.4(1 + clo)(met −1.2) F (4)
in degrees Fahrenheit or
t o,active = t o,sedentary − 3.0(1 + clo)(met −1.2) C (5)
in degrees Celsius. The minimum allowable operative temperature for these equations to apply is 59
F (15 C). Met levels can be obtained from the ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals. The combined
effect of operative temperature, activity level, and clothing is shown in Fig. 4-4. One might to expect
people to remove a part of their clothing when exercising vigorously. People at high-activity levels
are assumed to be able to accept higher degrees of temperature nonuniformity than people with
light, primarily sedentary activity.

ASHRAE Standard 55 defines allowable rates if temperature change and also describes
acceptable measuring range, accuracy, and response time of the instruments used for measuring
the thermal parameters as well as locations where measurements should be taken. Procedures for
determining air speed and temperature variations in building spaces are given in ASHRAE Standard
113.

- End -
 7. Ventilation and Indoor Air-Quality

1. The Basic Concerns of IAQ

ASHRAE Standard 62 defines acceptable indoor air quality as air in which there are no known
contaminants at harmful concentrations as determined by cognizant authorities and with which a
substantial majority (80% or more) of the people exposed do not express dissatisfaction. With
acceptable indoor air quality, not only are occupants comfortable, but their environment is free of
bothersome odors and harmful levels of contaminants. Maintaining thermal comfort is not just
desirable and helpful in assuring a productive work environment, but in many cases also has a direct
effect on the health of the building occupants. Factors other than thermal comfort that are
controlled by the HVAC system involve maintenance of a clean, healthy, and odor-free indoor
environment. These factors are often what is intended by the term indoor air quality or IAQ.
Maintaining good indoor air quality involves keeping gaseous and particulate contaminants below
some acceptable level in the indoor environment. The contaminants include such things as carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, other gases and vapors, radioactive materials, microorganisms, viruses,
allergens, and suspended particulate matter.
Contamination of indoor spaces is caused by human and animal occupancy, by the release of
contaminations in the space from the furnishings and accessories or from processes taking place
inside the space, and by the introduction of contaminated outdoor air. The contaminants may be
apparent, as in the case of large particulate matter or where odors are present, or they may be
discernible only by instruments or by the effect that they have on the occupants. Symptoms such as
headaches, nausea, and irritations of the eyes and nose may be a clue that indoor air quality in a
building is poor. Buildings with unusual number of occupants having physical problems have come
to be described as having sick building syndrome. Emphasis on comfort and health in the workplace
and increased litigation in this area place a great responsibility on contractors, building owners,
employers, and even HVAC engineers to be well informed, technically competent, and totally ethical
in any actions affecting indoor air quality. Good indoor air quality usually costs money, and the
economic pressure to save on initial and operating costs can sometimes cause poor decisions that
lead to both human suffering and even greater money costs.

2. Common Contaminants
2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Other Common Gases
Carbon dioxide is an exhaled by-product of human (and all mammals) metabolism, and
therefore CO2 levels are typically higher in occupied spaces than for outdoor air. In heavily
occupied spaces such as auditoriums, CO2 levels will often be a major concern. This is not
because of any direct health risk, but because CO2 is an easily measurable indicator of the
effectiveness of ventilation of the space. As such, it gives measurable indicator of the
effectiveness of ventilation of the space. As such, it gives at least an indirect indication of
potentially unacceptable levels of more harmful gases. The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) recommends a maximum level of 1000 ppm (1.8 g/m 3) for continuous CO2 exposure,
specifically for school and residential occupancy, and as a guideline for other building types.
Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels and tobacco smoking are two significant
sources of carbon monoxide. Buildings with internal or nearby parking garages and loading
docks are more likely to have a high levels of CO. HVAC outdoor air intakes at ground level
where heavy street traffic occurs can draw unacceptable levels of CO into the building’s air
system. Improperly vented and leaking furnaces, chimneys, water heaters, and incinerators are
often the source of difficulty. Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas, and levels near 15 ppm can
significantly affect body chemistry. The reaction of human to different CO levels varies
 significantly, and the effects can be cumulative. Headaches and nauses, are common symptoms
in those exposed to quantities of CO above their tolerance.
Sulfur oxides are the result of combustion of fuels containing sulfur and may enter a building
through outdoor air intakes or from leaks in combustion systems within the building. When
hydrolyzed with water, sulfur oxides can form sulfuric acid, creating problems in the moist
mucous membrane that may cause upper respiratory tract irritation and induce episodic attacks
in individuals with asthmatic tendencies.
Nitrous oxides are produced by combustion of fuels with air at high temperatures.
Ordinarily, these contaminants are brought in with outdoor air that has been contaminated by
internal combustion engines and industrial effluents, but indoor combustion sources frequently
contribute significant amounts.
Radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas resulting from the decay of radium, has
received a great deal of attention recently, especially in areas where concentrations have been
found to be very high. The primary concern with radon is the potential for causing lung cancer.
Radon gas may enter a building from the soil through cracks in slab floors and basement walls,
or through the water supply, or from building materials containing uranium or thorium. The rate
of entry from the soil depends on pressure differences, and therefore pressurization of a space
is one means of reducing radon levels in that space. Other preventive measures include the
ventilating of crawl spaces and under-floor areas and the sealing of floor cracks. For safety,
radon levels should be kept low enough to keep the exposure of occupants below 4 picocuries
per liter of air.

2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

A variety of organic chemicals species occur in a typical modern indoor environment,
resulting from a combustion sources, pesticides, building materials and finishes, cleaning agents
and solvents, and plants and animals. Fortunately, they usually exist at levels that are below
recommended standards. Some occupants, however, are hypersensitive to particular chemicals,
and for them many indoor environments create problems. Formalldehyde gas, one of the more
common VOCs, is irritating to the eyes and the mucous membranes. It seems to have caused a
diversity of problems in asthmatic and immunoneurological reactions and is considered to be a
potential cancer hazard. Formaldehyde, used in the manufacture of carpets, pressed board,
insulations, textiles, paper products, cosmetics, shampoos, and phenolic plastics, seems to enter
buildings primarily in building products. These products continue to outgas formaldehyde for
long periods of time, but mostly during the first year. Acceptable limits are in the range of 1 ppm
as a time-weighted 8-hour average. For homes, levels of 0.1 ppm seem to be a more prudent
upper limit.

