VOL.8 NO. 1 and 2, DEC.

, 2019

THE NASARA JOURNAL

OF HUMANITIES
ISSN: 1118-6887

A JOURNAL PUBLICATION OF THE

FACULTY OF ARTS,
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EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor- in – Chief: Professor Adewole A. Alagbe

Editor: Philip Manda Imoh, PhD

Associate Editors: Matthew Michael, PhD Suru

Damisa, PhD
Ijah Gideon Akase, PhD
Ishaq Salihu, PhD

Associate Editor/Secretary Yakubu Jacob Umaru, PhD

Consulting Editors: Professor Olayemi Akinwumi, AvHF, FHSN

Department of History, Nasarawa State University, Keffi
Prof. Hakeem I. Tijani
Director, African Studies Programmes, Morgan
State University, Baltimore Md21251.

Prof. G. S. Omachonu AVHF Department

of Languages and Linguistics Nasarawa
State University, Keffi.

Dr. Raphael Njoku University

of Louisville, Kentucky, USA.

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 30
The Place of Language in Policy Formulation and
Implementation in some Countries of Africa
Unubi, Sunday Abraham

Department of English and Literary Studies,

Kogi State University, Nigeria
unubi4u@gmail.com
+2348059760784 & +2348036907489

Abstract
This paper examines the place of language in policy formulation and implementation in some
countries of Africa. Such policies could be economic, educational, agricultural, social,
political/electoral, etc. Over the past years to the present, Africans in many African countries
have experienced inconsistencies and discrepancies in the policies formulated, especially when
weighed with their implementations. This is partly not unconnected with the fact that some
African leaders are oblivious of the far-reaching impact of the language use on the realisation or
implementation of policies hitherto formulated. This is because words as linguistic resources
are dynamic and vibrant, and therefore, can create or make, mar or destroy, kill, save, build
peace, cause full blown war, etc. Data for this research was collected through a secondary
source (internet sources), specifically 12 online papers, which included the speeches of some
African leaders during policy formulation as well as their reactions or utterances within the
period of implementation (which were noted along with their sources - websites). There are
three African countries captured by this study; Liberia, Nigeria and South Africa. The finding of
the study showed that the fiascos recorded in the realisation of policies by leaders of Africa are
partially due to the kind of language they use, especially after formulating certain policies,
which antithetically hampers implementation or achievement.

Key words: language, policy, policy formulation, policy implementation, Africa.

1. Introduction
The long years of underdevelopment, backwardness, stagnation and inertness witnessed in
many African nations as well as disinterest by their citizenry is not far from failure or letdown in
the implementation of policies by leaders of Africa, partly occasioned by inappropriate use of
language. Obviously, this results from the very fact that language, being a divinely endowed tool
for human communication, is inherently powerful, effective and productive, as it could be
utilised to either achieve or destroy golden purposes and intentions here on earth. Language,
often expressed in words has massive potential for both good and evil, and as such, it has the
power to either build up or tear down and kill or give life.

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 Africa is one of the seven continents of the world. It is the second largest after Asia, and it is the
second most populous continent in the world with Nigeria as its largest country by population.
Africa covers about one-fifth of the total land surface of the earth, and it is bounded on the
west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean, and on the south by the mingling waters of the Atlantic and Indian
oceans.

As pointed out by Davidson et al. (1), Africa‘s total land area is approximately 11,724,000
square miles (30,365,000 square km), and the continent measures about 5,000 miles (8,000 km)
from north to south and about 4,600 miles (7,400 km) from east to west. Its northern extremity
is Al-Ghīrān Point, near Al-Abyaḍ Point (Cape Blanc), Tunisia; its southern extremity is Cape
Agulhas, South Africa; its farthest point east is Xaafuun (Hafun) Point, near Cape Gwardafuy
(Guardafui), Somalia; and its western extremity is Almadi Point (Pointe des Almadies), on Cape
Verde (Cap Vert), Senegal. In the northeast, Africa was joined to Asia by the Sinai Peninsula until
the construction of the Suez Canal. Paradoxically, the coastline of Africa, which is 18,950 miles
(30,500 km) in length, is shorter than that of Europe because there are few inlets and few large
bays or gulfs. As at 2016, there were 1.2 billion people in Africa, which is one-seventh and 16%
of the entire population of the world. According to the United Nations (UN), there are 54 fully
recognised sovereign states or countries in Africa today, and this partly explains why the
continent can boast of diverse ethnic groups and cultures, which made it thickly rich in a very
high linguistic diversity. Below is a map of Africa showing its countries:

