Chapter 2

Aerodynamic Characteristics (4 hours)

2.1 Airfoil nomenclature and angle of attack

2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft

2.3 Aerodynamic coefficients

2.4 Aerodynamic performances

 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack

What is Airfoil?

• An Airfoil is a surface designed to

obtain lift from the air through
which it moves.

• An airfoil (American English) or aerofoil

(British English) is the cross-
sectional shape of an object whose
motion through a gas is capable of
generating significant lift, such as a
wing, a sail, or the blades of propeller,
rotor, or turbine.

• a body (such as an airplane wing

or propeller blade) designed to
provide a desired reaction force
when in motion relative to the
surrounding air
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack
Airfoil shape

• 1873 Early designs –designers

mistakenly believed that these airfoils
with sharp leading edge will have low
drag.
• In practice, they stall quickly and
generated drag.

• Examples of airfoils shape are :

• Aircraft Wings
• Turbine blades
• Helicopter rotor blades
• Aircraft stabilizers
• Rudders
• Elevator
• All are airfoils because they create
aerodynamic forces that stabilize and
control the flight of aircraft.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack
How Airfoil works?

• The difference in curvature of the upper and

lower surfaces of the wing builds up the lift force.

• Air flowing over the top surface of the wing must

reach the trailing edge of the wing in the same
amount of time as the air flowing under the wing.

• To do this, the air passing over the top surface

moves at a greater velocity than the air passing
below the wing because of the greater distance it
must travel along the top surface.

• This increased velocity, according to Bernoulli’s

Principle, means a corresponding decrease in
pressure on the surface. Thus, a pressure
differential is created between the upper and
lower surfaces of the wing, forcing the wing
upward in the direction of the lower pressure.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack
Airfoil nomenclature

In order to compare and distinguish different aerofoil shapes, an

aerofoil’s properties are defined, and specific terminology is used:

1. Chord is a distance between the leading and trailing edges

measured along the chord line
2. Chord line is a straight line joining the leading and trailing
edges of an airfoil.
3. Leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that
has maximum curvature (minimum radius)
4. Trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of
maximum curvature at the rear of the airfoil.
5. Lower surface is the surface of an airfoil between the
leading and trailing edges, on the lower surface
6. Upper surface is the surface of an airfoil between the
leading and trailing edges, on the upper surface
7. Mean camber line is the locus of points midway between
the upper and lower surfaces. Its shape depends on the
thickness distribution along the chord
8. Maximum camber is the maximum distance of the mean
camber line from the chord line
9. Maximum thickness is the maximum distance of the
lower surface from the upper surface
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack
Types of Airfoils

• There are essentially two types of airfoils-

symmetrical and non-symmetrical.

• Symmetrical airfoil has identical upper and

lower surfaces such that the chord line and
mean camber line happen to be the same, resulting
in the production of no life at zero AOA.
Moreover, this type has application in the main
rotor blades of various light helicopters.

• Non-symmetrical airfoil, also known as

cambered airfoil, has different upper and
lower surfaces such that the chord line happens
to be placed above with large curvature.
Furthermore, their chord line and chamber line
are different. Also, the advantages of this type are
a better lift to drag ratio and stall
characteristics, thereby resulting in the
production of a useful lift at zero AOA.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack

Angle of Attack (AOA) of Airfoil Figure 1

• AOA is defined as the angle between

the chord line of the wing and the
direction of the relative wind
illustrated in Figure 1.

This is not to be confused with the angle of

incidence, illustrated in Figure 2, which is the
angle between the chord line of the wing and
Figure 2 the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack

Angle of Attack (AOA) effect on Airfoil

• This resultant force has magnitude, direction,

and location, and can be represented as a
vector.

• The intersection point of the resultant force

line with the chord line of the airfoil is called
the center of pressure (CP).

• The CP moves along the airfoil chord as the

AOA changes.

• Throughout the AOA range, the CP moves

forward with increasing AOA and rearward as
the AOA decreases. The resultant force effect
of increasing AOA on the CP is shown in the
Figure.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack

Angle of Attack (AOA) effect on Airfoil

• The AOA changes as the aircraft’s attitude

changes. In a properly designed airfoil, the
resultant force increases as the AOA is increased.

• When the AOA is increased gradually toward a

positive AOA, the resultant force component
increases rapidly up to a certain point and then
suddenly begins to drop off. During this action
the drag component increases slowly at first,
then rapidly as lift begins to drop off.

• When the AOA increases to the angle of

maximum lift, the burble point is reached. This
is known as the stall angle.