2.3 Particulate Matter

A typical sample of outdoor air might contain soot and smoke, silica, clay, decayed animal
and vegetable matter, lint and plant fibers, metallic fragments, mold spores, bacteria, plant
pollens, and other living material. The sizes of these particles may range from less than 0.01 m.
(10-8 m) to the dimensions of leaves and insects. Fig. 4-5 shows the very wide range of sizes of
particles and particle dispersoids along with types of gas cleaning equipment that might be
effective in each case.
 When suspended in the air, the mixture is called an aerosol. As outdoor air is brought into
an indoor environment, it may be additionally contaminated by human sources and activities,
interior furnishings and equipment, and pets. Microbial and infectious organisms can persist and
even multiply when indoor conditions are favorable. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has
been one of the major problems in maintaining good indoor air quality, and concern has been
heightened by increased evidence of its role in lung diseases, particularly cancer. Allergies are a
common problem in a modern society, and the indoor environment may contain many of the
particulates found outdoors. In addition, some occupants may be sensitive to the particulates
found primarily indoors, such as fibers, molds, and dust from carpets and bedding.

3. Methods to Control Contaminants

There are four basic methods to maintain good IAQ in buildings:
a. Source elimination or modification
b. Use of outdoor air
c. Space air distribution
d. Air cleaning
3.1 Source Elimination or Modification
Of the four basic methods listed above, source elimination or modification very often is the
most effective method for reducing contaminants not generated directly by the human
occupants or the necessary activities in the space.

3.2 Use of Outdoor Air

Figure 4-6 is used to help define the various terms involved in the air flow of a typical HVAC
system. Supply air is that air delivered to the conditioned space and used for ventilation,
heating, cooling, humidification, or dehumidification. Ventilation air is that portion of supply air
that is outdoor air plus any recirculated air that has been treated for the purpose of maintaining
acceptable indoor air quality. Indoor spaces occupied for any length of time require the intake of
some outdoor air to maintain air quality.

Outdoor air is air taken from the external atmosphere and therefore not previously
circulated through the system. Some outdoor air may enter a space by infiltration through
cracks and interstices and through ceilings, floors, and walls of a space or building, but generally
in air-conditioned buildings most outdoor air is brought into a space by the supply air. It is
usually assumed that outdoor air is free of contaminants that might cause discomfort or harm o
humans, but this is not always so. In some localities where strong contaminant sources exist
neat a building, the air surrounding a building may not be free of the contaminants for which
there are concerns.
Recirculated air is that air removed from the conditioned space and intended for reuse as
supply air. It differs from return air only in that some of the return air may be exhausted or
relieved through dampers or by fans. Makeup air is outdoor air supplied to replace exhaust air
and exfiltration. Exfiltration is air leakage outward through cracks and interstices and through
ceilings, floors, and walls of a space or building. Some air may be removed from a space directly
by room exhaust, usually with exhaust fans. There must be a balance between the amount of air
mass entering and the amount leaving a space as well as between the amount of air mass
entering and leaving the entire air supply system. Likewise there must be a balance on the mass
of any single contaminant entering and leaving a space and entering and leaving the entire air
supply system.
The basic equation for contaminant concentration in a space is obtained using Fig. 4-6,
making a balance on the concentration entering and leaving the conditioned space assuming
complete mixing, a uniform rate of generation of the contaminant, and uniform concentration
of the contaminant within the space and in the entering air. All balances should be on a mass
basis; however, if densities are assumed constant, then volume flow rates may be used. For the
steady state case,
Q t C e + N = Q t C s (1)
where:
Qt = rate at which air enters or leaves the space
Cs = average concentration of a contaminant within the space
N = rate of contaminant generation within the space
Ce = concentration of the contaminant of interest in the entering air

Equation (1) can be solved for the concentration level in the space Cs or for the necessary rate Qt
at which air must enter the space to maintain the desired concentration level of a contaminant
within the space. This fundamental equation may be used as the basis for deriving more
complex equations for more realistic cases.

Example No. 1
A person breathes out carbon dioxide at the rate of 0.30 L/min. The concentration of CO2 in the
incoming ventilation air is 300 ppm (0.03 percent). It is desired to hold the concentration in the
room below 1000 ppm (0.1 percent). Assuming that the air in the room is perfectly mixed, what
is the minimum rate of flow of air required to maintain the desired level?
Given:
N = 0.30 L/min
Cs = 1000 ppm = 0.1 percent = 0.001
Ce = 300 ppm = 0.03 percent = 0.0003
Required: Qt
Solution:
From Equation (1):
N
Q t =
C s − Ce
0.30 L min
Q t =
(0.001 − 0.0003)(60 s min)
Q = 7.1 L s = 15 cfm
t

In most HVAC systems emphasis is placed on maintaining the occupied zone at a nearly
uniform condition. The occupied zone is the region within an occupied space between the floor
and 72 in. (1800 mm) above the floor and more than 2 ft (600 mm) from the wall or fixed air
conditioning equipment. In most cases perfect mixing of the supply air with the room air does
not occur, and some fraction S of the supply are rate Qs bypasses and does not enter the
occupied zone, as shown in Fig. 4-7. Because of this, some of the outdoor air in the room supply
air is exhausted without having performed any useful reduction in the contaminants of the
occupied zone.

The effectiveness Eoa with which outdoor air is used can be expressed as the fraction of the
outdoor are entering the system that is utilized:
Q − Q oe
E oa = o (2)
Q o
where:
Qo = rate at which outdoor air is taken in
Qoe = rate at which unused outdoor air is exhausted

From Fig. 4-8, with R equal to the fraction of return air Qr that is recirculated, the rate at which
outdoor air is supplied to the space Qos is
Q os = Q o + RSQ os (3)
The amount of unused outdoor air that is exhausted Qoe is
Q oe = (1 − R )SQ os (4)
Combining equation (2), (3), and (4) yields
1− S
E oe = (5)
1 − RS
Equation (5) gives the effectiveness with which the outdoor air is circulated to the occupied
space in terms of the stratification factor S and the recirculation factor R. S is sometimes called
the occupied zone bypass factor. Using this simple model with no stratification, S would equal to
zero and there would be total mixing of air, and the effectiveness Eoa would be 1.0. Note also
that as the exhaust flow becomes small, R approaches 1.0 and the effectiveness again
approaches 1.0. This simple model neglects the effect of infiltration and assumes that the
occupied space is perfectly mixed air.

Example No. 2
For a given space it is determined that due to poor location of inlet diffusers relative to the inlet
for the air return, and due to partitions around each work space, about 50 percent of the supply
air for a space is bypassed around the occupied zone. What fractions of the outdoor air provided
for the space are effectively utilized as the recirculation rate is changed from 0.4 to 0.8?
Given:
S = 0.5
R = 0.4 to 0.8
Required:
Eoa
Solution:
1− S
E oe =
1 − RS
For R = 0.4
1 − 0.5
E oe = = 0.625
1 − (0.4)(0.5)
For R = 0.8
1 − 0.5
E oe = = 0.833
1 − (0.8)(0.5)

Standard 62 describes two methods by which acceptable indoor air quality can be achieved.
The first of these procedures, the Ventilation Rate Procedure, prescribes the rate at which
outdoor air must be delivered to a space and various means to condition that air. A sample of
these rates is given in Table 4-2, from Standard 62, and are derived from physiological
considerations, subjective evaluations, and professional judgments. The Ventilation Rate
Procedure prescribes:
 • The outdoor air quality acceptable for ventilation
• Outdoor air treatment when necessary
• Ventilation rates for residential, commercial, institutional, vehicular, and industrial
spaces
• Criteria for reduction of outdoor air quantities when recirculated air is treated by
contaminant-removal equipment.
• Criteria for variable ventilation when the air volume in the space can be used as a
reservoir to dilute contaminants.

