Lecture Three - HARMONIC TREATMENT IN INDUSTRIAL POWER PDF

Power System Quality and
Reliability
HARMONICS AND ITS

TREATMENT IN POWER
SYSTEMS
OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION
1. DEFINITIONS
2. CATEGORIES OF POWER QUALITY VARIATIONS
3. HARMONIC DISTORTION SOURCES IN INDUSTRIAL POWER
SYSTEMS
4. EFFECTS OF HARMONICS ON ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
5. HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS IN INDUSTRIAL POWER SYSTEMS
6. HARMONIC STANDARDS
7. HARMONIC MITIGATING TECHNIQUES
8. GENERAL PASSIVE AND ACTIVE FILTER DESIGN PROCEDURES
9. DESIGN EXAMPLES
10. CONCLUSIONS
2 HarmonicAnalysis PQR
1. DEFINITIONS
What are Harmonics?

Definition:
Harmonics are integral multiples of some fundamental

frequency that, when added together, result in a distorted
waveform.
The “first harmonic” is really just the fundamental frequency.

The second is twice that frequency, the third is three times, and
so on. Thus for a power system, the fifth harmonic would be
300 Hz.
Harmonics may appear in any system that oscillates at a given
frequency (e.g. light waves, sound pressure waves, mechanical
vibrations, etc.
Harmonics
⚫ It is a steady state periodic phenomenon that produces
continuous distortion in voltage and current waveform.
⚫ It is normally caused by saturable devices, power
electronics devices and non linear consumer loads.
⚫ Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure of
harmonic voltage/current. The THD in a voltage

waveform is defined as  n
V 2
n=2
THD =
V1
Where, Vn is the magnitude of nth harmonic voltage and V1
is the magnitude of fundamental voltage.
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HarmonicAnalysis
What Causes Harmonics?
Non-Linear Loads
Current is not proportional to the applied voltage
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HarmonicAnalysis
Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms
Linear loads and current waveforms.

Pure resistance, inductance, and
capacitance are all linear.
What that means:
If a sine wave voltage of a certain
magnitude is placed across a
circuit containing pure resistance,
the current in the circuit follows
Ohm's Law: I = E÷ R.
The relationship of volts and
amperes is a straight line.
The current will always be a sine
wave of the same frequency.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms
Solid state electronics is based

on the use of semiconductors.
These materials are totally
different in that their response
to voltage is not a straight line.
What this means:
With a nonlinear load, you
cannot easily predict the
relationship between voltage
and current — unless you have
an exact curve for each device.
With equipment containing
many solid-state devices, such
an approach is impossible.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Effect of harmonics on waveform
180 Out
of Phase
In
Phase
When a waveform is identical from one waveform to the next, it can be represented as a sum
of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency of the distorted wave.
The sum of the sinusoids created by harmonics can be analyzed using the Fourier series concept
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
• Harmonics: Frequency components that are

integer multiples of the fundamental line
frequency
• fundamental frequency is 50 Hertz

– 3rd Harmonic is 3 x 50Hz or 150Hz
– 5th Harmonic is 5 x 50Hz or 250Hz, etc.
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HarmonicAnalysis
What do harmonics do?
• Harmonics are carried through the system from the source

and can nearly double the amount of current on the neutral
conductor in three phase four wire distribution systems.
• Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also

distort the voltage as they pass through the system
impedance. Therefore, a distorted voltage can be
presented to other end users on the system.
• Overall electrical system and power quality is affected by

the introduction of harmonics.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Sources of Harmonics
• Solid State Electronic Devices which contain a poor

power supply
– Computers (PCs/CPUs)
– Video display terminals
 Laser Printers – File Servers
 Copy Machines – Battery Chargers
 Solid State UPS Units
• Solid State Devices (Fluorescent lighting ballasts)
• Rectifiers (AC-DC Converters)
• VFDs
• Welding Units
•PQR
11
Arc Furnaces HarmonicAnalysis
Effects of Harmonics
• Overheated Transformers and Motors

– Increases Hysteresis (magnetization) losses in
steel and iron cores of transformers, motor and
magnetic trip units of circuit breakers
(Equipment inefficiencies and overheating)
• Heating of Neutral Conductors
• Low Voltage at End Loads
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HarmonicAnalysis
Effects of Harmonics (cont)
• Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit
Breakers
– Thermal/Magnetic Trip Circuit Breakers
• Fuses & bimetal strips respond to True RMS
• Harmonic currents increase eddy current
losses in the core steel of the metallic strip.
• This causes an overprotection situation…
Increased losses generate additional heat,
this effect the thermal trip of the unit.
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HarmonicAnalysis
• Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit Breakers

– Electronic Trip Circuit Breakers
• Magnitude and phase angle(s) of harmonic
current(s) in relationship to the fundamental
current can cause:
– Overprotection: Peak current sensing > True RMS
– Under protection: Peak current sensing < True RMS
• Changing power system loads will vary the
magnitude and phase angle, resulting in inaccurate
and unpredictable sensing units and overload
protection
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HarmonicAnalysis
• Communication Problems
– If sharing common parallel path, potential for
harmonics to have inductive coupling effect on
unshielded cabling
• Current Measurement Problems (distorted waveform)
• Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment
– Mis-operation of electronic equipment that
measures frequency or uses the zero crossing point
of a sine wave.
– Control of Speed and Voltage Problems on
Emergency Generators (supplying power)
– Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss
– Affects power supplies and sensitive electronics
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
Fig. Harmonic-generating load causing voltage distortion at the point

of common coupling (PCC). The AC source is modeled as an ideal
voltage source in series with a resistance Rs and a reactance jXs.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
Single phase,
two-pulse diode
rectifier with
capacitive DC-link
Phase voltage
(continuous) and
phase current
(pulsed) to a
television receiver
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonic wave and its expansion using Fourier
Frequency spectrum
Effect of harmonics on waveform
180 Out
of Phase
In
Phase
The above is an integer harmonic. Depending on the type of

loads, subharmonics or interharmonics are also generated. 21
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HarmonicAnalysis
Spectrum of a Typical Distorted Voltage
Waveform
(a) Distorted Waveform
1.5 (b) Spectrum of (a)
1
1
0.5
0.8
THD= 43.83%
Harmonics Magnitudes (pu)

Voltage (pu)
0.6
0
Fundamental
-0.5 0.4
-1 0.2
-1.5
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Time(s)
Harmonics Number
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HarmonicAnalysis
• Although easy to measure, the THD does not show
the interference impact of the signal.
• Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is a measure of the
THD taking into account the circuit rating. As the
circuit rating versus load current rises, TDD drops
TDD = THD x (Fundamental load current/circuit
rating)
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HarmonicAnalysis
What do harmonics do?
⚫ Harmonics are carried through the system from the source
and can nearly double the amount of current on the neutral
conductor in three phase four wire distribution systems.
⚫ Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also
distort the voltage, which appear to other end users on the
system.
⚫ Overall electrical system performance and power quality is
affected by the introduction of harmonics, such as
• Overheating of Transformers, Capacitors and Motors
• Mal-operation Relays and Circuit Breakers
• Communication Interference Problems
• Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment
• Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss
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HarmonicAnalysis
Order of typical harmonics generated by non-
linear loads?
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HarmonicAnalysis
2. Power-Quality Standards
•IEEE Standards 519-defines acceptable power

quality
•IEEE Standards 1159-defines the measurement
of power-quality “events”
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Power-Quality Standards IEEE 519
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HarmonicAnalysis
Power-Quality Standards
• ISC maximum short-circuit current at PCC.