Figure 1: Map of Africa Showing African Nations(https://www.infoplease.com/atlas/africa)

As commented by Osabu-Kle (1), Africa is a bright continent with adequate material resources
for potential auto-centric development but after decades of independence, Africa remains the
least developed continent in the world.Considering the fact that scientifically Africa was the
cradle of the human race, and historically the cradle of civilization, what then is responsible for
this level of backwardness in Africa? Unmistakably, there could be motley of factors responsible
for this, and one of them is the kind of language African leaders deploy while generating or
formulating policies and during the implementation of such policies, an issue or a problem,
which this research is poised to handle or proffer solution to.

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2. Statement of the Research Problem
It is no more news that many African countries have been fraught with inconsistencies in policy
formulation and implementation since independence, a situation which has contributed in no
small measure to the underdevelopment of this great continent. Of course, part of this great
problem is the kind of language used by African leaders in an attempt to formulate policies as
against the one (language) used during the stipulated period of implementation or
achievement. Undoubtedly, if the language employed during the formulation of certain policies
is incongruous or at variance with the one deployed during implementation of such policies,
there is bound to be problem, and the consequence could be total fiasco or failure. The long-
standing problem of lack of development that has been staring the African people in the face
should be a deep concern to all. Indeed, it is that concern that has motivated or driven the
researcher to investigate the place which language occupies in both formulation and
implementation of policies generally by leaders of the African continent.

3. Literature Review
Under this section, the review of literature will concentrate or centre mainly on the important
concepts that constitute the title of this research, which include language, policy, policy
formulation and policy implementation.

The term language is derived from the Latin word ―Lingua‖ which means tongue, as well as
the French word ―Langue‖, meaning language. In all ages, language is a tool for human
communication. We are able to exchange, for instance knowledge, beliefs, opinions, wishes,
threats, commands, thanks, promises, declarations and feelings through language. Similarly, we
can laugh to express amusement, happiness, or disrespect; we can equally smile to express
amusement, pleasure, approval, or bitter feelings; we can shriek to express anger, excitement,
or fear; we can clench our fists to express determination, anger or a threat; we can raise our
eyebrows to express surprise or disapproval; and so on. All these are possible through the
means or medium of language. From the foregoing, it is obvious that language can be verbal or
nonverbal. The use of language that involves the words of mouth is called verbal
communication, and a situation where the use of language does not involve the words of
mouth, it is called non-verbal communication (e.g. facial expressions and gestures). Language,
as used by African leaders in policy formulation and implementation involves both verbal and
non-verbal forms. As reported by Amberg and Vause (2), language is the foremost means of
communication, and communication almost always takes place within some sort of social
context. Social context is a major factor that drives our language choices or uses. Language is
called a social phenomenon, because it has relevance only in a social setting. Consequently,
language is defined as a system of communication by sound, that is, through the organs of
speech and hearing, among human beings of a certain group or community, using vocal symbols
possessing arbitrary conventional meanings. According to Crystal (212), language is the
systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for
communication and self-expression‖. This definition further buttresses the fact that language
goes in paripassu with communication. This means that language can only be transmitted and
expressed using the medium of communication, and communication, and it can be in auditory-