For most of the cases in Table 4-2, outdoor-air requirements are assumed to be in
proportion to the number of space occupants and are given in cfm (L/s) per person. In the rest
of the cases the outdoor-air requirements are given in cfm/ft2 [L/(s-m2)], and the contamination
is presumed to be primarily due to other factors. Although estimated occupancy is given where
appropriate for design purposes, the anticipated occupancy should be used. For cases where
more than one space is served by a common supply system, the Ventilation Rate Procedure
provides a means for calculating the outdoor-air requirements for the system. Rooms provided
with exhaust air systems, such as toilet rooms and bathrooms, kitchens, and smoking lounges,
may be furnished with makeup air from adjacent occupiable spaces provided the quantity of air
supplied meets the requirements of Table 4-2.
3.3 Air Cleaning
Some outdoor air is necessary in buildings to replenish the oxygen required for breathing
and to dilute the carbon dioxide and other wastes produced by the occupants. In many cases it
is desirable to clean or filter the incoming outdoor air. In combination with the introduction of
outdoor air, source reduction, and good air distribution, cleaning or filtration of the recirculated
air can often provide a cost-effective approach to the control of indoor air contaminants. Design
of a proper system for gas cleaning is often the final step in assuring that an HVAC system will
provide a healthy and clean indoor environment.
3.3.1 Gas Removal
The 1995 ASHRAE Handbook, HVAC Applications has a detailed discussion of the
control of gaseous contaminants for indoor air. Industrial gas cleaning and air pollution
control is discussed in the 1996 ASHRAE Handbook, HVAC Systems and Equipment.
Contaminants may be removed from an airstream by absorption, by physical
adsorption, by chemisorptions, by catalysis, and by combustion. In some cases
particulate matter may also be removed as these processes take place.
Absorbers are commonly used in the life support systems of space vehicles and
submarines. Both solid and liquid absorbers may be used to reduce carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide to carbon, returning the oxygen to the conditioned space. Air
washers, whose purpose may be to control temperature and humidity in buildings, not
only remove contaminant gases from air stream by absorption, but can remove
particulate matter as well. Contaminant gases are absorbed in liquids when the partial
pressure of the contaminant in the air stream is greater than the solution vapor
pressure with or without additive for that contaminant.
Adsorption is the adhesion of molecules to the surface of a solid (the adsorbent), in
contrast to absorption, in which the molecules are dissolved into or react with a
substance. Good adsorbents must have large surface areas exposed to the gas being
adsorbed and therefore typically have porous surfaces. Activated charcoal is the most
widely used adsorbent because of its superior adsorbing properties. It is least effective
with the lighter gases such as ammonia and ethylene and most effective with gases
having high molecular mass. The charcoal may be impregnated with other substances to
permit better accommodation of chemically active gases.
Chemisorption is similar in many ways to physical adsorption. It differs in that
surface binding in chemisorption is by chemical reaction and therefore only certain
pollutant compounds will react with a given chemisorber. In contrast to physical
adsorption, chemisorptions improves as temperature increases, does not generate heat
(but may require heat input), is not generally reversible, is helped by the presence of
water vapor, and is a monomolecular layer phenomenon.
Catalysis is closely related to chemisorptions in that chemical reactions occur at the
surface of the catalyst; however, the gaseous pollutant does not react stoichiometrically
with the catalyst itself. Because the catalyst is not used up in the chemical reaction
taking place, this method of air purification has the potential for longer life than with
adsorbers or chemisorbers, assuming that an innocuous product is produced in the
reaction. The chemical reactions may involve a breakdown of the contaminant in to
smaller molecules or it may involve combining the contaminant gas with the oxygen
available in the air stream or with a supplied chemical. Only a few catalyst appear to be
effective for air purification at ambient temperatures. Catalytic combustion permits the
burning of the offending has at a temperatures lower than with unassisted combustion
and is widely used in automobiles to reduce urban air pollution.
3.3.2 Particulate Removal – Filtering
The wide variety of suspended particles in both the outdoor and indoor
environments has been described previously. With such a wide range of particulate
sizes, shapes, and concentrations, it is impossible to design one type of air particulate
cleaner that would be suitable for all applications. Clean rooms in an electronic
assembly process require entirely different particulate removal systems than an office
or a hospital. Air cleaners for particulate contaminants are covered in more detail in the
ASHRAE Systems and Equipment Handbook.
The most important characteristics of the aerosol affecting the performance of a
particulate air cleaner include the particle’s
• Size and shape
• Specific gravity
• Concentration
• Electrical properties
Particulate air cleaners vary widely in size, shape, initial cost, and operating cost.
The major factor influencing filter design and selection is the degree of air cleanliness
required. Generally, the cost of the filter system will increase as the size of the particles
to be removed decreases. The three operating characteristics that can be used to
compare various types are
• Efficiency
• Air-flow resistance
• Dust-holding capacity
Efficiency measures the ability of the air cleaner to remove particulate matter from
an air stream. Figure 4-8 shows the efficiency of four different high-performance filters
as a function of particle size. It can be seen that smaller particles are the most difficult
to filter. In application with dry-type filters and with low dust concentrations, the initial
or clean filter efficiency should be considered for design, since the efficiency in such
cases increases with dust load. Average efficiency over the life of the filter is the most
meaningful for most types and applications.
 The air-flow resistance is the loss in total pressure at a given air flow rate. This is an
important factor in operating costs for the system. Dust-holding capacity defines the
amount of a particular type of dust that an air cleaner can hold when it is operated at a
specified air-flow rate to some maximum resistance value or before its efficiency drops
seriously as a result of the collected dust. Typical engineering data (physical size, flow
rate at a stated pressure drop) for the four filters shown in Fig. 4-8 are given in Table 4-
3. The design requirement will rarely be exactly one of the air-flow rate or pressure loss
shown in Table 4-3.

