Mechanics of flight

PB EEM PBL 4 oP2

19/02/2020
March 2020 1
 Contents

• Chapter I : Drone terminology (UAV)

• Chapter II : Flow over immersed bodies

• Chapter III : Airfoils

• Chapter IV : Mechanics of flight

 Drone terminology (UAV)
I Types of Drones

Drones are extremely common these days

Drones are used widely in commercial areas and military purposes too.

The term ‘drone’ actually refers to any unmanned aerial vehicle, which
means the pilot is actually not on board of the vehicle.
 Drone terminology (UAV)
II History of Drones

The first recorded Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

(UAV) usage was actually to bomb a city.

In the first Italian War of Independence (1866),

Austrian forces sieged the city of Venice after
the latter revolted.

Austrian soldiers then attacked the city of Venice with unmanned balloons
filled with explosives.

Some of these Austrian Balloons were successful, but a number of them

blew back and bombed the Austrians’ own lines, so the practice did not
become widely adopted.
 Drone terminology (UAV)

The first unmanned aircraft was created 16 years after the flight of the
Wright’s brothers.

There are few prototypes that were developed through World War I,
World War II and Cold War.

Drones then evolved via military applications. It was not until 2006 when
the American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a commercial
drone permit.
 Drone terminology (UAV)
III Flow over a drone

A typical multirotor drone relies on vertical motion in order to fly.

Think of the drone blades as fans.

The air coming out of the spinning blades pushes downward on the ground,
which in turn pushes the drone into the air.

The faster the motors spin, the faster the drone will accelerate off the
ground.
 Drone terminology (UAV)
Once the drone is airborne it can hover, fly up/down, and left/right.
 Drone terminology (UAV)

When the drone is hovering the upward thrust of the motors is equal to
the downward force of gravity, so the drone will not move up nor down.
 Drone terminology (UAV)

Since there are 4 motors, changing one or more of these motors speed,
compared to the others will cause the drone to turn or move in a different
direction.
 Drone terminology (UAV)
For example, if the drone is hovering (the upward thrust of the motors is
equal to the downward force of gravity), and the 2 motors on the left are
given more power, the drone will lift upward on the left side, and this
increased power on the left side will start pushing the drone sideways
right.
 Flow over immersed bodies

I Flow over bodies

We consider various aspects of the flow over bodies that are immersed in a
fluid.

• Airplanes • Airfoil

In these situations the object is completely surrounded by the fluid and

the flows are termed external flows.
 Flow over immersed bodies

External flows involving air are often termed aerodynamics such an airplane
flies through the atmosphere.

In this chapter, we consider characteristics of external flows past a

variety of objects.

We investigate the qualitative aspects of such flows and learn how to

determine the various forces on objects surrounded by a moving fluid.
 Flow over immersed bodies
II Lift and drag concepts

Direction of airflow Resultant net force

Lift force

Drag force
Low pressure on upper surface
High pressure on lower surface

Resultant force on an airfoil due to pressure difference

• Component at right angles to the direction of airflow : LIFT

• Component parallel to the direction of airflow : DRAG

 Flow over immersed bodies
III Lift and drag coefficients

The lift and drag forces depend on : 1 2

𝐷 = ρ𝑣 𝑆𝐶𝐷
2
• The upstream velocity : v (m/s)
1 2
𝐿 = ρ𝑣 𝑆𝐶𝐿
• The frontal or plan form area S (m2) 2

• The density of the fluid  (kg/m3)

• Dimensionless coefficients CD and CL depending on the shape of the

body
L = f (v, S, , CL) D = f (v, S, , CD)
 Flow over immersed bodies
III.1 The flat plate
For example, for a flat plate moving through the air : CD = 1.2
Sea-level air density  = 1.225 kg/m3
1 2
𝐷 = ρ𝑣 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 6.89 N
2
D x
v

Streamlines

Find the resistance of a flat plate, 15 cm by 10 cm, placed at right angle to

an airflow of velocity 90 km/h.
Data : CD = 1.2 v = 25 m/s S = 0.015 m2  = 1.225 kg/m3
 Flow over immersed bodies

III.2 Streamlining

Lines which show the direction of the flow of the fluid at any particular
moment are called streamlines.
It is essential that drag should be reduced to a minimum, this can be done
by so shaping them that the flow past them as smooth as possible.

CD 1.2 0.39 0.30 0.29 0.03

Effect of streamlining
 Flow over immersed bodies
IV The flow of water around submarines
Submarine or a ship can float because the weight of water that it displaces is
equal to the weight of the ship.

