Department of Mechanical Engineering

Course Title: Regulation and Control

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Chapter-3: Time Domain Analysis of Control System

1 Introduction

2 Steady state error and error constant

Type of input and steady state error
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

3 Analysis of first order system

4 Analysis of second order system

5 Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

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 Introduction

Introduction
There are two ways to analyze the functioning of a control system,
time domain and frequency domain analysis.

In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system to an

input is expressed as a function of time. The time response can only
be analyzed when the model of system plus nature of input signals
are known.

The behavior of a system that is dynamic in nature is analyzed under

typical test signals. These signals are an impulse, a step, a constant
velocity, constant acceleration and sinusoidal signal.

There are two components of time response of a system:

Transient response
Steady-state response
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Introduction

Transient response is dependent upon the system poles only and not
on the type of input. It is therefore sufficient to analyze the transient
response using a step input.

The steady-state response depends on system dynamics and input

quantity. It is then examined using different test signals by final
value theorem.

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 Steady state error and error constant

Steady state error and error constant

steady state error is a design specification for a control system. Let
us consider a feedback control system shown below

E (s) = R(s) − B(s)

B(s) = H(s)C (s)
C (s) = G (s)E (s)
Combining the above equations and solve for E(s), we will get
R(s)
E (s) =
1 + G (s)H(s)
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Steady state error and error constant

The corresponding error in time domain will be e(t).

Steady state error (ess ): The difference between the desired output
and the final value of any system as time goes to infinity.

ess = lim e(t)

x→∞

Using final value theorem

R(s)
ess = lim e(t) = lim sE (s) = lim s
x→∞ s→0 s→0 1 + G (s)H(s)

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 Steady state error and error constant
Type of input and steady state error

Type of input and steady state error

The steady state error of a system having open loop transfer function
G(s)H(s) is calculated for three type of input

Step Input
Let the step input of magnitude A be applied. The laplace transform
of step input r(t) having magnitude A is given by

A
R(s) =
s
substitute R(s) in the steady state error equation

s As
ess =
1 + lims→0 G (s)H(s)

lims→0 G (s)H(s) is positional error constant (Kp )

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Steady state error and error constant
Type of input and steady state error

Therefore ess can be written as

A
ess =
1 + Kp
Ramp Input
The Laplace transform of a ramp input having magnitude A is given
by
A
R(s) = 2
s
substitute R(s) and simplify the steady state error equation
A
ess =
s lims→0 G (s)H(s)
s lims→0 G (s)H(s) is velocity error constant (Kv )

Therefore ess can be written as

A
ess =
Kv
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Steady state error and error constant
Type of input and steady state error

Therefore ess can be written as

A
ess =
Kv
Parabolic input
The Laplace transform for the parabolic input of magnitude A is
given by
A
R(s) = 3
s
substitute R(s)and simplify the steady state error equation
A
ess = 2
s lims→0 G (s)H(s)
s 2 lims→0 G (s)H(s) is acceleration error constant (Ka )

Therefore ess can be written as

A
ess =
Ka
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 Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

The type of the system is determined by the number of poles of
open loop transfer function at the origin (s = 0). The general form
of G(s) H(s) is given by
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
G (s)H(s) =
s j (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
From the above equation, there are j poles at s = 0. Therefore, the
type of the system is j.

Error for step input

The error for step input is given by
A
ess =
1 + Kp
where Kp = lims→0 G (s)H(s)
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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Type 0
In this case j = 0
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
G (s)H(s) =
(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
Therefore,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Kp = lim G (s)H(s) = =k
x→0 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
ess can be written as
A
ess =
1+k
Type 1
In this case j = 1
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
G (s)H(s) =
s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Therefore,
k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Kp = lim G (s)H(s) = lim =∞
s→0 s→0 s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

ess can be written as

A
ess = =0
1+∞
Similarly, Kp = ∞ and ess = 0 for step input and for j ≥ 1.

Error for ramp input

The steady state error for ramp input of At
A
ess =
Kv
where Kv = s lims→0 G (s)H(s)
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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Type 0

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
sk(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Kv = s lim G (s)H(s) = lim =0
s→0 s→0 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

A A
and ess = Kv = 0 =∞

Type 0 system fails to keep track of a ramp input due to the con-
tinuous increment of errors.

Type 1

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

sk(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

Kv = s lim G (s)H(s) = lim =k
s→0 s→0 s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
A A
and ess = Kv = k

The steady state error for a type 1 system for ramp input is constant

Type 2

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
s 2 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
sk(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Kv = s lim G (s)H(s) = lim 2 =∞
s→0 s→0 s (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

and ess = KAv = ∞

A
=0
The steady state error for type 2 ramp input is zero.

Similarly, Kv = ∞ and ess = 0 for ramp input and j ≥ 2. 14 / 39

Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Error for parabolic input

The ess for a parabolic input At 2 is given by
A
ess =
Ka
where Ka = s 2 lims→0 G (s)H(s)

Type 0

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
s 2 k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Ka = s 2 lim G (s)H(s) = lim =0
s→0 s→0 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
A A
and ess = Ka = 0 =∞

The type 0 system fails to keep track of a parabolic input due to a

continuous increment of error.
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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Type 1

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)
s 2 k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)
Ka = s 2 lim G (s)H(s) = lim =0
s→0 s→0 s(1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

A A
and ess = Ka = 0 =∞

The type 1 system also fails to keep track of a parabolic input due
to a continuous increment of error.