In these cases one can assume that the pressure loss across a filter element is
proportional to the square of the flow rate. Thus, letting the subscript r stand for rated
conditions, the pressure loss p at any required rate of flow Q can be determined by
 Q 
2

p = pr   (6)

 Qr 
The mechanism by which particulate air filters operate include
• Straining
• Direct interception
• Inertial deposition
• Diffusion
• Electrostatic effects

The common types of particulate air cleaners may be put in one or four groups:
• Fibrous-media unit filters
• Renewable-media filters
• Electronic air cleaners
• Combination air cleaners

Air cleaning has been used for many years to improve the quality of air entering a
building, to protect components such as heat exchanger coils from particulate
contamination, and to remove contaminants introduced into the recirculated air from
the conditioned space. Properly designed HVAC systems utilize air cleaning along with
source modification, dilution with outdoor air, and space air distribution to give
optimum performance with lowest cost.
The performance of an air cleaning system can be studied by using a model shown
in Fig. 4-9. This is simplified model in which filtration, exfiltration, and room exhaust are
ignored and the air cleaner is assumed to be located either in the recirculated air stream
(location A) or in the supply air stream (location B).
 Ventilation efficiency Ev, the fraction of supply air delivered to the occupied zone,
depends on the room shape, as well as on the location and design of the supply
diffusers and the location of the return inlets. The ventilation efficiency can be seen to
be equal to (1 – S) in Figure 4-7 note that ventilation efficiency is not the same as the
effectiveness of outdoor air use, Eoa.
Assuming that densities do not vary significantly, volume balances can be used in
place of mass balances. This seems to be a common assumption in air cleaning
calculations, but care should always be exercised to be sure significant errors are not
introduced. Making volume balances on the overall air-flow rates, and on any one
contaminant of interest, Fig. 4-9 can be used to obtain equations for the required
constant outdoor-air rates for constant-air-volume systems:
 Filter location Required outdoor air rate
N − Ev RQ r E f C s
A Q o = (7)
Ev (C s −C o )
N − Ev RQ r E f C s
Q o =
B
 
Ev C s − (1 − E f )C o
(8)

Standard 62 gives five additional equations for variable-air-volume systems.

Equations (7) and (8) can be used as an engineering basis for air cleaner (filter) selection.
A typical computation might be to determine the required outdoor air that must be
taken in by a system to maintain the desired air quality, assuming air cleaning to occur.
The equations can also be used to solve for space contaminant concentration, required
recirculation rate, or required filter efficiency.

Example No. 3
A constant air volume system having a filter located in the supply duct (location B, Fig. 4-
9) and a filter efficiency of 70 percent for environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is to be
used to assist in holding the particulate level of the ETS in an occupied zone to below
220 g/m3. Assume that an average occupant (including smokers and nonsmokers)
produces about 125 g/min of ETS, and that 20 cfm of outdoor air per person is to be
supplied. For a ventilation effectiveness of 0.65 for the space, determine the necessary
rate of recirculation assuming no ETS in the incoming outdoor air.
Given:
N = 125 g/min
Cs = 220 g/m3
Co = 0
Qo = 20 cfm
Ef = 0.7
Ev = 0.65
Required:
RQr
Solution:
Solving Equation (8) for RQr

RQ r =
 
N + Ev Q o (1 − E f )C o−C s
Ev E f C s
For each person this is

RQ r =
 (
125 g min + (0.65)(20 cfm) (1 − 0.7 )(0) − 220 g m3 0.0283 m3 ft 3 )
( )(
(0.65)(0.7 ) 220 g m3 0.0283 m3 ft 3 )
RQ = 15.6 cfm person
r
The total rate of supply air to the room Qt = Qo + RQr = 20 + 15.6 = 35.6 cfm/person. If
we assume that there were about 7 persons per 1000 square feet as typical for an
office, the air flow to the space would be
Q (35.6 cfm person)(7 persons)
= = 0.25 cfm ft 2
A 1000 ft 2
This would probably be less than the supply air-flow rate typically required to meet the
cooling load. A less efficient filter might be considered. If the above filter were used with
the same rate of outdoor air but with increased supply and recirculation rates, the air in
the space would be better than the assumed level.

Example No. 4
For Example No. 3 assume that the cooling load requires that 1.0 cfm/ft2 be supplied to
the space, determine the recirculation rate per person QrR, and the concentration level
of the ETS in the space. Assume that the rate of outdoor air per person and the filter
efficiency remain unchanged.
Given:
1.0 cfm/ft2, other remains unchanged except the required.
Required:
RQr
Cs
Solution:
RQ r Q t Q o (7 )(20)
= − = 1.0 − = 0.86 cfm ft 2
A A A 1000

RQ r =
( )(
0.86 cfm ft 2 1000 ft 2) = 123 cfm person
7 persons
Solving Equation (11) for Cs,
N + Ev Q o (1 − E f )C o
Cs =
Ev (Q o + RQr E f )
125 g (min− person) + 0
Cs =
(
0.6520 + (123)(0.7 ) cfm person 0.0283 m3 ft 3 )
C s = 64 g m 3

The extra recirculation of the air through the filter has reduced the space concentration
level of the tobacco smoke considerably with no use of extra outdoor air.

Example No. 5
Assume that the office in Example No. 4 is occupied by 70 persons and that a suitably
efficient filter was the M-15 filter of Fig. 4-8 and Table 4-3. Using this filter, design a
system that has a pressure loss of no more than 0.30 in. wg in the clean condition.
Given:
Office of Example No. 4
70 person, M-15 filter, pn = 0.30 in. wg maximum.
Required:
Design of a system (size and number of filter)
Solution:
Table 4-5 gives the application data needed. There are four sizes of M-15 filters to
choose from, and the rated cfm at 0.35 in. wg pressure loss is given for each size. We
must choose an integer number of filter elements. The total supply cfm required for 70
person is
 Q s = (123 + 20 cfm person)(70 persons) = 10,000 cfm

It is desirable for the complete filter unit to have a reasonable geometric shape and be
as compact as possible. Therefore choose the 24 x 24 x 12 elements for a trial design.
The rated cfm will first be adjusted to obtain a pressure loss of 0.30 in. wg using
Equation(6):
12
 p   0.3 
12
Q n = Q r  n  = 2000  = 1852 cfm element
 pr   0.35 
Then the required number of elements is
Q 10,000
n= s = = 5.40 element
Q n 1852
Since n must be an integer, use 6 elements and the complete filter unit will have
dimensions of 48 x 72 in., a reasonable shape. However, the filter unit will have a
pressure loss less than the specified 0.30 in. wg. Again using Equation (6) the actual
pressure loss will be approximately
 Q 
2 2
 10,000 6 
p = pr   = 0.35  = 0.24 in.wg
  2000 
 Qr 
This is not an undesirable result and can be taken into account in the design of the air
distribution system.

- End -
 8.2 All-Water Systems

This air-water system are for use in perimeter rooms of multi-story, multi-room buildings where cooling
or heating may be required simultaneously in adjacent rooms and where space allotted for ductwork is
at a minimum.

1. INDUCTION UNIT SYSTEM

The induction unit system is designed for use in perimeter rooms of multi-story, multi-room
building such as office buildings, hotels, hospital patient rooms and apartments. Specifically, it is
designed for buildings that have reversing sensible heat characteristics in which cooling may be
required in one room and heating may be required in a adjacent room. In addition, it is especially
adapted to handle the loads of modern skyscrapers with minimum space requirements for
mechanical equipment.