• IL maximum demand load-current (fundamental frequency
component) at PCC
.PQR 95
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HarmonicAnalysis
What kind of Power Quality Effects?
⚫ Harmonic Distortion
– AFDs, DC Drives, UPSs, DC power supplies (computers,

duplicators, fax’s) will cause current (and voltage)
harmonics
⚫ Single phase – 3rd, 6th, etc (triplens) can cause
transformer neutral conductor overheating
⚫ Three phase – 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc can cause
equipment malfunctions
⚫ Big questions – “How much?” and “How much is too
much?”
Harmonic Voltage Limit as per IEEE-519
(utilities’ responsibility)
Bus Voltage Maximum Maximum

Individual THD (%)
Harmonic
Component (%)
69 kV and below 3.0% 5.0%
115 kV to 161 kV 1.5% 2.5%
Above 161 kV 1.0% 1.5%
Harmonic Current Limit as per IEEE-519
(customers’ responsibility)
SCR h<11 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 35<h TDD
=Isc/IL
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 -50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50 -100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100 -1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Values shown are in % of “average maximum load current”

SCR = short circuit ratio (short circuit current at point of common
coupling divided by customer average maximum load current)
TDD = Total Demand Distortion (uses maximum load current as the
base, rather than the fundamental current)
Indian standards on harmonic limits
CBIP Report No. 251

⚫ Total Harmonic Distortion (THDV) = 9% in 0.4 <
U < 45 kV
APERC
⚫ The cumulative (THDv) at the Point of
Commencement of Supply for each consumer
connected at 33kV shall be limited to 8% (as per
Grid Code)
⚫ The cumulative (THDv) at the Point of
Commencement of Supply for each consumer
connected at 11kV shall be limited to 8% (as per
Grid Code)
WAVE FORM DISTORTION
Periodic Waveforms and Harmonics: periodic waveform can be
broken up into a series of sine waves at the proper amplitudes and phase.
⚫ Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a sum of sine and/or

cosine waves, with the proper amplitude, frequency, and phase
relationships between the waves.
⚫ For instance, a square wave can be represented by the infinite Fourier

series:
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HarmonicAnalysis
WAVEFORM DISTORTION: Square Wave
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WAVEFORM DISTORTION: Root-mean square
• Root-mean square: Root-mean square is a

measure of the heating value of a periodic
waveform when this periodic waveform
drives a resistive load.
• Mathematically, the root-mean square or
rms of a periodic voltage waveform is
expressed as:
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics
Harmonics
It is also common to use a single quantity, the Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic
distortion.
2
n=nmax
 Vn 
THD =    x100  5%
n=2  V1 
Where V1-Fundamental frequency voltage component Vn=nth harmonic voltage
component
The Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is the same term as the Total
Harmonic Distortion except that the distortion is expressed as a
percent of some rated load current rather than as a percent of the
fundamental current magnitude.
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HarmonicAnalysis
How can Harmonics be Reduced?
• Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits

• Filter capacitor banks: a circuit capable of selectively
filtering one frequency or range of frequencies out of a
mix of different frequencies is called a filter circuit, or
simply a filter.
• Harmonic mitigating transformers
– Used to cancel out specific harmonics by making one
voltage circuit 180 degrees out-of-phase
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HarmonicAnalysis
How can Harmonics be Reduced?
• PROPER GROUNDING
– Neutral to ground conductor connection at one location;
at main panel or transformer secondary
– Run power and control conductors in separate raceways
– Sensitive loads should not share neutral and ground
conductors.
– Avoid using conduit as the ground return path, run
dedicated ground wire with circuit conductors
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HarmonicAnalysis
Low pass filter:
• A low-pass filter is a circuit offering easy passage to
low-frequency signals and difficult passage to high-
frequency signals.
• The inductor’s impedance increases with increasing
frequency. This high impedance in series tends to block
high-frequency signals from getting to the load.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Low pass filter:
• The capacitor’s impedance decreases with
increasing frequency. This low impedance in
parallel with the load resistance tends to short out
high-frequency signals, dropping most of the
voltage across series resistor.
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HarmonicAnalysis
High pass filter:
• High-pass filter’s task is just the opposite of a low-
pass filter: to offer easy passage of a high-
frequency signal and difficult passage to a low-
frequency signal.
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HarmonicAnalysis
High pass filter:
• This high impedance in series tends to block low-
frequency signals from getting to load. The inductor’s
impedance decreases with decreasing frequency.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Passive filters
• Shunt passive filters. The most common type of passive

filter is the single-tuned “notch” filter. The notch filter is
series-tuned to present a low impedance to a particular
harmonic current and is connected in shunt with the power
system. Thus, harmonic currents are diverted from their
normal flow path on the line through the filter.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Passive filters
• Shunt passive filters. The filter is usually placed as shown in
Figure to divert a selected portion of the harmonic currents
produced by the nonlinear load.
• The filter is usually made up of one or more sections, as shown in
Figure. The single- tuned RLC filter for each harmonic frequency
is the most common. The impedance Z of the single-tuned section
shown in Figure is given by:
• The resistance R is due to the winding loss and the core loss of the
inductor. The quality factor, or Q of an inductor, is given by:
44
44
• Typical
PQR values of Q for filter inductors are 25 to 45 at 50 Hz.
HarmonicAnalysis
Passive filter
Passive filter is tuned to a harmonic order near the one to be eliminated. A number of
parallel-connected filters may be used when a significant reduction in distortion over a
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45
range
PQRof orders is required.
HarmonicAnalysis
Passive filters
• Series passive filters. Unlike a notch filter which is

connected in shunt with the power system, a series
passive filter is connected in series with the load.
• The inductance and capacitance are connected in
parallel and are tuned to provide a high impedance at a
selected harmonic frequency.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Multi-section filters
• The filter is designed to attenuate higher-order
harmonics such as the 5th, 7th, and 11th that are
generated by the nonlinear load.
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Passive filters
• Line reactor: One of the simplest harmonic filters is
the line reactor shown as the three-legged inductor in
Figure. This magnetic component is often used in the
line in series with motor controllers and other
converters that draw significant harmonic current.
The reactor presents high impedance to high
frequency currents while passing the fundamental.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Active filters
• Active filters are relatively new types of devices for
eliminating harmonics. They are based on sophisticated
power electronics and are much more expensive than
passive filters.
• They can also address more than one harmonic at a time
and combat other power quality problems such as flicker.
• The basic idea is to replace the portion of the sine wave
that is missing in the current in a nonlinear load. An
electronic control monitors the line voltage and/or
current, switching the power electronics very precisely to
track the load current or voltage and force it to be
sinusoidal
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HarmonicAnalysis
Active Filter
The active filter

injects, in opposite
phase, the
harmonics drawn
by the load, such
that the line current
Is remains
sinusoidal.
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HarmonicAnalysis
Harmonics and transformers
Transformer overheating and potential

insulation failure result from several
conditions caused by harmonics:
Increased skin and proximity effects
Harmonics circulating in the primary

winding
AFC AFC Increased hysteresis losses
Increased eddy current losses
DC in the primary windings
Harmonics and transformers
Many transformers are rated by

“K factor” which simply describes
their ability to withstand harmonics.
Transformers may also be derated

to compensate for the additional
heating caused by harmonics.
Improved transformer designs have

also been developed, with oversized
AFC AFC
neutral busses, special cores, and
specially designed coils.
Harmonics and power-correction capacitors
Power correction capacitors can cause

series and parallel resonance effects on
a power system.
If a harmonic is generated which excites

a system resonance, amplification of that
harmonic may occur.
Calculation of the harmonic resonance frequency for the system can

give an indication of potential resonance problems.
Harmonics and Power-correction Capacitors
EXAMPLE:
Assume a 1500 kVA supply xfmr,

1500 kVA with a 5.75% impedance.
5.75%
Also assume 600 kVA of power

600 kVAC correction capacitors on the system
The harmonic resonance frequency is defined by:
kVAsc 1500 / 0.0575 = 6.6

hr = =
kVAC 600
Attenuation of Harmonics
Inductive Reactance
Method: Add a line reactor or isolation transformer

to attenuate harmonics.
Benefits: Low cost.
Technically simple.
Concerns: Tends to offer reductions in only higher

order harmonics. Has little effect on the 5th
and 7th harmonics.
Because of the associated voltage drop,

there are limits to the amount of reactance
that may be added.
Line reactors are a good solution when a reduction of only a
55 few percent is necessary.
HarmonicAnalysis PQR
Passive Filters
Method: Provide a low-impedance path to ground

for the harmonic frequencies.
Benefits: May be tuned to a
frequency between two prevalent harmonics
so as to help attenuate both.
Concerns: Tuning the filters may be a labor-intensive
process.
Filters are difficult to size, because they offer
a path for harmonics from any source.
Quite sensitive to any future system changes.
A man-week of labor is not uncommon to properly install and tune passive filters.
If a filter is tuned to the 5th harmonic, for example, and some other facility on the
power grid begins to put 5th harmonics on the system, then this filter will be a path for
those currents as well!
Filters will likely have to be retuned at some later date if system changes are made.
Active Filters
Method: Inject equal and opposite harmonics onto the

power system to cancel those generated by
other equipment.
Benefits: Have proven very effective in reducing
harmonics well below required levels.
Concerns: The high performance inverter required for the

harmonic injection is costly.
Power transistors are exposed to conditions

of the line, so reliability may be a problem.
12-pulse Rectifiers
Method: Two separate rectifier bridges supply a single
DC bus. The two bridges are fed from phase-
shifted supplies.
Benefits: Very effective in the elimination of 5th and 7th
harmonics.
Stops harmonics at the source.
Insensitive to future system changes.
Concerns: May not meet the IEEE standards in every

case.
Does little to attenuate the 11th and 13th
harmonics.
Remember the “nk+/-1” rule. From this, it is seen that 12-pulse

drives still generate 11th, 13th, 23rd and 25th harmonics. In
some cases this may be enough to exceed IEEE limits.
18-pulse Rectifier
Method: An integral phase-shift transformer and rectifier