• When the stall angle is reached, the air ceases to

flow smoothly over the top surface of the airfoil
and begins to burble or eddy.
 2.1 Airfoil Nomenclature And Angle Of Attack
Aerodynamic forces on Airfoil • Air through which the wing moves creates a
force the components of which are referred to
as "lift" and "drag"

• The resultant force, or "force vector," is

resolved trigonometrically into these
components of lift and drag, perpendicular
and parallel, respectively, to the direction of
the undisturbed "relative wind."

• The lift is the upward force which sustains

the airplane in flight. The drag which retards
the airplane's forward motion

• the airplane designer is interested in

obtaining an airfoil that will produce high lift
and low drag over the airplane's flying range
of AOA and offers the greatest aerodynamic
efficiency.
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft

What is Aerodynamic Forces ?

• The force exerted on a body whenever there is a

relative velocity between the body and the air.

• There are only two basic sources of aerodynamic force:

the pressure distribution and the frictional
shear stress distribution exerted by the airflow on
the body surface.

• The pressure exerted by the air at a point on the

surface acts perpendicular to the surface at that
point;

• The shear stress, which is due to the frictional action

of the air rubbing against the surface, acts
tangentially to the surface at that point.

• The net aerodynamic force on the body is due to

the net imbalance between these pressure and
shear stress distributed loads as they are
summed (integrated) over the entire surface.
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft

The Four Forces

The four basic forces acting upon an aircraft

in flight are
I. Lift,
II.Weight,
III.Thrust, and
IV.Drag

The Three Moments

the basic moments on aircraft are

I. Pitching Moment,
II. Rolling Moment, and
III. Yawing Moment.
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Weight

• Newton’s second law states that a force(F)

is equal to mass (m) multiplied by
acceleration(a)
F = ma

• The force of weight (W) must equal the

mass of an object (m) multiplied
acceleration due to gravity(g)
W = mg

• The total weight of an airplane always acts

directly towards the center of the Earth
and through a single point, called the
center of gravity
W = mg
M= mass of an object (in kg)
g = gravity acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Lift force 1
𝐿𝐿 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
2
• Lift is a mechanical aerodynamic force
produced by the motion of the airplane 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = Lift coefficient
𝜌𝜌= air density
through the air. 𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
• Lift is the force that directly opposes the
weight of an airplane and holds the
airplane in the air.

• Lift is generated by every part of the

airplane, but most of the lift on a normal
airliner is generated by the wings.

• Because lift is a force, it is a vector

quantity, having both a magnitude and a
direction associated with it.

• Lift acts through the center of pressure of

the object and is directed perpendicular to
the flow direction.
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Drag force Drag force component

• Drag is a mechanical force which is generated by

the interaction and contact of a solid body with a
fluid (liquid or gas).

• Drag is generated by the difference in velocity

between the solid object and the fluid. There
must be motion between the object and the
fluid. Drag acts in a direction that opposes the
motion. (Lift acts perpendicular to the motion.)

1
𝐷𝐷 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
2
𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = Drag coefficient
𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Thrust force

• Thrust is a mechanical force, so the propulsion

system must be in physical contact with a working
fluid to produce thrust.

• Thrust is used to overcome the drag of an airplane

and generated by the engines of the aircraft through
propulsion system.

• Thrust is generated most often through the reaction

of accelerating a mass of gas. Thrust is the force
which moves an aircraft through the air.

• The type of propulsion system used on an aircraft

may vary from airplane to airplane and each device
produces thrust in a slightly different way.

• types of engines – Piston engines and propellers –

Turboprop – Turbojet – Turbofan – Scram jet •
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Pitching Moment

• the pitching moment on an aircraft is the moment

(or torque) produced by the aerodynamic force on
the aircraft at the aerodynamic center of the aircraft.

• The pitching moment a moment that tends to rotate

an airplane about its lateral axis.

• The pitching moment coefficient is important in the

study of the longitudinal static stability of
aircraft

1
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝑐𝑐. 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚
2
𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 = pitch moment coefficient
𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
c= airfoil chord length
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Rolling Moment

• the roll moment is the product of an aerodynamic

force and the distance between where it is applied
and the aircraft's center of mass that tends to cause
the aircraft to rotate about its roll axis.

• A roll motion is an up and down movement of the

wings of the aircraft

1
𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝑏𝑏. 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙
2

𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 = roll moment coefficient

𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
b= wingspan length
 2.2 Aerodynamic forces and moments on aircraft
Yawing Moment

• the roll moment is a moment that lends to rotate an

airplane about its vertical axis.