1.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

A typical induction unit system is shown in Fig. 1. Although the arrangement may differ for
each application, this illustration includes the basic components common to most induction unit
systems. The following description is for a non changeover system.
Outdoor air for ventilation is drawn into the central apparatus thru a louver, screen and
damper. Return air may be introduced into the system if the total required primary air quantity
is more than the minimum ventilation requirement. The preheater tempers the air in winter to
increase the capacity of the air to absorb moisture and to prevent freezing air from entering the
dehumidifier. The filters remove entrained dust and dirt particles from the air. The sprayed coil
dehumidifier cools and dehumidifies the air during the warm weather; during cool weather the
recirculation sprays may be used to add moisture to the air. The reheater heats the air to offset
the building transmission losses. The high pressure fan delivers the conditioned air thru high
velocity ducts to the induction units. A sound absorber on the leaving side of the fan is normally
required to reduce the noise generated by the fan. Chilled water from a central refrigeration
plant is circulated by the primary pump thru the dehumidifier coils in the apparatus. The
secondary water pump circulates water to the induction unit coils.
The induction unit (Fig. 2) is supplied with high pressure primary air which is discharged
within the unit thru nozzles. This air induces room air across the coil which is supplied with
water from the secondary water pump. The induced air is heated or cooled depending on the
temperature of the secondary water, and the mixture of primary air and induced air is
discharged to the room.
The function of the primary air is to provide ventilation air, to offset the transmission loads,
to provide dehumidification to offset the latent loads, and to provide the motivating force for
induction and circulation of room air. The secondary water circuit functions to offset the heat
gain from sun, lights and people. The primary air is tempered according to a reheat schedule to
prevent the room temperature from falling below 72 F when there is a minimum load in the
room.
On some applications it may be desirable to operate the system during the winter season
with hot water supplied to the coil and cold primary air.
2. PRIMARY AIR FAN-COIL SYSTEM
The primary air fan-coil system is in many ways similar to an induction unit system; the essential
difference is the substitution of a fan-coil unit for the induction unit. The most suitable applications
for the system are multi-room buildings such as hotels, hospitals and apartment houses, where the
units need not be operated as convectors in winter.
This is a basic fan-coil system to which is added a second source of heating or cooling and
positive ventilation. Its over-all performance is comparable to that of a change-over induction unit
system. When performance is of more concern than first cost, this system may be considered.
However, because of its first cost, an evaluation of an induction unit system may be advantageous
before making a system choice.
Fan-coil units may be located along the perimeter of a building with the primary air supplied
directly to the units (Fig. 16a) or from a corridor duct directly into the room (Fig. 16b). Where the
climate permits, the units may be suspended from the ceiling with the primary air supplied from a
corridor duct (Fig. 16c).The latter arrangement may be less costly than that with the units along the
perimeter of the building because of the more compact nature of the ductwork and piping layout.
2.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Figure 17 is a sketch of the system
2.2 CENTRAL APPARATUS
The central apparatus is either a built-up apparatus or a packaged fan-coil unit which
conditions the outdoor air and supplies it to the room unit or directly to the room by a corridor
duct. The air distribution system may be either low or high velocity. A low velocity system is
normally used if the primary air is discharged from a corridor duct directly into the room or
supplied to units suspended from the ceiling. With space available a low velocity system results
in the greatest economy of owning and operating costs.
The apparatus contains filters to cleanse the air, pre-heaters (when required) to temper the
air, and a humidifier or dehumidifier to add humidification or remove excess moisture from the
warm humid air. It also contains reheaters to heat the air from a predetermined schedule as the
outdoor temperature falls to the change-over temperature. The primary air is held at a constant
minimum temperature when the outdoor temperature is below the change-over temperature.
When the primary air is supplied directly to the room, its minimum temperature is maintained
sufficiently high to prevent drafts. Outdoor air to the apparatus is admitted thin a louver and
screen.
Chilled water from a central refrigeration plant is circulated thru the dehumidifier coils in
the central apparatus, an(l then mixes with recirculated water from the secondary water circuit
to maintain a constant water temperature to the fan-coil units.

2.3 FAN-COIL UNIT

Figure 18 illustrates the basic elements of the fan-coil unit, including a recirculated air inlet,
primary air inlet (optional), filter, fan, cooling and heating coils, and discharge air outlet.
The unit is supplied with cold or hot water depending on the outdoor temperature.
Room temperatures are maintained by thermostatically controlling the water flow.
2.4 PIPING DESIGN
A single piping system is used to circulate chilled or hot water to the fan-coil unit. Normal
design practice should be followed in system layout as shown in Part 3. Either a direct return or
a reverse return system may be used. However, a reverse return system (Fig. 19) is preferred
and should be used whenever practical since it is an inherently balanced system.
Secondary chilled water riser piping and unit run-out insulation is not required when chilled
water temperatures are no lower than 3 degrees below the room dew point and when the risers
are furred in.

- End -
 8.1 All-Air Systems

The all-air systems are for applications in which the only cooling medium used directly within the
conditioned space is air. They may be arranged in various ways for transmitting and distributing the air
to and within the space, as well as controlling the space temperature and humidity condition.

1. CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
The conventional all-air systems are ordinary single duct air transmission arrangements with
standard air distributing outlets, and include direct control of room conditions. Such systems are
applied within defined areas of usually constant but occasionally variable occupancies such as
stores, interior office spaces and factories, where precise control of temperature and humidity is not
required. However, these systems can be arranged to satisfy very exacting requirements.
The conventional systems are classified in two major categories: constant volume, variable
temperature and variable volume, constant temperature systems. The first category has the greater
flexibility to control space conditions, extending from on-off refrigeration capacity control to
exacting reheat control.
The conventional systems and their methods of room temperature control are listed as follows:
A. Constant volume, variable temperature systems with
a. On-off or variable capacity control of refrigeration.
b. Apparatus face and bypass damper control.
c. Air reheat control.
B. Variable volume, constant temperature systems with supply air volume control.

The conditioned area may include either a single zone or several zones, the latter consisting of
two or more individually controlled zones, Single zones are usually served by using refrigeration
capacity or face and bypass control, and at times reheat control. The multi-zone applications require
reheat control or varying volume control systems.
Maintenance of uniform conditions depends on a balanced design of air distribution and
matching of design space load with refrigeration capacity.