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vocal, bodily, visual and tactile forms. In addition, Kraus and Chiu (2) declare that language
pervades social life, and that it is the principal vehicle for the transmission of cultural
knowledge, and the primary means by which we gain access to the contents of others‘ minds.
At another level of analysis, language can refer to the acts of speaking, which can be regarded
as actions intended to accomplish a specific purpose by verbal means. Looked at this way,
utterances can be thought of as speech acts that can be identified in terms of their intended
purposes, which include assertions, questions, requests, etc. Lastly, Sapir (7) comments that
language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and
desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. These symbols are, in the first
instance, auditory and they are produced by the so-called organs of speech. As a consequence,
all inventions and achievements ever recorded in human existence have their roots in language
as a veritable instrument of thought and an indispensable channel or tool of communication. By
implication, to invent, formulate and implement policies, African leaders must use language but
the appropriateness of the language use can either impede or implement good policies that can
lead to the development of this great continent of Africa.

Policy, according to Torjman (4), is a deliberate and careful decision that usually provides
guidance for addressing selected public concerns. Policy development can be seen, then, as a
decision-making process that helps address identified goals, problems or concerns. At its core,
policy development entails the selection of a destination or desired objective. In a nutshell,
public policy seeks to achieve a desired goal that is considered to be in the best interest of all
members of society. Furthermore, McClelland (10) remarks that policy aims to improve the
well-being and welfare of people in a particular geographical enclave. ―Welfare here means
services that are provided to people who are in need. It also includes actions aimed at
promoting social well-being. Social well-being encompasses how individuals and groups fare in a
range of domains or spheres of life, such as living standards (or material well-being), access to
information, social participation, family relationships, and overall life satisfaction that could be
regarded as development. Policy can be formal statements with substantial detail about
purpose and proposed action, a set of related formal statements, statements of general
intention or purpose, and statements where values are articulated. As a matter of fact, social
policy is more planned than random, that is, it involves some kind of purposeful, intentional
activity, and sometimes involves making bold and authoritative choices that can change the
status quo and take a society from the dungeon of underdevelopment to that of development.
As stated by the Health Policy Plus (1), a policy isa formal document or framework in which a
government or an institution outlines goals and the guiding principles and strategies for
achieving those goals, and showing some commitment to undertake actions in pursuit of them.
Sound policies should include human and financial commitments, clear time lines, and the roles
and responsibilities needed for achieving the stated goals, as well as benchmarks for ensuring
accountability.

Policy formulation, as revealed by EU-funded Urban Transport Research Project Results (5), is
a strategic planning process leading to a general concept, usually a ―Development Master-
plan‖. Such a master-plan is a political decision. It includes a set of measures aimed at the
future developments of Africa, being the focal point of this study. In this case, a consensus has
to be reached on which scenario or group of measures out of the different scenarios and

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bundles of measures is apt to fulfill the intended goals in the best way. This overall concept
normally is a legally-binding framework for more detailed plans and concepts for a longer
period of time. Participation and information of all involved parties should be regarded as an
important aspect to gain accepted goals and accepted policies. This is because one problem of
reasonably sound policies that can change the status quo in African nations and bring about
sustainable development in most cases, are unpopular. In a related development, Waller, Peter
et al. (16) explain that in the classic model of policy formulation, Ministers come to government
with a clear philosophical approach – the approach which formed the basis on which they were
elected. They then set out for department and its officials that approach, and the department in
turn applies that philosophy to the issues for which the department is responsible, seeking
guidance from Ministers when specific decisions are needed. Ministers in turn promote, explain
and defend those policies in public debates, while officials work out and implement the detailed
activities which give effect to the policy. Notice that the principal source of policy within
government is the democratic process. Political parties present both their political philosophy
and their specific proposals to the electorate in a published manifesto; and the election winner
is then given the opportunity to pursue them. According to Turnpenny, John R., et al. (6-7),
policy formulation is the stage of the policy process in which options that might help resolve
issues and problems recognised at the agenda-setting stage are identified, refined, appraised
and formalised. The process of identifying and comparing alternative actions is said to shape the
subsequent stage, which is that of decision-making. During the formulation stage, policy
analysts will typically have to confront trade-offs between legitimate public demands for action,
and the political, technical and financial capabilities to address them. Note that policy
formulation is the very essence of public policy analysis, which is characterised with how to
understand the relationship between ‘manipulable means and obtainable objectives’.
Moreover, policy formulation is much more of a political netherworld, dominated by those with
specialist knowledge, preferred access to decision makers or a paid position in a particular
government agency or department.