Input which draws an almost purely sinusoidal
waveform from the source.
Benefits: Meets the IEEE standards in every case!
Attenuates all harmonics up to the 35th.
Stops harmonics at the source.
Insensitive to future system changes.
Concerns: Can be expensive at smaller HP’s
The Clean Power Option is available only on Accutrol 700’s, from

100-600 hp.
Comparison of waveforms
6-pulse converter
note the level of distortion
and steep current rise.
12-pulse converter
the waveform appears more

sinusoidal, but still not very
smooth.
18-pulse converter
virtually indistinguishable
from the source current
waveform.
WHY HARMONIC ANALYSIS ?
When a voltage and/or current waveform is distorted, it causes abnormal

operating conditions in a power system such as:
⚫ Voltage Harmonics can cause additional heating in induction and

synchronous motors and generators.
⚫ Voltage Harmonics with high peak values can weaken insulation in cables,
windings, and capacitors.
⚫ Voltage Harmonics can cause malfunction of different electronic
components and circuits that utilize the voltage waveform for
synchronization or timing.
⚫ Current Harmonics in motor windings can create Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI).
⚫ Current Harmonics flowing through cables can cause higher heating over
and above the heating that is created from the fundamental component.
⚫ Current Harmonics flowing through a transformer can cause higher
heating over and above the heating that is created by the fundamental
component.
⚫ Current Harmonics flowing through circuit breakers and switch-gear can
increase their heating losses.
⚫ RESONANT CURRENTS which are created by current harmonics and
the different filtering topologies of the power system can cause capacitor
failures and/or fuse failures in the capacitor or other electrical equipment.
⚫ False tripping of circuit breakers ad protective relays.
HARMONIC SOURCES
a) Current Source nonlinear load
Thyristor rectifier for dc drives, Per-phase equivalent circuit

heater drives, etc. of thyristor rectifier
b) Voltage source nonlinear load
Diode rectifier for ac drives, Per-phase equivalent circuit

electronic equipment, etc of diode rectifier
INPUT CURRENT OF DIFFERENT
NOLINEAR LOADS
TYPE OF TYPICAL WAREFORM THD%

NONLINEAR LOAD
1.0
1-φ 0.5 80%

Uncontrolled (high 3rd
Current
0.0
Rectifier component)
-0.5
10 20 30 40
0
-1.0
Time (mS)
1.0
2nd, 3rd, 4th ,......
1-φ 0.5
harmonic
Current
Semicontrolled 0.0 components

Rectifier Bridge -0.5
10 20 30 40
0
-1.0
Time (mS)
1.0
6 –Pulse Rectifier 0.5
with output voltage 80%

Current
0.0
filtering and without -0.5
input reactor filter 0
10 20 30 40 5, 7, 11, ……….
-1.0
Time (mS)
1.0
6 - Pulse Rectifier
0.5
with output voltage 40%
Current
filtering and with 3% 0.0 5, 7, 11, ………..
reactor filter or with -0.5
continues output 0
10 20 30 40
-1.0
current Time (mS)
1.0
6 - Pulse Rectifier 0.5
with large output 0.0 Current 28%

inductor -0.5 5, 7, 11, ………..
0 10 20 30 40
-1.0 Time (mS)
1.0
0.5
12 - Pulse Rectifier 15%

Current
0.0
-0.5
11, 13, ………..
0 10 20 30 40
-1.0 Time (mS)
CURRENT HARMONICS GENERATED BY 6-PULSE CSI CONVERTERS
HARMONIC P.U PULSE
1 1.00
5 0.2
7 0.143
11 0.09
13 0.077
17 0.059
19 0.053
23 0.04
CURRENT HARMONICS GENERATED BY 12-PULSE CSI CONVERTERS
HARMONIC P.U PULSE IEEE 519 std
1 1.00 -
5 0.03-0.06 5.6%
7 0.02-0.06 5.6%
11 0.05-0.09 2.8%
13 0.03-0.08 2.8%
THD 7.5%-14.2% 7.0%
RECENT CURRENT MEASUREMENTS TAKEN IN AN
INDUSTRIAL PLANT WITH 600 KVA, 20 KV/400 V
DISTRIBUTION TRANFORMER
Current waveform and its respective spectrum

at the inputs of a motor drive system
Current waveform and its
respective spectrum at the
inputs of a motor drive system
Current waveform and its respective spectrum
at the secondary of the distribution transformer
( i.e. at the service entrance)
DEFINITIONS
f (t) = Fourier Series of a periodic function f (t)


f (t) = Co +  C h cos (hωt + θ h )
h =1 (1)
1 T
C o = o f ( t )dt , Ch = A 2h + B2h (2)
T
2 T
A h = o f ( t ) cos( hωt )dt (3)
T
2 T
Bh = o f ( t ) sin(hωt )dt (4)
T
h = harmonic order
THD υ % = Percentage of the Total Harmonic Distortion of
a nonsinusoidal voltage waveform

2
 Vh
h =2
=  100 (5)
V1
THD i % = Percentage of the Total Harmonic Distortion of
a nonsinusoidal current waveform

2
 Ih
= h =2
100 (6)
I1
Vh = hth harmonic component of the voltage
I h = hth harmonic component of the current

~ ~2
VH = RMS value of the voltage distortion =  h
V
h =2
~ ~2
IH = RMS value of the current distortion =  Ih
h =2
~
I= RMS value of a nonsinusoidal current =
~2 (7)
=  Ih
h =1
~
V= RMS value of a nonsinusoidal voltage =
~2
=  Vh
(8)
h =1
Drive kVA
THD υ % = HF   100 (9)
SC kVA

 h 2 I 2h / I1 (10)
HF = Harmonic Factor = h =5
Drive kVA = Full load kVA rating of the Drive system
SC kVA = Short Circuit kVA of the distribution system at

the point of connection
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE NONSINUSOIDAL CURRENT

~~
P = V Ii,1 cos φ1 (11)
~~ ~~
Q = V Ii,1 sin φ1 , S = V I (12)
D = Distortion VA = S2 − P2 − Q2 (13)
( )

~ ~ ~ ~2
D 2
= S − V 2 Ii,21 = V 2
2
 Ii,h (14)
h =2
P  Ii,1 
λ = True Power Factor = =   cos φ1 (15)
S  I 
= Distortion Factor  Displace ment Factor

NONSINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE AND NONSINUSOIDAL CURRENT
 
~ ~ ~ ~
P =  Vh Ih cos φ h , Q =  Vh Ih sin φ h (16)
h =1 h =1
 
D = Distortion Power =  SnmS*nm − S S*
 n m (17)
n m n m
n m n m
S2 = P 2 + Q 2 + D 2 (18)

S=
~ 2~ 2
V I = V ( ) (
~~ 2 ~~
 h h 1 I1 + V1 IH )2 + (V~H ~I1 )2 +
h =1
(~ ~
+ VH IH )
2
= S12 + S2N (19)
~~
S1 = Fundamenta l Apparent Power = V1 I1
SN = Nonfundame ntal Apparent Power
( ) (
~~ 2 ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ 2
S2N = V1 IH + VH I1 + VH IH) ( )
~~
V1 IH = Current Distortion Power
(20)
~ ~
VH I1 = Voltage Distortion Power (21)
~ ~
VH IH = Harmonic Apparent Power (22)
S2H = PH2 + N 2H = Total Harmonic Active Power +