This displacement of water creates an upward force called the buoyant

force and acts opposite to gravity, which would pull the ship down.
 Flow over immersed bodies

To control its buoyancy, the submarine has

ballast tanks and auxiliary, that can be
alternately filled with water or air.

When the submarine is on the surface, the ballast

tanks are filled with air and the submarine's
overall density is less than that of the
surrounding water.
 Airfoils
I Introduction

An airfoil shape is used to give the greatest lift possible to an airplane.

Early research also showed that a round leading edge and a sharp, flat
trailing edge add to a wing's ability to generate more lift and less drag.

Wing

Airfoil section
 Airfoils
II Wing shape

The shape of a wing greatly influences the performances of an airplane.

The speed of an airplane, its maneuverability, its handling qualities, all are
very dependent on the shape of the wings.

There are three basic types that are used on modern airplanes

• Straight
• Swept
• Delta
Airfoils
 Airfoils
III The wing’s angles
Consider the plan form of a wing, it may be characterized by few angles.

III.1 The angle of attack

Angle of attack of
L.E.
the leading edge

Angle of attack of Chord

the trailing edge

T.E.

Span
 Airfoils
III.2 Aspect ratio

The plan area is the area projected on the plane of the chord, it is called S
(m2), the aspect ration is :
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 2
λ=
𝑆

1 <  < 6 Fighter

6 <  < 10 Airliner

15 <  < 30 Sailplane

 Airfoils
III.3 Dihedral angle
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy

Dihedral angle is taken as being the angle between each plane and the
horizontal.
 : Dihedral angle

 

 

Horizontal equivalent  : Anhedral angle

If the planes are inclined upwards towards the wing tips, the dihedral is
positive; if downwards, it is negative and called anhedral.
 Airfoils
IV Airfoil section

The airfoil sections are inclined at a small angle to the direction of motion.

Direction of airflow Chord line

Leading edge

 : Angle of attack
Trailing edge
 Airfoils

V Airflow and pressure over airfoil

The airfoils are usually slightly curved, to reduce the drag to a minimum.

V.1 Flow of air over a typical airfoil

Increased speed of airflow

Direction of airflow

Decreased speed of airflow

Airflow over an airfoil inclined at a small angle.

 Airfoils
V.2 Center of pressure

All the distributed forces due to pressure are replaced by a single resultant
force.
Resultant force
Lift
Direction of airflow

Drag

Center of pressure

The position on the chord at which this resultant force acts is called the
center of pressure, it moves with the angle of attack.
 Airfoils
VI.1 Lift coefficient curve
How the lift coefficient changes with the angle of attack ?
1.2
0° 15°
Lift coefficient 1.0
Ordinary angles of flight
0.8

Stalling angle
2𝐿 0.4
𝐶𝐿 = 2
ρ𝑣 𝑆
0.2

0
-4° 0° 4° 8° 12° 16° 20°
Angle of attack
 Airfoils
Between 0° and about 12°, the graph is practically a straight line, meaning
that as the angle of attack increases there is a steady increase in the lift.

At about 15°, the lift coefficient reaches a maximum, and above this angle, it
begins to decrease.

V.3 Stalling of airfoil

When a certain angle is reached, any further increase of angle will result in a
loss of lift.

This angle is called the stalling angle of the airfoil.

 Airfoils
Direction of airflow

Airflow over an airfoil inclined at a small angle.

While the angle at which the airfoil strikes the fluid is comparatively small,
the fluid is deflected by the airfoil.
 Airfoils
Direction of airflow

Stalling on an airfoil.

When the critical angle is reached, the airflow breaks away or separates
from the top surface forming vortices with consequent loss in lift.
 Airfoils
V.4 Drag coefficient curve

How the drag coefficient changes with the angle of attack ?

0.24
1 2 0° 15°
Drag coefficient

𝐷 = ρ𝑣 𝑆𝐶𝐷 0.20
2
Ordinary angles of flight
0.12

Stalling angle
2𝐷
𝐶𝐷 = 0.08
ρ𝑣 2 𝑆

0.04

0
-4° 0° 4° 8° 12° 16° 20°
Angle of attack
 Airfoils

The drag is least at about 0°, up to about 6° the increase of the drag is not
very rapid, and then it gradually becomes more and more rapid.

Especially after the stalling angle, when the airflow separates.