The concept of policy implementation becomes clearer as one considers the verb implement,
which in its most basic sense, means to carry out, to fulfill, or to accomplish. When applied to
public policy, implementation is the process of putting into effect or carrying out an
authoritative decision of Government. Implementation puts the objectives of policy adopters
into action in an effort to accomplish desired results. Policy implementation is of critical
importance to the success of Government because no policy can succeed if the implementation
does not bear relationship to the intentions of policy adopters. Policy implementation is the
process of putting policy into action, and it is the phase between a decision and operation. As
pointed out by DeGroff and Cargo (47), implementation has long been recognized as a distinct
stage in the policy process, and it is unique for representing the transformation of a policy idea
or expectation into action aimed at remedying social problems. In general, policy
implementation can be considered the process of carrying out a government decision. To this
end, implementation is an iterative process in which ideas, expressed as policy, are transformed
into behavior, expressed as social action, and the social action transformed from the policy is
typically aimed at social betterment, and most frequently manifests as programs, procedures,
regulations, or practices. In a similar fashion, Khan (4) says that what is called public policy must

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have to be implemented, and that the success of an adopted public policy depends on how
successfully it is implemented. Even the very best policy is of little worth if it is not implemented
successfully or properly. Therefore, policy implementation is the execution of the law in which
various stakeholders, organisations, procedures, and techniques work together to put polices
into effect with a view to attaining policy goals. Implementation can be viewed as a process, an
output and an outcome, and it involves a number of actors, organisations and techniques of
control. It is the process of the interactions between setting goals and the actions directed
towards achieving them. Implementation is also viewed as the application of the policy by
government administrative machinery in order to achieve the goals. As advanced by (Brynard 4),
implementation means to carry out, accomplish, fulfill, produce, and complete. In other words,
it is the ability to forge subsequent links in the causal chain so as to obtain the desired result. In
addition, implementation encloses all actions that take place during the realisation of the plans,
i.e. budgeting, construction of infrastructure and the undertaking of necessary institutional
changes for policy measures. Policy implementation, therefore, can be defined as those actions
by public or private individuals (or groups) that are directed at the achievement of objectives set
forth in prior policy decisions. It is noteworthy to say that policy implementation is critical and
crucial for both the public and private sectors.

4. Theoretical Framework
This study is hinged on Firth‘s theory of descriptive linguistics of 1951. Firth, as echoed by (Love
31) maintains that the business of linguistics is to describe language. She further reports that
Firth takes linguistics to be primarily concerned with the speech-events themselves, and dealing
with speech-events will involve the systematic deployment of analytical constructs and
categories, which may in practice turn out to be rather similar to the constructs and categories
involved in the analysis of abstract systems underlying speech-events. In a clearer perspective,
descriptive linguistics is a study of a language, its structure, and its rules as they are used in daily
life by its speakers from all walks of life, including standard and nonstandard varieties, that is,
descriptive linguistics describes the language, its structure, and the syntactic rules that govern
sentence and phrase constructions. Importantly, the concept of descriptive analysis is, in
principle, applicable to any set of data, provided that these data represent the actual usage of a
language under study at a given time in a given speech community.

As evident from the foregoing, it is obvious that descriptive theory perfectly fits into this
research. This is because in this study, we will describe vividly how both policy formulation and
its implementation by leaders of the African continent are influenced or affected adversely due
to the kind of language deployed. And of course, such a description can never be complete and
reliable without the use of data. Data is considered as a tool with which linguists analyse or
describe scientifically any language, or any aspect of it and its use by a particular speech
community or any group of people (e.g. leaders of Africa) so as to arrive at valid conclusions.