1.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

CONSTANT VOLUME, VARIABLE TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
Figure 1 shows the basic parts of a conventional system required for summer air
conditioning: outdoor and return air connections, filter, dehumidifier, fan and motor, and supply
air ducts and outlets. The optional elements provide preheating of outdoor air and space
heating when required.
 A variation of the preceding arrangement to improve the control of space conditions and to
allow a more economical selection and utilization of the refrigeration plant is the use of an air
connection between the return air and fan intake to allow a bypass of air around the
dehumidifier (Fig. 2). This arrangement for mixing the bypassed return air with the dehumidified
air improves the control of space conditions. Space temperature is more constant. Space
humidity is still subject to variations though much smaller than with the original system. Care
must be exercised to exclude the possibility of short circuiting ventilation outdoor air thru the
bypass connection.
 The best control of space conditions relative to both temperature and humidity can be
obtained by means of the reheat system (Fig. 3). Close temperature control is obtained by
adding heat to neutralize excess cooling to maintain a constant space temperature.

VARIABLE VOLUME, CONSTANT TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

Variable Volume Control
The variable volume, constant temperature system (Fig. 4) parallels the reheat system, except
(1) the dehumidifier is sized for instantaneous peak load of zones involved, and (2) individual
 reheaters are replaced by air volume control applied to either the individual branch ducts or the
individual outlets. The dew-point thermostat controls the dehumidifying capacity in summer
and the return and outdoor air dampers in marginal weather. Preheating and heating elements
may be added when required. The space conditions are maintained by room thermostats
controlling the volume of supply air to the individual space.

2. CONSTANT VOLUME INDUCTION SYSTEM

The all-air Constant Volume Induction System is well suited for many applications, particularly
medium and small multi-room buildings where individual rooms as well as large spaces may be air
conditioned from one central air conditioning plant. It is often applied to buildings having a large
ratio of floor area to height, indicating a need for horizontal ductwork and piping.
This system is particularly suited to high latent load applications such as schools and
laboratories, as well as existing hotels in which the design sensible cooling load is low and where a
serviceable steam or hot water system is available. Hospitals, motels, apartment houses,
professional buildings, and office buildings are other applications.
An exceptional application of this system is a school in which heating and ventilation are
required at present and conversion to full air conditioning may be required at a future date. In this
instance, equipment, air quantities and layout are based on the air conditioning calculations. Future
conversion is easily accomplished by adding a refrigeration machine, cooling coils and piping.

2.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Figure 10 is a schematic diagram of the system.
2.2 CENTRAL STATION APPARATUS
The central station apparatus conditions the air and supplies either a mixture of outdoor
and return air or 100% outdoor air to the room unit. The apparatus contains filters to clean the
air, and a dehumidifier to cool and remove excess moisture from warm humid air or to add
winter dehumidification.
A relatively constant supply air temperature is maintained at the fan discharge, normally
from 50-55 F.
A high or low velocity air distribution system is used to move the air from the central station
to the room units.
A sound absorber (when required) located downstream from the fan discharge is used to
reduce the noise generated by the fan.
Chilled water is circulated or refrigerant is evaporated in the coils of the dehumidifier to
remove excess moisture and cool the air. Hot water or steam is supplied to the unit heating
coils.
2.3 INDUCTION UNIT
The induction unit is designed for use either with a complete air conditioning system or with
a system providing heating and ventilating only. Figure 11 shows the unit elements which
include the air inlet, sound attenuating plenum, nozzle and heating coil.
A constant volume of cool conditioned air is supplied to the unit. This air, designated as
primary air, handles the entire room requirements for cooling, dehumidification or
 humidification, and ventilation. The primary air induces room air which is heated by the coil to
provide summer tempering (when needed) and winter heating.
Room temperature control is achieved by adjusting the flow of hot water or steam thru the
coil by a manual or an automatic control valve.

3. MULTI-ZONE UNIT SYSTEM

The all-air Multi-Zone Blow-Thru Unit System that has heating and cooling coils in parallel is a
constant volume, variable temperature system. It is applied to areas of multiple spaces or zones
which require individual temperature control.
This system is considered when one or more of the following conditions exist:
a. The area consists of several large or small spaces to be individually controlled – a school, a suite
of offices, an interior zone combining several individual open floors of a multi-story building.
b. The area includes zones with different exposure and different characteristics of internal load – a
bank floor of a building, a large open multi-exposure office space.
c. The area combines a large interior zone with a relatively small group of exterior spaces.
d. The area consists of interior spaces with individual load characteristics – radio and television
studios.

Examples of these conditions are shown in Fig. 14.

 The blow-thru system is essentially applicable to locations and areas heaving high sensible heat
loads and limited ventilation requirements. Applications of high ventilation requirements need a
dehumidifying coil in the minimum outdoor air with heating available at the heating coil at all times.
This is necessary to prevent the bypass of humid outdoor air around the cooling coil.

3.1 CENTRAL APPARATUS

A multi-zone unit system is shown in Fig. 15. This apparatus may be a factory-assembled
unit, or it may be field-assembled. However, a majority of the applications use one or more
factory-assembled units, each of which consists of a mixing chamber, filter, fan, a chamber
containing heating and cooling coils, warm and cold air plenums, and a set of mixing dampers.
The mixing dampers blend the required amounts of warm and cold air to be transmitted thru a
single duct to outlets in the zones.
 3.2 OPERATION EQUIPMENT
A system may incorporate a preheat coil for minimum outdoor air when system design may
require the maintaining of a higher design temperature of the incoming outdoor air. For
applications where more exacting humidity control is required, a dehumidifying coil may be
incorporated in the minimum outdoor air. An exhaust air fan may be added if a positive removal
of air is required. A steam pan, grid or atomizing spray humidifier may be added for winter
humidity control purposes.

3.3 SYSTEM OPERATION

The all-air multi-zone blow-thru system mixes at the conditioning apparatus the required
quantities of warm and cold air needed by the conditioned space. A single duct transmits the air
mixture at the temperature necessary to properly balance the space load. Individual zone
thermostats control the mixing dampers at the unit. The temperature in the cold air plenum,
controlled only during winter operation, is maintained at the design dew-point temperature by a
thermostat located downstream of the dehumidifier coil. The hot air plenum heating coil is
activated by a thermostat located outdoors. This thermostat in the hot air plenum, due to
changing outdoor temperature.