Type 2

k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

G (s)H(s) =
s 2 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

s 2 k(1 + T1 s)(1 + T2 s)...(1 + Tn s)

Ka = s 2 lim G (s)H(s) = lim =k
s→0 s→0 s 2 (1 + Ta s)(1 + Tb s)...(1 + Tm s)

A A
and ess = Ka = k

The steady state errors can be reduced by increasing the value of k,

but there are limitations from stability point of view
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Steady state error and error constant
Steady state error for type 0,1, and 2 systems

Example-1: Find the steady state error for unit step, unit ramp and
unit acceleration inputs for the following systems.
10
G (s)H(s) =
s(0.1s + 1)(0.5s + 1)
1000(s + 1)
G (s)H(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 50)
50
G (s)H(s) = 2
s (s + 1)(s + 20)
Example-2: Determine the value of K for r (t) = 0.2t, and it is
required that ess ≤ 0.2.

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 Analysis of first order system

Analysis of first order system

The following fig. shows a first order system

1
G (s) = Ts and H(s) = 1

The closed loop transfer function of the system is given by

C (s) G (s) 1
= =
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s) 1 + Ts
1
since G (s)H(s) = Ts is type 1 system. It should not have steady
state error for step input.
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 Analysis of first order system

Unit step response

The response of the system for step input is given by
1 1 1 1
C (s) = R(s) = = −
1 + Ts s(1 + Ts) s s + T1
using inverse Laplace transform
t
c(t) = 1 − e − T

The plot c(t) versus t

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Analysis of first order system

The time constant of the system is T. c(t) → 1 when t → ∞.

In practice, the value of c (t) is within 5% of the final value at t =

3T, and it is within 2% after t = 4T. Therefore, t = 3T or 4T may
be considered as steady state.

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 Analysis of second order system

Analysis of second order system

A general second order system is given by

ωn2
G (s) = s(s+2ζωn ) and H(s) = 1
ωn2
G (s)H(s) =
s(s + 2ζωn )
The closed loop transfer function of the system is
C (s) G (s) ωn2
= = 2
R(s) 1 + G (s)H(s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
ωn is the natural frequency, and ζ is the damping factor
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Analysis of second order system

Let us study the effect of pole location before finding the unit step
response. To find the poles of closed loop transfer function, let us
put
s 2 + 2ζωn2 s + ωn2
s1 and s2 are given as
p
s1,2 = −ζωn ± ωn ζ2 − 1
From the above equation the following conclusions can be drawn:
The poles are real and unequal if ζ 2 − 1 > 0
i.e.,ζ > 1 p
The poles are s1,2 = −ζωn ± ωn ζ 2 − 1
Since there are no imaginary terms, the poles lie on the
negative real axis and at unequal places.
The response is over damped.
The poles are real and equal if ζ 2 − 1 = 0
i.e.,ζ = 1
The poles are s1 = s2 = −ζωn
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Analysis of second order system

They lie on the negative real axis.

The response is critically damped.
The poles are complex conjugate if ζ 2 − 1 < 0
i.e., 0 < ζ < 1 p
The poles are s1,2 = −ζωn ± jωn 1 − ζ 2
Due to the existence of both real and imaginary parts the
poles are located on the second and third coordinates.
The response is under damped.
if ζ = 0
The poles are complex with only the imaginary part and lie on
j-axis
The poles are given by s1,2 = ±jωn
The response is undamped

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Analysis of second order system

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Analysis of second order system

Example-1: When switch K open, determine the damping factor

and the natural frequency of the system. If a unit ramp input is
applied to the system, find the steady state error. Take KA = 5

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Analysis of second order system

Example-2: Find the value of ’K’ and ’a’ such that the damping
factor of the system is 0.6 and the steady state error due to a unit
ramp input is 0.25.

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 Analysis of second order system

Unit step response of 2nd order system

Let us obtain the solution for response c(t) to unit step input r (t) =
u(t).
The Laplace transform of r(t) is 1s and C(s) is

ωn2
C (s) =
s(s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 )

Case 1: under damped case (0 < ζ < 1)

1 s + 2ζωn
C (s) = − 2
s s + 2ζωn s + ωn2
1 s + ζωn ζωn
= − p − p
s 2
(s + ζωn ) + (ωn 1 − ζ ) 2 2 (s + ζωn ) + (ωn 1 − ζ 2 )2
2

p
Let ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 )2 is the damping frequency
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Analysis of second order system

1 s + ζωn ζωn
C (s) = − 2
−
s (s + ζωn )2 + ωd (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2
1 s + ζωn ζ ωd
= − 2
−p
s 2
(s + ζωn ) + ωd 1 − ζ (s + ζωn )2 + ωd2
2