5. Methodology
The present study appeals only to the secondary sources of data, particularly internet sources
from where issues of policy formulation and implementation which concern three African
countries, viz, Liberia, Nigeria and South Africa were elicited. This secondary source of data

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collection is divided into two parts. The first part included eliciting and meticulous examination
of declarative statements as contained in the inaugural speeches of some African leaders.
Usually and generally, during inauguration, new leaders do utter declarative statements which
are always considered to be formulation of policies. In the course of the examination, a
particular declarative statement uttered or expressed as a policy statement by some leaders of
Africa is pinned down and pointed out (along with its website). This was emblematically labelled
A. The second part of the data also included eliciting and examination of both speeches and
body language as expressed and exhibited by some African leaders at different fora or meetings
from inauguration to termination of tenure of office (were noted and the source indicated). This
period is considered by this study as the policy implementation period. Again, during the
examination, any observable statement uttered, and body language portrayed that is a direct
contradiction or opposite of what was said during policy generation or formulation period was
pinned down and pointed out. This also was symbolically labelled B. Then analysis was done
concurrently after each pair (A & B) of the data. The labelling as well as the concurrent analysis
of each pair of the data was essentially done for the purposes of clarity and understanding on
the part of the readership.

6. Data Presentation and Analysis

According to our methodology, the data to be presented here are in two parts. As pointed out
earlier in our literature review, language use could be verbal or non-verbal. Also, we did
mention that a policy could be formal statements with substantial detail about purpose and
proposed action. Therefore, in this section, we are looking at verbal expressions as declarative
statements made by some present and past African leaders during inauguration at the inception
of their various administrations. Such statements as elicited, examined and identified by the
researcher are here presented. We refer to this as policy formulation period. On the other
hand, both verbal and non-verbal language, either expressed as declarative statements or
displayed as language forms (or body language) by some past and present leaders of Africa from
inauguration to termination of tenure of office that show evidence of contradiction to the one
uttered during policy formulation period were elicited, examined, indicated and presented as
well. Again, we term this policy implementation period‖. The countries of Africa examined in
this study are three, which are: Liberia, Nigeria and South Africa. As also mentioned in our
methodology, the first part of the data is labelled A, while the second part is labelled B, and the
analysis follows immediately, as outlined below:

1. Liberia
A. “Corruption, under my Administration, will be the major public enemy. We will
confront it. We will fight it. Any member of my Administration who sees this affirmation as mere
posturing or yet another attempt by another Liberian leader to play to the gallery on this grave
issue should think twice. In this respect, I will lead by example – former Liberian President, Ellen
Johnson Sirleaf, during her inauguration address on Monday, January 16, 2006
(https://allafrica.com/stories/200601170106.html).

B. Was it a mistake? I stand by it. I take the criticism for it. I think it’s unfair, but yes,
there is a thing about nepotism and we all try to respect it. I needed someone I trusted in that

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space and when all the audits are available they‘ll realize he was judged wrongly – Ellen
Johnson Sirleaf, while reacting to the appointment of her son Robert to the position of a
Managing Directing of the National Oil Company of Liberia (NOCAL) in particular, two other of
her sons and her sister in general to three other key positions, as quoted by Prue Clarke and
Mae Azango, on Monday, October 9, 2017 (https://foreignpolicy.com).
A policy on the need to treat corruption as the No. 1 enemy of Liberia was formulated by
President Ellen Johnson during her inaugural speech in 2006, adding that she would be
exemplary. Analytically, the tone with which the President vowed to frontally confront
corruption was like she would kill it, take its remains to the grave, bury it and never be allowed
to resurrect again in Liberia! But alas, she lacked the backbone to implement this noble policy.
As commented by Rodney Sieh, the managing editor of the Liberian newspaper Front Page
Africa: I think a lot of Liberians embraced the pledge to curb graft but now look back with
disappointment
that the political will has just not been there to bring accused corrupt officials to book. In fact, in
her first term alone, more than 20 government ministers were accused of corruption by the
country‘s independent corruption watchdog, the General Auditing Commission, but not one of
them was prosecuted. Perhaps one major misstep that rendered the president powerless in the
implementation of this policy was the appointment of three of her sons and one of her sisters
to key government positions. In fact, a great cloud of suspicion regarding corruption was raised
over her son, Robert, the Managing Director of the National Oil Company of Liberia (NOCAL), as
this company collapsed in 2015, just two years after he left office.