4. DUAL-DUCT SYSTEM
The all-air Dual-Duct System is well suited to provide temperature control for individual spaces
or zones. This temperature control is achieved by supplying a mixing terminal unit with air from two
ducts with air streams at two different temperature levels; one air stream is cold and the other is
warm. The mixing terminal unit proportions the cold and warm air in response to a thermostat
located in its respective space or zone.
 The multi-room building is a natural application for this system. Many systems are installed in
office buildings, hotels, apartment houses, hospitals, schools and large laboratories. The common
characteristic of these multi-room buildings is their highly variable sensible heat load; a properly
designed dual-duct system can adequately offset this type of load.
4.1 THREE BASIC ARRANGEMENTS
Figure 20 shows three basic arrangements of a dual-duct system, in each of which the two
ducts conveying the warm and cold air stream and the air terminal units are of common design.
However, the arrangements of the central station apparatus differ, depending on the
degree of precision desired in humidity control. In Arrangement 1, during summer partial load
conditions minimum outdoor air may bypass the cooling coil and travel directly into the warm
duct. Thus, the space or zone relative humidity may rise above design if heat is not applied to
the warm duct. The addition of heat in summer does add to operating costs.
 In Arrangement 2 a pre-cooling coil cools and dehumidifies the minimum outdoor air.
Therefore, the problem of bypassing unconditioned outdoor air thru the warm duct is
eliminated. Operation of both Arrangement 1 and 2 is similar to the operation of either a single-
duct face and bypass system or a multi-zone unit system, except that in a dual-duct system the
bypass warm air and the cold air are mixed at the terminal unit. It should be noted also that in
both Arrangements 1 and 2 the dehumidifier and fan are applied in a blow-thru arrangement.
In Arrangement 3 the dehumidifier and the fan are shown for a draw-thru arrangement; the
total air quantity is dehumidified before heat is applied to the warm air stream. Thus,
Arrangement 3 is similar in operation to a straight reheat system. It is used primarily to satisfy
exacting humidity requirements.

4.2 CENTRAL STATION APPARATUS

As seen in Fig. 20, there are several variations of the central station apparatus. Generally,
the diagrams show that:
a. Whatever the arrangement, the dual-duct system is capable of utilizing 100% outdoor air for
cooling purposes during intermediate seasons.
b. A combination return-exhaust air fan is used to exhaust excess air to the outdoors and to
return air to the central apparatus in balance with maximum outdoor air required.
c. The total supply air is always filtered.
d. Minimum ventilation air may be preheated if required.
e. The degree of dehumidification is determined by the apparatus arrangement.
f. Sprays are optional, and may be included where shown in Fig.20.
 Standard methods of refrigeration and sources of heating are employed to provide the
cooling and heating required to condition the spaces. For ordinary comfort applications, precise
control of humidity is not essential. However, for economic and comfort reasons during summer
operation, the humidity variations should be limited to a range of approximately 45-55% rh.
During winter operation lower relative humidities (10-30% rh) are usually maintained to prevent
moisture condensation on cold surfaces.
The dual-duct system may be designed by using either a high or medium velocity air
transmission system connecting the central apparatus and the terminal units. On both the blow-
thru and draw-thru arrangements, care should be exercised to design the apparatus-to-main
duct transitions for a minimum pressure loss and noise generation. Although the terminal units
are sound treated, it may be necessary to additional sound treatment after the fan to reduce
the noise generated by the fan.

4.3 DUAL-DUCT TERMINAL

The dual-duct terminal unit is designed to:
a. Supply the correct proportions of the cold and warm air streams thru thermostatically
controlled air valves.
b. Mix the two air streams and discharge them at an acceptable sound level.
c. Provide a constant volume of discharge air with varying duct static pressures.

The individual terminal units are available in arrangements suitable for either a vertical or
horizontal installation, and may be used with an under-the-window grille, a side wall grille, or a
ceiling diffuser. The horizontal units are also available with octopus-type adapters to supply
several ceiling mounted diffusers. Some of the large units may be connected to a low pressure
duct system to distribute air thru standard side wall grilles or ceiling diffusers.
Varying amounts of cold dehumidified air from the cold duct and either neutral (slightly
above room temperature) or moderately heated air from the warm duct are supplied to the
terminal units to satisfy the demands of the space or zone thermostat. The cold air supply at
100% volume is designed to offset the sensible and latent heat loads and the ventilation
requirements of the space. The warm air is supplied to keep the space or zone thermostat
reduces the cold air flow.
There are two commonly used methods of operating the warm air portion of the system.
The warm air temperature may be maintained slightly above that of the space or zone; it may
also be controlled by a return air hygrostat which raises the temperature as the relative
humidity increases. As the warm air temperature is raised, the space or zone thermostat calls
for less warm air and more dehumidified air, thus reducing the rising relative humidity. Another
method is to maintain the warm air temperature at a higher level constantly.
In winter the warm air duct may supply all the heating requirements of the space or zone
served. If the building has, or is designed to have, peripheral heating, the warm air temperature
is maintained close to the room temperature.
The dual-duct terminal units are equipped with dampers (valves), damper actuators, and
volume compensators to provide constant volume, regardless of varying pressure within the
 cold and warm air supply ducts. The terminal unit warm air damper is normally open. Space
temperature is controlled by a thermostat operating the cold warm air damper actuators to
effect a proper mixture of the two streams to satisfy the load.

5. VARIABLE VOLUME, CONSTANT TEMPERATURE SYSTEM

The all-air Variable Volume, Constant Temperature System is well suited for many applications.
Among these are applications for which a relatively constant cooling load exists year round, i.e.
interior zones of an office building and department stores.
Other applications for which this system should be considered are those with variable loads
having a serviceable steam or hot water heating system and for which only summer cooling is
desired. Examples are existing buildings such as office buildings, hotels, hospitals, apartments and
schools.

5.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

There are many variations that can be applied to this system. The following is a description
for a system that may be applied to interior zones where the load is fairly constant.
The room outlet delivers completely filtered, humidity controlled air during all seasons.
Individual space temperature control is accomplished by modulating the air quantity to match
the required space load.
The air handling apparatus conditions the air and supplies either a mixture of outdoor and
return air or 100% outdoor air to the terminal unit. The apparatus contains filters to clean the
air, pre-heaters (if required) to temper cold winter air, and a dehumidifier to remove excess
moisture and cool the supply air. For a typical variable volume, constant temperature system,
see Fig. 24.
A constant leaving temperature is maintained in the fan discharge during intermediate and
winter seasons when the refrigeration machine is not operating.
A high or low velocity air distribution system is used to move the air from the apparatus to
the room terminal units. When required, a sound absorber is used to reduce the noise
generated by the fan.
The dehumidifier may be supplied by either a direct expansion or chilled water refrigeration
system.
6. DUAL CONDUIT SYSTEM
The all-air Dual Conduit System is a modern central station system that can be applied to multi-
zone buildings such as schools, offices, apartments and hospitals, for areas that have a reversing
transmission load and require individual room temperature control. It can be adapted easily to areas
that have variable cooling and heating requirements caused by sun, outdoor temperature and
internal loads. Generally, its application is similar to the dual-duct system, but with a more
economical first cost.