(23)
+ Total Harmonic Non Active Power
XC = Reactance of the capacitor = (VL-L )2 / VAR 3−phase
Harmonic sequence is the phase rotation relationship with respect to
the fundamental component.
Positive sequence harmonics ( 4th, 7th, 10th , ……. (6n+1) th ) have

the same phase rotation as the fundamental component. These
harmonics circulate between the phases.
Negative sequence harmonics ( 2nd, 5th, 8th ……… (6n-1) th ) have

the opposite phase rotation with respect to the fundamental component.
These harmonics circulate between the phases.
Zero sequence harmonics ( 3rd, 6th, 9th, ….. (6n-3) th ) do not produce
a rotating field. These harmonics circulate between the phase and neutral
or ground. These third order or zero sequence harmonics, unlike positive
and negative sequence harmonic currents, do not cancel but add up
arithmetically at the neutral bus.
EXAMPLE 1
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE-NONSINIMUSOIDAL CURRENT
A periodic, sinusoidal voltage of instantaneous value v = 200 2 sin ωt

Is applied to a nonlinear load impedance. The resulting instantaneous current is
given by:  ( ) ( ) (
i = 2 20 sin ωt − 45o + 10 sin 2ωt + 60o + 10 sin 3ωt + 60o )
Calculate the components P, Q, D of the active power, apparent voltamperes and
hence calculate the displacement factor, the distortion factor and the power factor.
Solution
v = 200 2 sin ωt
 ( ) ( ) (
i = 2 20 sin ωt − 45o + 10 sin 2ωt + 60o + 10 sin 3ωt + 60o )
The presence of the nonlinearity causes frequency components of current (i.e. the
second and third harmonic terms) that are not present in the applied voltage.
The rms voltage and current at the supply are:

~
V = 200 V
~2
I = 20 2 + 10 2 + 10 2
= 6102 A2
The apparent voltamperes at the input is therefore given by
~ 2~ 2
S = V I = 200 2  6  10 2 = 24  10 6 (VA )2
2
In this example only the fundamental frequency components are common to

both voltage and current. Therefore, the real power P and the apparent
power Q are
~~
P = V I1 cos ψ1
ψ1 = displacement angle between the fundamental of
the voltage and the fundamental of the current
= 200  20 cos 45o
4000
= W
2
~~
Q = V I1 sin ψ1
= 200  20 sin 45o
4000
= VA
2
~
D2 = V 2 (~I − ~I )
2
1
2
~
= V2 (~I − ~I )
2 3
2
= 200 (10 + 10 ) = 8  10
2 2 2 6
(VA )2
~ ~
P 2 + Q2 + D2 = V 2 I 2
~~ ~
P V I1 cos ψ1  I1 
PF = power factor = = ~~ =  (cos ψ1 )
S VI  I
1
Displacement factor = cos ψ1 = = 0.707
2
I 20
Distortion factor = 1 = = 0.817
I 600
Therefore, the power factor is
1 2
PF = = 0.577
2 6
EXAMPLE 2
NONSINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE-RL LOAD
 (
A periodic, sinusoidal voltage given by v = 2 200 sin ωt + 200 sin 5ωt + 30o )
is applied to a series, linear, resistance-inductance load of resistance 4Ω and
fundamental frequency reactance 10Ω.
Calculate the degree of power factor improvement realizable by capacitance
Compensation when f1 = 50 HZ.
~
Solution. The rms terminal voltage V is given by
= 2002 + 2002
Therefore
~
V = 283V
Z1 = 4 + j10
Z1 = 10.8
1 = tan −1 (10 / 4) = 68.2o

 5 = 51 = 50
Z5 = 4 + j50
Z5 = 50
 5 = tan −1 (50 / 4) = 85.4o
The instantaneous load current is given by
i = 2
 200
(
sin t − 68.2o + )
200
( )
sin 5t + 30o − 85.4o 
 10.8 50 
~
The rms load current I is therefore given by
 ~ 2  ~ 2
~ 2 ~ 2 ~ 2  V1   V5 
I = I1 + I5 =   + 
 Z1   Z5 
= 18.522 + 42 = 359A 2
Apparent voltamperes S at the load terminals in the absence of capacitance is
therefore
S2 = V 2 I 2 = 28.72  106 (VA )

~ ~ 2
Average power P In this case is
n
~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
P =  Vn In cos  L = V1 I1 cos 1 + V2 I2 cos 2 + ...
1
= 200  18.52 cos 68.2o + 200  4  cos 85.4o

= 1440W
The power factor before compensation is therefore

P 1440
PF = = = 0.27
S 28.72  10 6
EXAMPLE 3
NONSINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE AND NONSINIMUSOIDAL CURRENT
A periodic, nonsinusoidal voltage with instantaneous value given by
 ( )
v = 2 200 sin ωt + 200 sin 2ωt - 30o is applied to a nonlinear impedance.
The resulting current has an instantaneous value given by
i = 2 20 sin (ωt − 45 ) + 10 sin (2ωt − 60 ) + 10 sin (3ωt + 60 )
L
o o o
Calculate the components SLR , SLX , SLD of the load apparent voltamperes
and compare thee with the classical values PL , Q L , D L respectively.
Solution.
 (
v = 2 200 sin ωt + 200 sin 2ωt - 30o )
iL = 2 20 sin (ωt − 45 ) + 10 sin (2ωt − 60 ) + 10 sin (3ωt + 60 )
o o o
Note that the presence of the load nonlinearity causes a frequency component
of load current (I.e. the third harmonic term) that is not present in the supply
voltage.
The rms voltage and current at the supply are given by
~
V 2 = 200 2 + 200 2 = 8  10 4 V 2
~2
IL = 202 + 102 + 102 = 6 102 A 2
~ and ~
The load apparent voltamperes SL therefore has a value defined in terms V IL
S2L = V 2 IL2 = 48 106 (VA )
~ ~ 2
Instantaneous expressions of the hypothetical currents i R , i X , i D are given by

i R = 2 20 cos 45o sin t + 10 cos 300 sin 2t − 30o ( )
~
( 2
) (
 ILR2 = 20 cos 45o + 10 cos 30o )
2
=
11
4
102 A 2

i X = − 2 20 sin 45o cos ωt + 10 sin 30 0 cos 2ωt − 30 o ( )
~2
 ILX ( 2
) (
= 20 sin 45o + 10 sin 30o ) 2 9
= 102 A 2
4
iD = 2 10 sin (3t + 60 ) o
~2
 ILD = 102 A 2
Note that current components i R , i X contain only those harmonic terms which
are common to both voltage and current. These are therefore consistent with the
n1 terms.
~ ~ ~
The rms load current components ILR , ILX , ILD are found, as expected to sum
~
to the total rms load current IL
~2 ~2 ~2  11 9  ~
ILD + ILR + ILD = 102 1 + +  = 6 102 = IL2
 4 4
Components SLR , SLX , SLD of the apparent voltamperes can now be obtained
= V ILR = 10  8 104 = 22 106 (VA )

2 ~ 2 ~ 2 11 2 2
S LR
4
= V ILX = 10  8 104 = 18 106 (VA )

2 ~ 2~ 2 9 2 2
S LX
4
= 102  8 104 = 8 106 (VA )

~ ~2
S2LD = V 2 ILD
2
The component voltamperes are seen to sum to the total apparent voltamperes
S2LR + S2LX + S2LD = 10 6 (22 + 18 + 8)
= 48  10 6 (VA )2
= S2L
Components PL , Q L , D L of SL are found as follows:
2
 n
~ ~ 
PL =   Vn1 In1 cos ψ n1 
2 
 1 
( o
= 200  20  cos 45 + 200 10  cos 30 )
o 2
2
(
= 100 20 2 + 10 3 )
2
= 106 2 2 + ( 3 )2
( )
= 106 8 + 3 + 4 6 = 20.8 106  S2LR
2
 n
~ ~ 
Q L =   Vn1 In1 sin ψ n1 
2 
 1 
(
= 200  20  sin 45o + 200 10  sin 30o )2
( )
= 106 2 2 + 1 = 14.6 106  S2LX
D 2L = S2L − PL2 − Q 2L
= (48 − 20.8 − 14.6 )106 = 12.6  106 (VA )2  S2LD