V.5 Lift-drag polar

An important quantity is the ratio developed CL/CD versus  or the lift-drag

polar of CL versus CD with  as a parameter.
 Airfoils
24 1.2
0 15
20 1.0

Lift coefficient
° °
Lift/drag ratio

Ordinary angles of flight

12 0.8
Stalling angle
8 0.4

4 0.2

0 0
-4° 0° 4° 8° 12° 16° 20° 0 0.04 0.08 0.120.16 0.20 0.24
Angle of attack Drag coefficient

The most efficient angle of attack (i.e. largest CL/CD ) can be found by
drawing a line tangent to the CL – CD curve from the origin.
 Airfoils
Trailing edge
1.0
0° 15°
Fraction of chord 0.8
Ordinary angles of flight
0.6

Stalling angle
0.4

0.2

0.0
-4° 0° 4° 8° 12° 16° 20°
Leading edge
Angle of attack
The center of pressure gradually moves forward as the angle is increased
over the ordinary angles of flight.
 Airfoils
Typical values of maximum lift to drag :
Type of aircraft (L/D)max
Airplane with flap
CL Airfoil Supersonic fighter 4–9
Civil jet airliners 12 – 20

Modern sailplanes 25 - 40
Airplane
CD
Airplane with landing gear

V.6 Centre of pressure

The centre of pressure moves as the angle of attack is increasing.

 Airfoils
V.7 Induced drag

Experiments with smoke show that the air flowing over the top surface of a
wing tends to flow inwards.
Top surface

Under
surface

Below the under-surface the air flows outwards.

This is because the decreased pressure over the top surface is less than
the pressure outside the wing tip and the pressure below the wing is
greater than that outside the wing tip.
 Airfoils

The cause of trailing vortices

Vortices rotating
anti-clockwise from
the right wing
Vortices rotating
clockwise from
the left wing

Wing tip vortices

Airfoils
 Airfoils
Trailing Vortex Drag Reduction : winglets & sharklets

Embraer ERJ-145 Airbus A330

Gulfstream G-1159
Airbus A350
Airfoils
 Mechanics of flight

Certain principles of physics dictate flight. That is why all airplanes have a
certain structure and consist of certain components.

I Airplane Components

The components of an airplane include :

• Fuselage
• Empennage

• Wing
• Power plant
 Mechanics of flight
Wing Vertical stabilizer
Generate lift Control yaw

Jet engine
Generate thrust

Horizontal stabilizer
Control pitch

Cockpit
Command and control
Fuselage
Hold things together
 Mechanics of flight

I.1 The fuselage

A fuselage is necessary to connect the other components of the airplane. It

also provides room for devices such as the radio control equipment.

A fuselage may consist of a simple aluminum "stick" or an elaborate enclosed

design of various materials.
 Mechanics of flight
I.2 The wings

A wing has a characteristic shape that can be seen when looking at its
profile. This shape is called an airfoil which is usually in the form of a
raindrop.

As an airplane moves forward, air flows around the wings causing lift. More
lift is generated as the airplane moves faster.

That is why a considerable amount of speed is necessary for an airplane to

take off.
 Mechanics of flight
A wing has a leading edge and a trailing edge. Attached to the trailing edge
is a set of ailerons. The ailerons control the banking movement of the
airplane which causes it to turn.

Aileron up
Direction in which pilot
attempts to turn

Force on rudder
Increased lift
Aileron down opposite turn

Result of an attempt to turn at large angle of attack

 Mechanics of flight
Wings may be attached to the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage.
Where the wing is attached gives reference to the type of airplane, such as
high-wing trainer, mid-wing sport plane, or low-wing fighter.

High-wing trainer

Mid-wing sport plane

Low-wing fighter
 Mechanics of flight

The number of wings can also vary. For example, an airplane with a single set
of wings is called a monoplane, and an airplane with two sets of wings is called
a biplane.
 Mechanics of flight
I.3 The empennage
An empennage consists of a vertical stabilizer (fin), and a horizontal
stabilizer. These two surfaces steady the airplane and help it to maintain a
straight path through the air.

A rudder is attached to the back of the

vertical stabilizer and is used to control
the direction of the airplane.

An elevator is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer and is used

to control the up and down movement of the airplane.
 Mechanics of flight
I.4 The power plant

A power plant is the combination of an

airplane's motor and propeller.

The motor provides the power to spin the

propeller, and the propeller generates a
twisting force called torque which translates
into a forward force called thrust.
 Mechanics of flight
II The flight

The flight of an airplane may be considered as consisting of various stages

• The take-off, during which the aircraft is transferred from one medium
to another.

• The climb, during which the pilot gains the height at which the level part
of the flight will be made.

• A period of a steady flight at a constant height.

• The approach back towards to the earth.

• The landing.
 Mechanics of flight
II.1 The different Cartesian coordinate system

Three different frames are used in mechanics of flight.