2. Nigeria
1. A. The bane of corruption shall be met with the overwhelming force of our collective
determination, to rid our nation of this scourge. The fight against corruption is a war in which
we must all enlist, so that the limited resources of this nation will be used for the growth of our
commonwealth – former President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan of Nigeria, in his inaugural speech
delivered on Sunday, May 29, 2011 (www.vanguardngr.com/2011/05).

B. What many Nigerians refer to as corruption is actually stealing. Stealing is not the same thing
as corruption. What was perceived as corruption were mere cases of petty stealing by
government officials. Corruption is not the cause of all the problems confronting Africa. In terms
of security, Boko Haram is the biggest challenge we (Nigeria) have at the moment – President
Jonathan in one of his interactive sessions with the press at home
(www.vanguardngr.com/2014/07), and at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland
(http://saharareporters.com/2014/01/27).

The former Nigerian President, Goodluck Jonathan, as perceived in his inauguration address
above, made a good policy statement by perceiving corruption as a dangerous enemy that must
not be spared, and as such, declared total war against it. He even enjoined all Nigerians, to, like
new recruits by a nation‘s military, get enlisted in order to fight and get this monster
vanquished or crushed totally. However, within the implementation period, the president shot
himself in the foot when he said that stealing is not corruption and that corruption is not the
cause of all the problems confronting Africa. As noted by Nwachukwu Okafor
(http://saharareporters.com/2015/08/23), corruption is evil. It is the reason patients die in

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Nigerian hospitals, it is the reason we have death traps as roads, it is the reason students
graduating from our universities are half-baked, it is the reason we have fake drugs. Our
borders and ports are porous because of corruption. The oil giant NNPC with our refineries do
not function well because of corruption. In fact, the Nigerian experiment has been a mirage
because of corruption. It is this evil that is destroying our corporate existence. Corruption is a
crime against humanity. Well, for the former President to announce to the whole world that
corruption is not the cause of all the problems confronting Africa, to a lesser extent, may be
true but to a larger one, it is not, because corruption can cripple or crumble the development of
a nation. In 2012, the global anticorruption watchdog, Transparency International, rated Nigeria
under President Goodluck Jonathan as the 35 th most corrupt in the world. If corruption is not
considered to be an enemy of development globally, there would have been no need for the TI.
While reacting to the way the President was handling the issue of corruption, the former
Speaker of the House of Representatives, Aminu Waziri Tambuwal declared on Monday,
December 9, 2013 that the ―body language‖ of the President did not indicate that he had the
political will to stem corruption in the country.

2. A. At home we have enormous challenges. Insecurity, pervasive corruption, the hitherto

unending and seemingly impossible fuel and power shortages are the immediate concerns.
Nigerians will not regret that they have entrusted national responsibility to us. We must not
succumb to hopelessness and defeatism.Boko Haram is not only the security issue bedeviling our
country. The spate of kidnappings, cases of armed robbery, herdsmen/farmers clashes, cattle
rustlings all help to add to the general air of insecurity in our land. We are going to tackle them
head on – Mohammadu Buhari, in his inaugural speech as the President of Nigeria, delivered on
Friday, May 29, 2015 (www.vanguardngr.com/2015/05).