From the possible compensation viewpoint it is interesting to note that SLX
and Q L differ by significant amount.
SLX could be defined as “that component of the load apparent voltamperes that
Is obtained by the combination of supply voltage harmonics with quadrature
Components of corresponding frequency load current harmonics”.
Similarly the definition of active voltamperes SLR could be given by “that
component of the load apparent voltamperes that is obtained by the combination
of supply voltage harmonics with in-phase components of corresponding
frequency load current harmonics”.
Both SLR and SLX are entirely fictitious and non-physical. The active
voltamperes SLR Is not to be compares in importance with the average power

PL which is a real physical property of the circuit. Term SLR Is merely the
analytical complement of term SLX
Term SLX the energy-storage reactive voltamperes, is that component
of the load apparent voltamperes that can be entirely compensated (for sinusoidal
supply voltage) or minimized (for nonsinusoidal supply voltage) by energy-storage
methods.
Voltage and current profiles in a
commercial building
HARMONIC STANDARDS
⚫ International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) European
Standards.
- EN 61000-3-2 Harmonic Emissions standards were first published

as IEC 55-2 1982 and applied only to household appliances. It was
revised and reissued in 1987 and 1995 with the applicability
expanded to include all equipment with input current  16A per
phase. However, until January 1st, 2001 a transition period is in
effect for all equipment not covered by the standard prior to 1987.
- The objective of EN 61000-3-2 (harmonics) is to test the equipment
under the conditions that will produce the maximum harmonic
amplitudes under normal operating conditions for each harmonic
component. To establish limits for similar types of harmonics current
distortion, equipment under test must be categorized in one of the
following four classes.
CLASS-A: Balanced three-phase equipment and all other equipment
except that stated in one of the remaining three classes.
CLASS-B: Portable electrical tools, which are hand held during normal
operation and used for a short time only (few minutes)
CLASS-C: Lighting equipment including dimming devices.
CLASS-D: Equipment having an input current with special wave shape
( e.g.equipment with off-line capacitor-rectifier AC input
circuitry and switch Mode power Supplies) and an active
input power 600W.
- Additional harmonic current testing, measurement techniques and

instrumentation guidelines for these standards are covered in IEC
1000-4-7.
• IEEE 519-1992 United States Standards on harmonic limits
- IEEE limits service entrance harmonics.

- The IEEE standard 519-1992 limits the level of harmonics at the
customer service entrance or Point of Common Coupling (PCC).
- With this approach the costumer’s current distortion is limited based
on relative size of the load and the power supplier’s voltage
distortion based on the voltage level.
IEEE 519 and IEC 1000-3-2 apply different philosophies, which

effectively limit harmonics at different locations. IEEE 519 limits
harmonics primarily at the service entrance while IEC 1000-3-2 is
applied at the terminals of end-user equipment. Therefore, IEC limits
will tend to reduce harmonic-related losses in an industrial plant
wiring, while IEEE harmonic limits are designed to prevent
interactions between neighbors and the power system.
POWER QUALITY STANDARDS –
IEEE 519-1992 STANDARDS
TABLE I
CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS FOR GENERAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(120-69000 V)
Isc/IL <11 11<h<17 17<h<23 23<h<35 35<h TDD
<20* 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100<1,000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1,000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Source: IEEE Standard 519-1992.
Note: Even harmonics are limited to 25 percent of the odd harmonic limits above.
Current distortions that result in a direct current offset; for example, half wave
converters are not allowed.
Table I is for 6-pulse rectifiers. For converters higher than 6 pulse, the limits for
characteristic harmonics are increased by a factor o f q/6 , where q is the pule number,
provided that the
amplitudes of noncharacteristic harmonics are less than 25 percent.
*All power generation equipment is limited to these values of current distortion, regardless of
actual ISC/IL.
Where ISC = Maximum short circuit at PCC.
And IL = Average Maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency
component at PCC).
TABLE II
LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION AND DISTORTION LIMITS
IEEE 519-1992 STANDARTS
Special General Dedicated

Applications System System
Notch Depth 10% 20% 50%
THD (Voltage) 3% 5% 10%
Notch Area 16,400 22,800 36,500

(AN)*
Source: IEEE Standard 519-1992.

Note: The value AN for another than 480Volt systems should be
multiplied by V/480 .
The notch depth, the total voltage distortion factor (THD) and
the notch area limits are specified for line to line voltage.
In the above table, special applications include hospitals and
airports. A dedicated system is exclusively dedicated to converter load.
*In volt-microseconds at rated voltage and current.
TABLE III
LIMITS OF THD%
IEEE 519-1992 STANDARDS
SYSTEM Special General Dedicated

Nominal Voltage Application Systems Systems
120-600V 3.0 5.0 8.0
69KV and below - 5.0 -
TABLE IV
PROPOSED IEC 555-2 CLASS D STANDARDS for power from 50 to 600W
Harmonic Relative limits Absolute Limits

Milliamps/Watt Amps
3 3.4 2.30
5 1.9 1.14
7 1.0 0.77
9 0.5 0.40
11 0.35 0.33
13 linear 0.15 (15/n)
extrapolation
METHODOLOGY FOR
COMPUTING DISTORTION
Step 1: Compute the individual current harmonic distortion at each
dedicated bus using different Software programs (i.e. SIMULINK,
SPICE, e.t.c.) or tables that provide the current distortion of
nonlinear loads.
Step 2: Compute the voltage and current harmonic content at the Point of
Common Coupling (PCC) which is located at the input of the
industrial power system.
- Each individual harmonic current at the PCC is the sum of
harmonic current contribution from each dedicated bus.
- The load current at PCC is the sum of the load current
contribution from each dedicated bus.
- The maximum demand load current at PCC can be found by
computing the load currents for each branch feeder and multiply
by a demand factor to obtain feeder demand. Then the sum of all
feeder demands is divided by a diversity factor to obtain the
maximum demand load current.
Step 3: Choose a base MVA and base KV for the system use the following
equations in order to compute individual and total current and
voltage harmonic distortions at PCC and any other point within the
power system.
3
Ib= Base current in Amps = MVA b  10 (24)
Amps
3kVb
Zs = System impedance = MVA b p.u.

(25)
MVA sc
MVAb= Base MVA, MVAsc= short circuit MVA at the point of interest
VH= Percent individual harmonic voltage distortion =
I
= h (h ) (Zs )  100 Volts (26)
Ib
 2
  2  2
  Vh  1 2   Ih 
  h = 2 
THD υ % = h = 2   100 THD i % =  100 (27)
V1 I1
h = harmonic order
Ih
IH = Percent individual harmonic distortion =  100 (28)
IL
Isc = Short Circuit current at the point under consideration.
IL = Estimated maximum demand load current
Isc MVA sc
S.C. Ratio = Short circuit Ratio = = (29)
I L MVA D
MVAD = Demand MVA

K Factor = Factor useful for transformers design and
specifically from transformers that feed
Adjustable Speed Drives
 2
 Ih 
=  (h ) 2
   (30)
h =1  IL 
ONCE THE SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO IS KNOWN, THE IEEE CURRENT
HARMONIC LIMITS CAN BE FOUND AS SPECIFIED IN TABLE I OF
THE IEEE 519-1992 POWER QUALITY STANDARDS
USING THE ABOVE EQUATIONS VALUES OF IDIVINDUAL AND

TOTAL VOLTAGE AND CURRENT HARMONIC DISTORTION CAN
BE COMPUTED AND COMPARED WITH THE IEEE LIMITS

Step 4: If the analysis is being performed for CSI-type drives then the area
of the voltage notch AN should also be computed.
- At this point an impedance diagram of the under analysis
industrial power system should be available.
- The Notch Area AN at the PCC can be calculated as follows.
AN = AN1 + AN2 + …………. V . microsec (31)
AN1 , AN2 , …… are the notch areas contribution of the different busses
Source inductance
A N1 = A NDR1
Source inductance + the sum of inductances from PCC to the drive
(32)
ANDR1 : Notch area at the input of the drive

Step 5: Determine preliminary filter design.
Step 6: Compute THDv and THDi magnitudes and impedance versus

frequency plots with filters added to the system, one at a time.
SIMULINK or PSPICE software programs can be used for final
adjustments.
Step 7: Analyze results and specify final filter design.