The response in time domain is

ζ
c(t) = 1 − e −ζωn t cos(ωd t) − p e −ζωn t sin(ωd t)
1 − ζ2
e −ζωn t p
=1− p ( 1 − ζ 2 cos(ωd t) − ζsin(ωd t))
1 − ζ2
√
p 1−ζ 2
where cos(α) = ζ, sin(α) = 1 − ζ 2 and tan(α) = ζ
e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p sin(ωd t + α)
1 − ζ2 29 / 39
Analysis of second order system

Case-2: critically damped ( ζ = 1)

For critically damped system the roots are real and equal. Substi-
tuting ζ = 1 in the above equation, we get

ωn2 1 ωn 1
C (s) = = − −
s(s + ωn )2 s (s + ωn )2 s + ωn
the response in time domain is

c(t) = 1 − ωn te −ζωn t − e −ζωn t

Case-3: over damped (ζ > 1)

ωn2
C (s) = p p
s(s + ζωn + ωn ζ 2 − 1)(s + ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1)
1 A B
= + p + p
s s + ζωn + ωn ζ − 1 s + ζωn − ωn ζ 2 − 1
2

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Analysis of second order system

the response is
√ √
ζ 2 −1)t ζ 2 −1)t
c(t) = 1 + Ae −(ζωn +ωn + Be −(ζωn −ωn

Case-4: undamped (ζ = 0 )
Substituting ζ = 0, we get

ωn2 1 s
C (s) = 2 2
= − 2
s(s + ωn ) s s + ωn2

The response is also given as

c(t) = 1 − cos(ωn t)

Since there is no time damping, this response does not die out with
time

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 Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control sys-
tem to a unit step input, we usually specify the following:

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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

Delay time (td ): It is the time required for the response to

reach 50% of the final value in first attempt.
c(t) = 12 at t = td
From the response

e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p sin(ωd t + α)
1 − ζ2
e −ζωn td
1/2 = 1 − p sin(ωd td + α)
1 − ζ2
1+0.7ζ
The result of this equation is td = ωn
Rise time (tr ): It is the time required for the response to rise
from 0 to 100% of the final value for the underdamped
system.
c(t) = 1 at t = tr
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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

from the response

e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p sin(ωd t + α)
1 − ζ2
e −ζωn tr
1=1− p sin(ωd tr + α)
1 − ζ2
or
e −ζωn tr
p sin(ωd tr + α) = 0
1 − ζ2
since, e −ζωn tr 6= 0, we have
sin(ωd tr + α) = 0
ωd tr + α = π
π−α
tr =
ωd
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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

Peak time (tp ): It is the time required for the response to

reach the first maximum value.
from the response
e −ζωn t
c(t) = 1 − p sin(ωd t + α)
1 − ζ2
at t = tp the slop of the output is zero.

dc(t) e −ζωn t (−ζωn )sin(ωd t + α) + e −ζωn t ωd cos(ωd t + α)

=− p
dt 1 − ζ2
dc(t)
putting dt = 0 and t = tp , we get

e −ζωn tp (−ζωn )sin(ωd tp + α) + e −ζωn tp ωd cos(ωd tp + α)

p =0
1 − ζ2

−ζωn sin(ωd tp + α) + ωd cos(ωd tp + α) = 0, where [e −ζωn tp 6= 0]

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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

p
1 − ζ2
tan(ωd tp + α) = = tan(α)
ζ
ωd tp = nπ, where n = 1, 2, 3, ....

nπ
Therefor tp = ωd

The first overshoot is obtained at n = 1 and the first undershoot is

obtained at n = 2
Peak overshoot (Mp ): It is the difference between the time
response at peak time and the steady state output. it is
defined as,
c(tp ) − c(∞)
%Mp = 100%
c(∞)
−ζωn tp
c(tp ) = 1 − e√ sin(ωd tp + α) and c(∞) = 1 and putting
1−ζ 2
ωd tp = π
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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

√−ζπ √−ζπ
e 1−ζ 2 e 1−ζ 2
%Mp = 1 − p sin(π + α) − 1 = p sin(α)
1 − ζ2 1 − ζ2
√−ζπ
=e 1−ζ 2

Settling time (ts ): It is the time required for the response to

reach and stay within a specified tolerance band ( 2% or 5%)
of its final value.

It is the measure of how fast the system reaches to the steady

state value.

For 2% criterion
ts = 4T where T is time constant
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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

The time constant for the system is given by

1
T =
ζωn

therefore, for 2% criteria

4
ts =
ζωn

Steady-state error (ess ): It indicates the error between the

actual output and desired output as t tends to infinity

ess = lim [r (t) − c(t)]

t→∞

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Time Domain Specifications of a Second Order System

Example-1: For a system having CR(s) (s)

= 20
s 2 +7s+25
, find the expres-
sion of the response for step input.

Example-2: Calculate M, B and K for damping factor ζ = 0.6

and natural frequency of ωn = 2rad/sec, and the system is finally
reached at 1 meter distance. The system is also initially relaxed
(zero initial condition). [f = 9.6N]

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