B. I felt I had to invite you to let us eat together and I tell you that I am sitting here very much
aware of the problem in this country. I will always reflect on historical antecedents. I decided to
drop the uniform and come back here (to be President of Nigeria), so I have gone through it over
and over again. This is why I am not in a hurry to do anything. I will sit and reflect, and continue
to operate with my clear conscience – President Mohammadu Buhari, while reacting to the
herdsmen/farmers‘ clashes in Benue State, during his hosting of All Progressives Congress (APC)
chieftain to a dinner party at the State House in Abuja on Thursday, January 18, 2018
(www.vanguardngr.com/2018/01).
As one examines critically the policy statement of President Mohammed Buhari, it is obvious
that there was problem in the implementation. During policy generation or formulation, the
President made it categorically clear that herdsmen/farmers‘ clashes, after Boko Haram is one
of the major security challenges bedeviling the nation, and that he would tackle it head on, and
treat it as his immediate concern. However, when the major herdsmen/farmers‘ clash took
place in Benue State, his hosting of the APC chieftain to a dinner party during the bloodbath did
not only kill this noble policy but conducted its burial when he said he was not in a hurry to act
in such a burning situation that should have nudged or prompted him into taking action with
immediate alacrity. In fact, analysts said that the hosting of such a party by the President at
such a time is like heartlessly organising a dance on the graves of those who were gruesomely
murdered.

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3. South Africa
1. (A) …This is because we have sought to design and implement an inclusive democratic system,
rather than one driven by social and political exclusion. Democratic South Africa will play its
role vigorously to promote the achievement of this goal. … we will never betray the trust you
bestowed on us when you helped to give us the possibility to transform South Africa into a
democratic, non-racial, non-sexist and prosperous country committed to the noble vision of
human solidarity – former South African President, Thabo Mbeki, in his inaugural address
delivered on Tuesday, April 27, 2004 (www.iol.co.za/news/politics).
(B)―African Democratic Congress (ANC) has been divided since the 2007 elective conference
in Polokwane, Limpopo province, where President Thabo Mbeki had hinted at third term… Zweli
Mkhize, Treasurer-General of the ANC party (www.forbesafrica.com). President Thabo Mbeki‘s
announcement that he is making himself available for a third term as ANC leader is a good
thing – uttered by political analysts on Monday, July
2, 2007
(www.iol.co.za/news/politics).
In his inaugural address, former president Thabo Mbeki did not only promise to implement an
inclusive democratic system as a policy but also avowed to get committed to the noble vision of
a democratic South Africa. However, at the tail end of his second term in office, he
surreptitiously sought for a third term in office, as commented by analysts above. In
democratised nations of Africa, African leaders knowvery well that seeking a third term in office
is undemocratic, and as such, those who nurse such ambition often did so without formal
announcement. So, Mbeki‘s desire here is at variance with his policy statement at inauguration,
and therefore, a failure in the implementation of this policy. Although ANC in its constitution as
a party does not limit Mbeki from contesting on its platform for a third term, the South African
constitution does not allow him (Mbeki) to remain the president of the country beyond his
second term which ended in 2009. This is because the nation‘s constitution is more superior
and sacrosanct to that of a political party. Any nation that tolerates undemocratic practices
could be expelled from the international community thereby becoming it a pariah nation.
Definitely, this, in no small measure, could hinder or hamper the development of such a nation.

2.(A) I commit myself to the service of our nation with dedication, commitment, discipline,
integrity, hard work and passion. “To achieve all our goals, we must uphold ourselves to the
highest standards of service, probity and integrity – former South African President, Jacob Zuma,
in his inaugural speech delivered on Saturday, May 9, 2009 (www.sanews.gov.za). (B) I do not
make this reference because I am above reproach. Nor do I wish to proclaim that in undertaking
my political responsibilities I have been the epitome of perfection. If truth be told, none of us are
– President Jacob Zuma in his resignation address due to charges of corruption on Wednesday,
February 14, 2018 (www.enca.com/south-africa/must-read-jacob-zumas-resignationletter).
While taking his oath of office, former President Jacob Zuma promised to uphold probity and
integrity, a clearly generated or formulated policy but failed in its implementation because he
was caught in the web of corruption. In his resignation speech to his party (ANC), who forced
him to do so, Zuma said he was neither above reproach nor an epitome of perfection, a
statement which undoubtedly suggests complicity. Without doubt, corruption is an enemy of
development, and it can kill a nation. By it, public funds that are supposed to be deployed in
building public infrastructures like roads, schools, hospitals, electricity, pipe borne water, etc.