EXAMPLE OF A SYSTEM ONE LINE
DIAGRAM

System impedances diagram which can be used to
calculate its resonance using PSPICE or SIMULINK
programs

TYPES OF FILTERS
1) Parallel-passive filter for current-source nonlinear loads
• Harmonic Sinc
• Low Impedance
• Cheapest
• VA ratings = VT (Load Harmonic current + reactive current of the filter)

2) Series-passive filter for voltage-source nonlinear loads
• Harmonic dam
• High-impedance
• Cheapest
• VA ratings = Load current (Fundamental drop across filter + Load Harmonic Voltage)

3) Basic parallel-active filter for current source in nonlinear loads

4) Basic series-active filter for voltage-source in nonlinear loads

5) Parallel combination of parallel active and parallel passive
6) Series combination of series active and series passive

7) Hybrid of series active and parallel passive
8) Hybrid of parallel active and series passive

9) Series combination of parallel-passive and parallel-active
10) Parallel combination of series-passive and series-active

11) Combined system of series-active and parallel-active
12) Combined system of parallel-active and series-active

A SIMPLE EXAMPLE OF AN INDUSTRIAL
POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

HARMONIC LIMITS EVALUATION WHEN
POWER-FACTOR-CORRECTION CAPASITORS
ARE USED
- As it can be seen from the power distribution circuit the power-factor-

correction capacitor bank, which is connected on the 480 Volts bus, can
create a parallel resonance between the capacitors and the system
source inductance.
- The single phase equivalent circuit of the distribution system is shown
below.
Rtot Ltot IS If
C
VS Ih
AC Source Harmonic
Load
Z in
Using the above circuit the following equations hold:

2 R sys
kVLL   X 
R sys =  cos  tan −1  , R sys = (33)
MVA sc   R  2
α
2
kVLL  −1 X  Xsys
Xsys =  sin  tan   , Xsys = (34)
MVA sc   R  α 2
α = The turns ratio of the transformer at PCC
2
1000  kVLL (35)
R tr = R pu 
kVA tr
2
1000  kVLL (36)
X tr = X pu 
kVA tr

R tot = R sys + R tr (37)
X tot = Xsys + X tr (38)
2
1000  kVcap
Xc = (39)
kVAR cap
1
C= (40)
ωX c
1
Xc = (41)
ωC
X tot X tot
L tot = = (42)
ω 2 πf

The impedance Z looking into the system from the load, consists of the
in
parallel combination of source impedance R
tot + jX tot and the
capacitor impedance
Zin =
(R tot + jωL tot )  (− j / ωC)
1 (43)
R tot + jωL tot − j
ωC
1 1
ωo L tot = , fo = (44)
ωo C 2 πωo
The equation for Zin can be used to determine the equivalent system
impedance for different frequencies. The harmonic producing loads can
resonate (parallel resonance), the above equivalent circuit. Designating
the parallel resonant frequency by ωo (rad/sec) or f o (HZ) and equating
the inductive and capacitive reactances.

- Harmonic current components that are close to the parallel resonant frequency are amplified.
- Higher order harmonic currents at the PCC are reduced because the capacitors are low
impedance at these frequencies.
- The figure below shows the effect of adding capacitors on the 480 Volts bus for power factor
correction.
This figure shows that by adding some typical sizes of power factor correction capacitors will
result in the magnification of the 5th and 7th harmonic components, which in turns makes it
even more difficult to meet the IEEE 519-1992 harmonic current standards .
- Power factor correction capacitors should not be used without turning reactors in case the
adjustable speed drives are >10% of the plant load.
EXAMPLE
Let us examine an industrial plant with the following data:
- Medium voltage = 20KVLL
- Low voltage = 0.4 KVLL
- Utility three phase short circuit power = 250 MVA
- For asymmetrical current, the X ratio of system impedance = 2.4
R
The Transformer is rated:
1000 KVA, 20 KV-400 Y/230 V

Rpu = 1%, Xpu = 7%
- The system frequency is: fsys = 50 HZ.
- For power factor correction capacitors the following cases are examined:
a. 200 KVAR
b. 400 KVAR
c. 600 KVAR
d. 800 KVAR
The parallel resonant frequencies for every case of
power factor correction is calculated as follows:
R sys =
20 2
250
 
 cos tan −1(2.4 ) = 0.6154 Ω
 sin tan (2.4) = 1.4769 Ω

2
20 −1
Xsys =
250
20
α= = 50
0.4
R sys = 0.6154 50 2 = 0.000246 Ω
Xsys = 1.4769 50 2 = 0.000591Ω

1000  (0.4 )2
R tr = 0.01  = 0.00160 Ω
1000
1000  (0.4 )2
X tr = 0.07  = 0.0112 Ω
1000
R tot = 0.000246 + 0.0016 = 0.001846 Ω
X tot = 0.000591 + 0.0112 = 0.011791Ω

0.011791
L tot = = 37.55 10 − 6 H
2  π  50
Case a:
1000  (0.4 )2
Xc = = 0.8 Ω
200
1
C = = 3.98 10 −3 F
2π  50  0.8
1
fo = = 412 .18HZ
2 π  37.50  10 − 6  3.98  10 −3
For 200 KVAR, the harmonic order at which parallel resonance occurs is:
h = 412 .18 50 = 8.24

Case b:
1000  (0.4 )2
Xc = = 0.4 Ω
400
C = 7.96 10 −3 F
f o = 291 .45HZ
h = 5.83
Case c:
1000  (0.4 )2
Xc = = 0.267 Ω
600
C = 11.94 10−3 F
f o = 237 .97 HZ
h = 4.76
Case d:
1000  (0.4 )2
Xc = = 0.2 Ω
800
C = 15.92 10−3 F
f o = 206 .08HZ
h = 4.12
It is clear for the above system that in the 600 KVAR case, there
exists a parallel resonant frequency f o close to the 5th harmonic.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION AND
HARMONIC TREATMENT
USING TUNED FILTERS
- Basic configuration of a tuned 3-φ capacitor bank for power factor

correction and harmonic treatment.
⚫ Simple and cheap filter

⚫ Prevents of current harmonic magnification

- IN ORDER TO AVOID HARMONIC MAGNIFICATION WE CHOOSE A
TUNED FREQUENCY < FITH HARMONIC (i.e 4.7)
- The frequency characteristic of the tuned filter at 4.7 is shown below
As it can be seen from the above figure significant reduction of the 5th
harmonic is achieved. Moreover, there is some reduction for all the other
harmonic components.
The single phase equivalent circuit of the power distribution system
with the tuned filter is shown below
Using the above circuit the following equations hold:

1
f os = = Resonant frequency of the series filter (45)
1
2 π(Lf  C ) 2
Lf =
1
=
2 πf  X c
=
f 1000 kVcap 2 ( ) (46)
C  (2 πf os )2
(2πf os ) 2π  (f os )2  kVAR cap
2
The new parallel combination is having resonant frequency when

1
ωo L tot + ωo L f − =0 (parallel resonance)
ωo C
1
fo = = resonance frequency of the
1
2π(L tot + Lf )  C 2 equivalent distribution circuit
(47)
Also
R tot + jωL tot
If = I h 
R tot + jωL tot + ωL f − 1 ωC
(48)

j (ωLf − 1 / ωC )
Is = I h  (49)
R tot + j ωL tot + ωLf − 1 ωC
Vh = Is  (R tot + jωL tot ) (50)
(R tot + jωL tot )   jωLf

1 
−j
Zin =  ω C =
1
R tot + jωL tot + jωLf − j
ωC
(R tot + jωL tot )   jωL f 1 

−j
=  ωC  (51)
 1 
R tot + j  ωL tot + ωL f − 
 ω C 

As it was discussed before Selecting f o = 235 HZ or 4.7 th harmonic
With KVcap= 0.4 , KVARcap= 600
50 1000  (0.4)2
Lf = = 68.45 10 −6 H = 38.45μH
2  π  (235 )2  600
The new parallel combination is having resonant frequency:
1
fo =
2 π (L tot + Lf )  C
with L tot = 37.55 10 −6 H we have
Lf = 38.45 10−6 H
C = 11.94 10−3 F
1
fo = = 167 .16 HZ
2  π  76 10 − 6 11.94 10 −3
h = 167.16 / 50 = 3.43 (without Lf was 4.76)

The following table shows the variation of Parallel resonant frequency
With and without resonant inductor
Parallel Resonant f0
KVAR C(mF) Without Lf With Lf
200 3.98 8.80 115.3μH 4.08
400 7.96 6.22 57.7μH 3.66