• yawing moment is positive when it tends to turn the

plane to the right and negative when it turns the
plane to the left.

1
𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝑏𝑏. 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛
2

𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 = yaw moment coefficient

𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
b= wingspan length
2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

List of Coefficient and Moment on Aircraft

 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Lift coefficient

• The lift coefficient (CL) is a

dimensionless coefficient that
relates the lift generated by a lifting
body to the fluid density around the
body, the fluid velocity and an
associated reference area.

1
𝐿𝐿 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿
2

𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 = Lift coefficient

𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Lift performance

• Zero lift angle

• Maximum lift
• Stall angle
• Lift increment
• Stability
• Higher lift better for aircraft
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Example

Consider a model of an airplane mounted in a subsonic wind tunnel. The wind-tunnel nozzle has a 12-to-1
contraction ratio. The maximum lift coefficient of the airplane model is 1.3. The wing planform area of the
model is 6 m2. The lift is measured with a mechanical balance in the wind tunnel is rated at 1000 N. Calculate
the maximum pressure difference allowable between the wind-tunnel settling chamber and the test section.
Assume standard sea level density in the test section,

Solution
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Drag coefficient

• The drag coefficient (CD) is a dimensionless

quantity that is used to quantify the drag or
resistance of an object

• The drag coefficient of any object comprises the

effects of the two basic contributors to fluid
dynamic drag: skin friction and form drag.

1
𝐷𝐷 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷
2

𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = Lift coefficient

𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Drag performance

• Minimum drag
• Lower drag better for aircraft
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Example

Consider an NACA 2412 airfoil with a chord of 0.64 m in an airstream at standard sea level conditions. The
freestream velocity is 70 m/s. The lift per unit span is 1254 N/m. Calculate the angle of attack and the drag per
unit span.
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Solution
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Lift-to-Drag (L/D) ratio

performance

• An efficient airfoil produces lift with

a minimum of drag

• the ratio of lift-to-drag is a measure

of the aerodynamic efficiency of an
airfoil or aircraft.

• The L/ D ratio for a complete flight

vehicle has an important impact on
its flight performance; e.g., the range
of the vehicle is directly proportional
to the L/ D ratio.
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Pitching Moment coefficient

• the pitching moment on an aircraft is

the moment (or torque) produced by
the aerodynamic force on the aircraft
at the aerodynamic center of the
aircraft.

• The pitching moment a moment that

tends to rotate an airplane about its
lateral axis.

1
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝑐𝑐. 𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚
2

𝐶𝐶𝑚𝑚 = pitch moment coefficient

𝜌𝜌= air density
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
c= airfoil chord length
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Example
Consider the data for the NACA 2412 airfoil given in Figure. Calculate the lift and moment about the quarter
chord (per unit span) for this airfoil when the angle of attack is 40 and the freestream is at standard sea level
conditions with a velocity of 50 mls. The chord of the airfoil is 2 m.
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Solution
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Example
Consider an NACA 2412 airfoil with a 2-m chord in an airstream with a velocity of 50 mls at standard sea level
conditions. If the lift per unit span is 1353 N, what is the angle of attack?
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Solution
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances
Pitching Moment
Performance
- the longitudinal
static stability

• The pitching moment

coefficient is important
in the study of the
longitudinal static
stability of aircraft

• The pitching moment

is, by convention,
considered to be
positive when it acts to
pitch the airfoil in the
nose-up direction.
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Rolling Moment

• When an aircraft possesses

positive sideslip, the aircraft
tends to move to the right or the
right wing will roll downward.

• In order to restore the aircraft

into level flight, negative rolling
moment is required.

• This can be shown when the

negative rolling moment is
generated.

1 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 = roll moment coefficient

𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = . 𝜌𝜌. 𝑉𝑉 2 . 𝑆𝑆. 𝑏𝑏. 𝐶𝐶𝑙𝑙 𝜌𝜌= air density
2
𝑉𝑉=airspeed
S= plan surface area
c= airfoil chord length
 2.3 & 2.4 Aerodynamic Coefficient and Performances

Rolling Moment Performance-

Lateral static stability

• Lateral static stability is concerned

with the ability of the aircraft to
maintain wings-level
equilibrium in the roll sense.

• Wing dihedral is the most visible

parameter which confers lateral
static stability on an aircraft,
although there are many other
contributions, some of which are
destabilising.

• Dihedral is the easiest parameter to

adjust in the design process in order
to “tune” the degree of stability to an
acceptable level.