6.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The system is designed to supply two air streams to exposures that have a reversing
transmission load. One air stream called the secondary air is cool the year round, and is constant
in temperature and variable in volume to match the capacity required for the changing cooling
load caused by sun, lights and people. Therefore, the secondary air is a constant temperature,
variable volume air stream.
The other air stream called the primary air is constant in volume, and the air temperature is
varied to offset transmission effects; it is warm in winter and cool in summer. The primary air is,
therefore, a constant volume, variable temperature air stream.
Various central station arrangements can be used to provide the air temperatures and
volumes required for practical temperature control.
A dual fan, dual apparatus system is described here and illustrated in Fig. 26.
 The primary air apparatus conditions the air and supplies a mixture of outdoor and return
air to the room terminals. The apparatus contains filters to clean the air, preheat coils (as
required) to temper cold winter air, a humidifier (if desired) to add winter humidification, and a
dehumidifier to remove excess moisture and cool the supply air. The primary air stream contains
a reheat coil controlled by a master-submaster thermostat arrangement, the function of which
is to adjust the air temperature to match the building transmission affects. Outdoor air is
admitted to the apparatus thru a rain louver and screen.
The secondary air apparatus conditions the air and supplies all return air, a mixture of
outdoor and return air, or all outdoor air, depending on the season. The apparatus contains
filters to clean the air and a dehumidifier to remove excess moisture and cool the supply air. A
thermostat located in the fan discharge modulates the outdoor and return air dampers to
maintain a constant leaving temperature during seasons of non-operation.
Air from both the primary and secondary apparatus is delivered to the room terminal units
thru ductwork. Normal practice requires the use of a high velocity air distribution system for the
primary air and either high or medium velocities for the secondary air.
A refrigeration and heating plant is necessary to complete the system.

- End -
 8.2 All-Water Systems

This air-water system are for use in perimeter rooms of multi-story, multi-room buildings where cooling
or heating may be required simultaneously in adjacent rooms and where space allotted for ductwork is
at a minimum.

1. INDUCTION UNIT SYSTEM

The induction unit system is designed for use in perimeter rooms of multi-story, multi-room
building such as office buildings, hotels, hospital patient rooms and apartments. Specifically, it is
designed for buildings that have reversing sensible heat characteristics in which cooling may be
required in one room and heating may be required in a adjacent room. In addition, it is especially
adapted to handle the loads of modern skyscrapers with minimum space requirements for
mechanical equipment.

1.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

A typical induction unit system is shown in Fig. 1. Although the arrangement may differ for
each application, this illustration includes the basic components common to most induction unit
systems. The following description is for a non changeover system.
Outdoor air for ventilation is drawn into the central apparatus thru a louver, screen and
damper. Return air may be introduced into the system if the total required primary air quantity
is more than the minimum ventilation requirement. The preheater tempers the air in winter to
increase the capacity of the air to absorb moisture and to prevent freezing air from entering the
dehumidifier. The filters remove entrained dust and dirt particles from the air. The sprayed coil
dehumidifier cools and dehumidifies the air during the warm weather; during cool weather the
recirculation sprays may be used to add moisture to the air. The reheater heats the air to offset
the building transmission losses. The high pressure fan delivers the conditioned air thru high
velocity ducts to the induction units. A sound absorber on the leaving side of the fan is normally
required to reduce the noise generated by the fan. Chilled water from a central refrigeration
plant is circulated by the primary pump thru the dehumidifier coils in the apparatus. The
secondary water pump circulates water to the induction unit coils.
The induction unit (Fig. 2) is supplied with high pressure primary air which is discharged
within the unit thru nozzles. This air induces room air across the coil which is supplied with
water from the secondary water pump. The induced air is heated or cooled depending on the
temperature of the secondary water, and the mixture of primary air and induced air is
discharged to the room.
The function of the primary air is to provide ventilation air, to offset the transmission loads,
to provide dehumidification to offset the latent loads, and to provide the motivating force for
induction and circulation of room air. The secondary water circuit functions to offset the heat
gain from sun, lights and people. The primary air is tempered according to a reheat schedule to
prevent the room temperature from falling below 72 F when there is a minimum load in the
room.
On some applications it may be desirable to operate the system during the winter season
with hot water supplied to the coil and cold primary air.
2. PRIMARY AIR FAN-COIL SYSTEM
The primary air fan-coil system is in many ways similar to an induction unit system; the essential
difference is the substitution of a fan-coil unit for the induction unit. The most suitable applications
for the system are multi-room buildings such as hotels, hospitals and apartment houses, where the
units need not be operated as convectors in winter.
This is a basic fan-coil system to which is added a second source of heating or cooling and
positive ventilation. Its over-all performance is comparable to that of a change-over induction unit
system. When performance is of more concern than first cost, this system may be considered.
However, because of its first cost, an evaluation of an induction unit system may be advantageous
before making a system choice.
Fan-coil units may be located along the perimeter of a building with the primary air supplied
directly to the units (Fig. 16a) or from a corridor duct directly into the room (Fig. 16b). Where the
climate permits, the units may be suspended from the ceiling with the primary air supplied from a
corridor duct (Fig. 16c).The latter arrangement may be less costly than that with the units along the
perimeter of the building because of the more compact nature of the ductwork and piping layout.
2.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Figure 17 is a sketch of the system
2.2 CENTRAL APPARATUS
The central apparatus is either a built-up apparatus or a packaged fan-coil unit which
conditions the outdoor air and supplies it to the room unit or directly to the room by a corridor
duct. The air distribution system may be either low or high velocity. A low velocity system is
normally used if the primary air is discharged from a corridor duct directly into the room or
supplied to units suspended from the ceiling. With space available a low velocity system results
in the greatest economy of owning and operating costs.
The apparatus contains filters to cleanse the air, pre-heaters (when required) to temper the
air, and a humidifier or dehumidifier to add humidification or remove excess moisture from the
warm humid air. It also contains reheaters to heat the air from a predetermined schedule as the
outdoor temperature falls to the change-over temperature. The primary air is held at a constant
minimum temperature when the outdoor temperature is below the change-over temperature.
When the primary air is supplied directly to the room, its minimum temperature is maintained
sufficiently high to prevent drafts. Outdoor air to the apparatus is admitted thin a louver and
screen.
Chilled water from a central refrigeration plant is circulated thru the dehumidifier coils in
the central apparatus, an(l then mixes with recirculated water from the secondary water circuit
to maintain a constant water temperature to the fan-coil units.

2.3 FAN-COIL UNIT

Figure 18 illustrates the basic elements of the fan-coil unit, including a recirculated air inlet,
primary air inlet (optional), filter, fan, cooling and heating coils, and discharge air outlet.
The unit is supplied with cold or hot water depending on the outdoor temperature.
Room temperatures are maintained by thermostatically controlling the water flow.
2.4 PIPING DESIGN
A single piping system is used to circulate chilled or hot water to the fan-coil unit. Normal
design practice should be followed in system layout as shown in Part 3. Either a direct return or
a reverse return system may be used. However, a reverse return system (Fig. 19) is preferred
and should be used whenever practical since it is an inherently balanced system.
Secondary chilled water riser piping and unit run-out insulation is not required when chilled
water temperatures are no lower than 3 degrees below the room dew point and when the risers
are furred in.

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