600 11.94 5.08 38.45μH 3.43
800 15.92 4.40 29.5μH 3.08

SIMULATED RESULTS USING
MATLAB/SIMULINK
T1
i
+
-
C motor . +
v
-
380kw/490rpm V
Bus Bar (horiz)2 compens
T
Ground (input)
+ Gnd
v
-
200m cable 4x240 50m cable 4x1 V1
Ground (output)1
Voltage Measurement3
+
v
-
+
Current Measurement4
-
i
voltage
Series RLC Branch

Scope3
Source
Scope1
i
-
itot
+
Scope2 +
i
Scope4
-
Source1 Current Measurement6 Scope

Bus Bar (horiz)3
chock2%5
chock2%3 chock2%1
AC Voltage Source
Ground (input)8
Ground (input)5 Ground (input)4
Ground (output)
i i
+ +
- -
Bus Bar (horiz)7 Bus Bar (horiz)5
AC Current Source7 AC Current Source4
Series RLC Branch3 AC Current Source5 Series RLC Branch2

AC Current Source8
AC Current Source6 AC Current Source3
Bus Bar (horiz)6 Bus Bar (horiz)4
Ground (input)3 Ground (input)2

+
-
i
Bus Bar (horiz)1
AC Current Source1
AC Current Source2 Series RLC Branch1
AC Current Source
Bus Bar (horiz)
Ground (input)1

SIMULINK RESULTS

SIMULINK RESULTS

ACTIVE FILTERING
Parallel type Series type

RESULTS OF ACTIVE FILTERING
2500
30
1500 25
500 20
I
[% I1]
[A] 15
-500
10
-1500
5
-2500 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
Time [ms] Harmonics
Input current of a 6-pulse Rectifier driving a DC machine without any input filtering
5000
35%
30%
2500
I Dynacomp [A]
25%
20%
[%I1]
0
15%
-2500 10%
5%
-5000 0%
0 10 20 30 40 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
Time [ms] Harmonics
Input current with Active Filtering

1000 14
12
500
10
U [V]
[% U1]
0
6
-500 4
2
-1000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
Time [ms] Harmonics
Typical 6-pulse drive voltage waveform
1000 14
12
500
10
U [V]
[% U]
0
6
-500 4
2
-1000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
Time [ms] Harmonics
Voltage source improvement with active filtering

SHUNT ACTIVE FILTERS
By inserting a parallel active filter in a non-linear load location we can
inject a harmonic current component with the same amplitude as that of
the load in to the AC system.
LF
Equivalent circuit
ADVANTAGES OF THE SHUNT OR PARALLEL
ACTIVE FILTER
⚫ Low implementation cost.

⚫ Do not create displacement power factor problems and utility loading.
⚫ Supply inductance LS, does not affect the harmonic compensation of
parallel active filter system.
⚫ Simple control circuit.
⚫ Can damp harmonic propagation in a distribution feeder or between
two distribution feeders.
⚫ Easy to connect in parallel a number of active filter modules in order to
achieve higher power requirements.
⚫ Easy protection and inexpensive isolation switchgear.
⚫ Easy to be installed.
⚫ Provides immunity from ambient harmonic loads.

WAVEFORMS OF THE PARALLEL ACTIVE
FILTER
Source voltage
Load current
Source current
A. F. output current

PARALLEL ACTIVE FILTER EQUATIONS
IC = GI L (52)
G1 = 0 G h =1
ZL VS
IS =  I LH + (53)
Z Z
ZS + L ZS + L
1− G 1− G
ZL
1− G 1 VS
IL =  I LH +  (54)
ZL 1 − G Z + ZL
ZS + S
1− G 1− G
ZL
If  ZS h (55)
1− G h
Then the above equations become
I C = I Lh (56)
VSh
ISh  (1 − G )I LHh + (1 − G ) 0 (57)
ZL
VSh
I Lh = I LHh + (58)
ZL
Equation (55) is the required condition for the parallel A.F. to cancel
the load harmonic current. Only G can be predesign by the A.F. while
Zs and ZL are determined by the system.
For pure current source type of harmonic source ZL  ZS
and consequently equations (53) and (55) become
IS
= (1 − G )
(59)
I LH
1 − G h  1 (60)
ZS = Source impedance
I LH = Is the equivalent harmonic current source
Z L = Equivalent load impedance
G = equivalent transfer function of the active filter

Equation (59) shows that the compensation characteristics of the A.F. are not
influenced by the source impedance, Zs. This is a major advantage of the A.F.
with respect to the passive ones.
VdC
• The DC bus nominal voltage, VdC, must be greater than or equal to line voltage
peak in order to actively control i C .
• The selection of the interface inductance of the active filter is based on the
compromise of keeping the output current ripple of the inverter low and the same
time to be able to track the desired source current.
• The required capacitor value is dictated by the maximum acceptable voltage
ripple. A good initial guess of C is: 
2
t VdC − Vφn

max i Cdt
0 Also LF  3
diφL
C
 ΔvCmax max
V dt
nφ = peak line-neutral voltage
CdV = DC voltage of the DC bus of the inverter

Lφi = Line phase current
xamC vΔ = maximum acceptable voltage ripple,
C i = Phase current of the inverter

P-Q THEORY
For identifying the harmonic currents in general the method of computing

instantaneous active and reactive power is used.
Transformation of the three-phase voltages v u , v v and v w and the three-
phase load currents i Lv , i Lu and i Lw into α-β orthogonal coordinate.
 vu 
vα  2 1 − 1/ 2 − 1/ 2   
v  =    vv 
 β 3 0 3/2 − 3 / 2
 v w 
i 
i Lα  2 1 − 1/ 2 − 1/ 2   Lu 
i  =    i Lv 
 Lβ  3 0 3/2 − 3 / 2
i Lw 

Then according to p - q theory, the instantaneous real power p L and the
instantaneous imaginary (reactive) power q L are calculated.
p L   v α vβ  i Lα 
q  =  − v v α  i Lβ 
 L  β
where

p L = pL + p L + ~
pL = DC + low frequency comp. + high freq. comp.

q L = qL + q L + ~
qL = DC + low frequency comp. + high freq. comp.

~
The conventional active power is corresponding to p L, the conventional reactive
~
power to q L and the negative sequence to the 2 f components of p L and q L .
The commands of the three-phase compensating currents injected by the

shunt active conditioner, i Cu , iCv and iCware given by:
 iCu   1 0  −1
   2    vα v β   p 
 i Cv  = 3  − 1/ 2 3/2  
- vβ v α  q 
i  − 1 / 2 − 3 / 2 
 Cw 
p = Instantaneous real power command
q = Instantaneous reactive power command

Substituting
p = ~
pL 

 ~   Current Harmonics compensation is achieved
q = qL 
p = ~
pL 

  ~   Current Harmonics and low frequency variation
q = q L + qL 
 Components of reactive power compensation

p = p L + ~
pL 
 Current Harmonics and low frequency variation
  
q = q L + ~
Components of active and reactive power compensation
qL 


HARMONIC DETECTION METHODS
i) Load current detection iAF= iLh

It is suitable for shunt active filters which are installed near
one or more non-linear loads.
ii) Supply current detection iAF= KS iSh

Is the most basic harmonic detection method for series
active filters acting as a voltage source vAF.
iii) Voltage detection

It is suitable for shunt active filters which are used as
Unified Power Quality Conditioners. This type of Active
Filter is installed in primary power distribution systems. The
Unified Power Quality Conditioner consists of a series and a
shunt active filter.

SHUNT ACTIVE FILTER CONTROL
a) Shunt active filter control based on voltage detection

Using this technique the three-phase voltages, which are detected at the point of
installation, are transformed to v d and v q on the dq coordinates. Then two first
order high-pass filters of 5HZ in order to extract the ac components v d and ~
~ vq
from v d and v q . Next the ac components are applied to the inverse dq
transformation circuit, so that the control circuit to provide the three-phase
harmonic voltages at the point of installation. Finally, amplifying each harmonic
voltage by a gain Kv produces each phase current reference.
iAF = K V  v h
The active filter behaves like a resistor 1/KV ohms to the external circuit for
harmonic frequencies without altering the fundamental components. 
The current control circuit compares the reference current i AF with the actual
current of the active filter i AF and amplifies the error by a gain KI . Each phase
voltage detected at the point of installation, v is added to each magnified error
signal, thus constituting a feed forward compensation in order to improve current
controllability. As a result, the current controller yields three-phase voltage

references. Then, each reference voltage v i is compared with a high frequency
triangular waveform to generate the gate signals for the power semiconductor
devices.

b) Reference current calculation scheme using source currents (is),
load currents (iL) and voltages at the point of installation (vS).