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are diverted into private pockets thereby selling the masses to abject poverty, untold suffering
and hardship, hunger and general dissatisfaction with life. In fact, corruption cancels
development and consolidates on business as usual.

7. Findings of the Research

From the data collected, presented and analysed above, the following are the findings of this
research: (i) language occupies a crucial place in policy formulation and implementation in
Africa. This is because the African leaders investigated in this study used language both verbally
and non-verbally (as in the case where the former Speaker accused the former President of
Nigeria, Goodluck Jonathan of his ‘body language’ not supporting the fight against corruption).
This reveals the indispensability of language in all spheres of life; (ii) corruption tops the list of
most policies often formulated by leaders of Africa but it is either poorly implemented or not
implemented at all. And this is the hydra-headed monster that has brought many African
countries to the level of underdevelopment since independence; (iii) many African leaders do
forget that their utterances at inaugurations actually constitute the generation and formulation
of policies, and should be seriously treated as such; and (iv) many leaders of Africa do not put
their inaugural speeches before them within their tenure of office to remind them of the crucial
policies they have generated or formulated for down-to-earth implementation.

8. Conclusion
This paper has investigated the place of language in policy generation, formulation and
implementation in Africa. From the data collected, presented and analysed in this research, it is
clear from our findings that language, indeed, occupies an important place as far as policy
generation, formulation and implementation in Africa is concerned. From this study, it is also
obvious that the kind of language used by African leaders during policy formulation and
implementation is partly responsible for the underdevelopment and backwardness of the
African continent. The kind of language deployed in policy implementation can make or mar
that policy as seen in this study. If language (or words) can kill a soul or make it to blossom like
flower, kill a dream or make it to be achieved, kill a relationship or make it to be sustained; it
can also kill a policy or make it to be implemented; and if death and life are in the power of the
tongue, then the death and implementation of policies are also in the power of the tongue.
Therefore, African leaders should be mindful and careful of the language they use during the
implementation period of certain policies that are meant to place the African continent on the
path of development, which hitherto have been generated and formulated.

9. Contribution to Knowledge
Unmistakably, as one carefully considers the findings of this research, which emanated from the
data collected, presented and analysed, it is true that the revelation that language occupies a
crucial place in policy formulation and implementation in Africa; the reality of the fact that
corruption tops the list of most policies often formulated by leaders of Africa but it is either
poorly implemented or not implemented at all; and the disclosure that many African leaders do
forget that their utterances at inaugurations actually constitute formulation of policies as well
as the observation that many leaders of Africa do not put their inaugural speeches before them

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within their tenure of office to remind them of the significant policies they have formulated, all
speak volume of the contribution of this study to knowledge. Aside these, the choice of three
African countries in this study is undoubtedly expected to provoke more academic researches
or discourses by scholars in both linguistics and social sciences, and here lies the beauty of
academic scholarship. Finally, making this study available as an addition to the body of existing
knowledge in the field of linguistics and social sciences is an immense contribution.

10. Recommendations for Further Studies

Since no research can be described as perfect and exhaustive, the three countries of Africa
chosen for this study should not be perceived or considered a weakness on the part of the
researcher but rather an endeavor and a scheme to provoke researchers in linguistics and social
sciences to continue from where the researcher has stopped. Actually, there are fifty-four
countries of Africa; therefore, the door is now open for language scholars to carry out more
researches on the place of language in policy formulation and implementation in the remaining
fifty-one countries of Africa which this study could not handle. Apart from this, there is also the
need for linguists to conduct researches into the place of language in fighting corruption in
many, if not all countries of Africa, which has become an endemic problem that is eating away
the gigantic and naturally blessed and endowed continent of Africa.

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