II.1.1 Coordinate system connect to the airplane

Gx1 : Longitudinal axis of the plane

Gy1 : At right angle of the longitudinal axis

(direction : right to the pilot)

G Gz1 : complete this system

x1
y1
z1
 Mechanics of flight
II.1.2 Coordinate system connect to the atmosphere

GX : Horizontal axis corresponding to the direction of the plane

GZ : Local vertical axis (direction to the ground)

GY : Complete the system

G
X
Y
Z
 Mechanics of flight
II.1.3 Coordinate system connect to the velocity of the plane

Gx : Axis connect to the velocity of the plane

Gz : In the symmetric plane of the airplane

(direction to the feet of the pilot)

G
y Gy : Complete the system
v

z x

This system is the most used in mechanics of flight

 Mechanics of flight
II.2 The four forces

The airplane can be said to be under the influence of four main forces :

• The lift of the main planes, L, acting vertically upwards through the center
of pressure.

• The weight of the airplane, W, acting vertically downwards through the

center of gravity.

• The thrust of the engine, T, pulling horizontally forwards.

• The drag, D, acting horizontally backwards.

 Mechanics of flight
III Level flight

The level flight corresponds to the portion of flight that the airplane may
be considered as traveling in straight and level flight at uniform velocity and
at a constant height.
 Mechanics of flight
III.1 Equations for Level flight
L
AIR
ICAM

D
T
W

Forces on a airplane in normal flight

The conditions of balance are these :
1 1 2
2 𝑆𝐶 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐿 = ρ𝑣 𝑆𝐶𝐿
T=𝐷= ρ𝑣 𝐷
2 2
 Mechanics of flight

Using the two equations : 𝑇 𝐶𝐷 𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝐿

= or =
𝑚𝑔 𝐶𝐿 𝑇 𝐶𝐷

The lift/drag ratio corresponds to the weight/thrust ratio.

III.2 Relation between air speed and angle of attack

For every air speed, there is a corresponding angle of attack at which

level flight can be maintained.

2𝑚𝑔 −1/2
𝑣= 𝐶 CL = f (α)
𝜌𝑆 𝐿
 Mechanics of flight

3.0

2.5 1 kt = 0.515 m/s

Lift coefficient

2.0

1.5
15° Maximum CL of airfoil

9°
Min. speed

1.0
6°
4° 2.6°
0.5 1° 0.2°
0°
0
60 100 140 180 220 260 300
Air speed, knots
 Mechanics of flight
IV Difficulties in balancing the four forces

In order to maintain straight and even flight, we must prevent the aeroplane
from rotating.

This depends not only on the magnitudes of the four forces, but also on the
positions at which they act.

IV.1 The lift

The lift will act through the centre of pressure. Its position depends on the
angle of attack.
 Mechanics of flight
IV.2 The weight

This will act through the centre of gravity.

There is a possibility of movement of the centre of gravity during flight

caused, for instance, by consumption of fuel, dropping of bombs or
movement of passengers.

IV.3 The thrust

The line of thrust is determined by the position of the propeller shaft or

centre line of the jet.
 Mechanics of flight
IV.3.1 The turbojet

The simple type of jet engine is shown below :

Compressor Burners Combustion chamber

Inflow

Turbine

Principle of turbojet
 Mechanics of flight
IV.3.2 The propeller propulsion
The old and well-tried system is a propeller driven by an internal combustion
engine.

Typical increase in speed 10 m/s

Inflow Internal
combustion
engine

Principle of propeller propulsion

 Mechanics of flight
IV.4 The drag
The total drag is composed of the drag of all the separate parts.

The designers must both estimate the drag of each part separately, and so
find the total drag and its line of action.
L
AIR
ICAM

T D
W
 Mechanics of flight

IV.5 The tail plane

At a considerable distance behind the main wings, we fit small wings whose
job it is to provide the upward or downward force necessary to counteract
the behavior of the four main forces.

L2
L1
The force on the tail plane needs only to be a small one, because, owing to
its leverage, even a small force will produce a large correcting moment.
 Mechanics of flight

IV.5.1 Flight at high speed

At high speed the main airfoils will be at a small angle of attack, the center
of pressure move backwards, the wing pitching moment about the center of
gravity will be nose-down.

L AIR
ICAM

P
W

The tail must hold down to counteract this tendency.

 Mechanics of flight
IV.5.2 Flight at low speed

At low speed the main airfoils will be at a large angle of attack, the centre
of pressure move forwards, the wing pitching moment about the centre of
gravity will be nose-up.

L
P

The tail must carry an upward load.

Mechanics of flight

The end