3-φ HYBRID ACTIVE-PASSIVE FILTER
Compensation of current harmonics and displacement power

factor can be achieved simultaneously.

In the current harmonic compensation mode, the active filter improves the
filtering characteristic of the passive filter by imposing a voltage harmonic
waveform at its terminals with an amplitude
VCh = KI Sh

If the AC mains voltage is pure sinusoidal, then
 ZF 
ISh
=
ZF   Lh K + Z + Z 
 I
h = 2 F S
I Lh K + Z F + ZS THD i =
IS1
• THDi decreases if K increases.

• The larger the voltage harmonics generated by the active filter a better filter
compensation is obtained.
• A high value of the quality factor defines a large band width of the passive
filter, improving the compensation characteristics of the hybrid topology.
• A low value of the quality factor and/or a large value in the tuned factor
increases the required voltage generated by the active filter necessary to
keep the same compensation effectiveness, which increases the active
filter rated power.

Displacement power factor correction is achieved by controlling the voltage
drop across the passive filter capacitor.
VC = βVT
Displacement power factor control can be achieved since at fundamental

frequency the passive filter equivalent impedance is capacitive.

HYBRID ACTIVE-PASSIVE FILTER
Single-phase equivalent circuit Single-phase equivalent circuit

for 5th Harmonic

This active filter detects the 5th harmonic current component that flows
into the passive filter and amplifies it by a gain K in order to determine its
voltage reference which is given by
vAF = K  i F5
As a result, the active filter acts as a pure resistor of K ohms for the 5th
harmonic voltage and current. The impedance of the hybrid filter at the 5th
harmonic frequency, Z5 is given by
1
Z5 = j5ωL F + + rf + K
j5ωC F
K0 The active filter presents a negative resistance to the external

Circuit, thus improving the Q of the filter.
1
K = − rF VBUS5 = 0 , IS5 = VS5
j5ωL T

CONTROL CIRCUIT
The control circuit consists of two parts; a circuit for extracting the
5th current harmonic component from the passive filter iF and a circuit
that adjusts automatically the gain K. The reference voltage for the
active filter 
v AF = K  i F5
HARMONIC-EXTRACTING CIRCUIT
The extracting circuit detects the three-phase currents that flow into
the passive filter using the AC current transformers and then the α-β
coordinates are transformed to those on the d-g coordinates by
using a unit vector (cos5ωt, sin5ωt) with a rotating frequency of
five times as high as the line frequency.

SERIES ACTIVE FILTERS
By inserting a series Active Filter between the AC source and the load
where the harmonic source is existing we can force the source current to
become sinusoidal. The technique is based on a principle of harmonic
isolation by controlling the output voltage of the series active filter.
Equivalent Circuit

- The series active filter exhibits high impedance to harmonic current
and consequently blocks harmonic current flow from the load to the
source.
VC = Output vol tage of the A.F. = KGI S (61)
ZL I L VS
IS = + (62)
ZS + ZL + KG ZS + ZL + KG
G = Equivalent transfer function of the detection circuit of

harmonic current, including delay time of the control
circuit.
G1 = 0 , G h =1 (63)

K = A gain in pu ohms
The voltage distortion of the input AC source VSh is much smaller

than the current distortion.
If K  Z L h and K  ZS + ZL h (64)
Then
VC = ZL I Lh + VSh (65)
IS  0 (66)

HYBRID SERIES AND SHUNT
ACTIVE FILTER
At the Point of Common Coupling provides:
• Harmonic current isolation between the sub transmission and the

distribution system (shunt A.F)
• Voltage regulation (series A.F)
• Voltage flicker/imbalance compensation (series A.F)

SELECTION OF AF’ S FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
AF Configuration with higher number of * is more preferred
Compensation for Active Filters
Specific Application
Active Active Hybrid of Hybrid of
Series Shunt Active Series Active Shunt
and Passive and Active
Shunt Series
Current Harmonics ** *** *
Reactive Power *** ** *
Load Balancing *
Neutral Current ** *
Voltage Harmonics *** ** *
Voltage Regulation *** * ** *
Voltage Balancing *** ** *
Voltage Flicker ** *** *
Voltage Sag&Dips *** * ** *

CONCLUSIONS
⚫ Solid State Power Control results in harmonic pollution above the tolerable limits.
⚫ Harmonic Pollution increases industrial plant downtimes and power losses.
⚫ Harmonic measurements should be made in industrial power systems in order (a) aid
in the design of capacitor or filter banks, (b) verify the design and installation of
capacitor or filter banks, (c) verify compliance with utility harmonic distortion
requirements, and (d) investigate suspected harmonic problems.
⚫ Computer software programs such as PSPICE and SIMULINK can be used in order to
obtain the harmonic behavior of an industrial power plant.
⚫ The series LC passive filter with resonance frequency at 4.7 is the most popular filter.
⚫ The disadvantages of the the tuned LC filter is its dynamic response because it cannot
predict the load requirements.
⚫ The most popular Active Filter is the parallel or shunt type.
⚫ Active Filter technology is slowly used in industrial plants with passive filters as a
hybrid filter. These filters can be used locally at the inputs of different nonlinear loads.
⚫ Active Filter Technology is well developed and many manufactures are fabricating
Active filters with large capacities.
⚫ A large number of Active Filters configurations are available to compensate harmonic
current, reactive power, neutral current, unbalance current, and harmonics.
⚫ The active filters can predict the load requirements and consequently they exhibit very
good dynamic response.
⚫ LC tuned filters can be used at PCC and the same time active filters can be used
locally at the input of nonlinear loads.

HarmonicAnalysis
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LECTURE FOUR
RELIABILTY

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Power System Quality and

HARMONICS AND ITS

What are Harmonics?

Harmonics are integral multiples of some fundamental

The “first harmonic” is really just the fundamental frequency.

Current is not proportional to the applied voltage

Linear loads and current waveforms.

Solid state electronics is based

• Harmonics: Frequency components that are

• fundamental frequency is 50 Hertz

• Harmonics are carried through the system from the source

• Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also

• Overall electrical system and power quality is affected by

• Solid State Electronic Devices which contain a poor

• Overheated Transformers and Motors

• Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit Breakers

Fig. Harmonic-generating load causing voltage distortion at the point

The above is an integer harmonic. Depending on the type of

Harmonics Magnitudes (pu)

•IEEE Standards 519-defines acceptable power

• ISC maximum short-circuit current at PCC.

– AFDs, DC Drives, UPSs, DC power supplies (computers,

Bus Voltage Maximum Maximum

115 kV to 161 kV 1.5% 2.5%

Above 161 kV 1.0% 1.5%

20 -50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0

50 -100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0

100 -1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0

>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0

Values shown are in % of “average maximum load current”

CBIP Report No. 251

⚫ Any periodic waveform can be expressed as a sum of sine and/or

⚫ For instance, a square wave can be represented by the infinite Fourier

• Root-mean square: Root-mean square is a

• Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits

• Shunt passive filters. The most common type of passive

• Series passive filters. Unlike a notch filter which is

The active filter

Transformer overheating and potential

Increased skin and proximity effects

Harmonics circulating in the primary

AFC AFC Increased hysteresis losses

Increased eddy current losses

DC in the primary windings

Many transformers are rated by

Transformers may also be derated

Improved transformer designs have

Power correction capacitors can cause

If a harmonic is generated which excites

Calculation of the harmonic resonance frequency for the system can

Assume a 1500 kVA supply xfmr,

Also assume 600 kVA of power

The harmonic resonance frequency is defined by:

kVAsc 1500 / 0.0575 = 6.6

Method: Add a line reactor or isolation transformer

Benefits: Low cost.

Concerns: Tends to offer reductions in only higher

Because of the associated voltage drop,

Method: Provide a low-impedance path to ground

Method: Inject equal and opposite harmonics onto the

Concerns: The high performance inverter required for the

Power transistors are exposed to conditions

Concerns: May not meet the IEEE standards in every