Urban Drainage Combined PDF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOMATIC ENGINEERING
Urban Flooding and Drainage CEGE0039
Introduction to urban flooding/drainage

(Week 1- 13 Jan 2023)
Dr Kourosh Behzadian
BSc, MSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FCIWEM, C.WEM, FHEA
k.behzadian@ucl.ac.uk
Outline
➢ Introduction of Module
➢Greeting/ getting to know each other
➢Aims of the module/learning outcomes
➢Reference/key text books
➢Overview of Assessment/ Assignment
➢Timetable
➢Overview of Module outline
➢ Basics Concept of Hydraulic and Hydrologic modelling

Aim and Focus of the module
• The aim is to introduce students to engineering techniques used for
managing surface water and flooding in urban drainage systems
• The Focus of the module are on the thee main areas
• Flood risk mapping through hydrological concepts
• Flood defence and mitigation through permanent/temporary defence measures

designing for floods and flood policy within the context of the UK
• Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) through state-of-the-art techniques for

reducing surface water runoff and flood risk
Module objectives/Learning
outcomes
Understand Understand key concepts of flood hydrology including return
period and flood estimation procedures
Understand Understand the difference between flood defense, resistance

and resilience in design;
Describe the principal techniques used for flood defense

Describe at different temporal and spatial scales and understand
methods used for assessing different options;
Understand the principles of sustainable drainage

Understand systems (SuDS) and the technologies applied to manage
urban surface water at different scales.
Module Content
• Review of applied hydraulics and hydrology
• Review of urban drainage/sewer systems
• Rainfall-runoff modelling
• Design of sustainable drainage systems (SuDS)
• Urban flood risk and flood policy
• Real-time urban flood forecasting
• Applications of digital technologies and data mining
techniques in real-time urban flood systems
• Early warning for urban flood control management
Urban Drainage Systems and Urban Flooding
Conventional Drainage Systems
Sustainable Drainage Systems

Software tools for modelling urban flooding and drainage
SewerCAD/SewerGEMS/CivilStorm/StormCAD
developed by Bentley's Haestad Methods (Hydraulics &
Hydrology) group
SWMM developed by US
EPA
• Autodesk® Storm and

Sanitary Analysis in
AutoCAD Civil 3D MicroDrainage/XPSWMM/InfoWorks
Developed by Autodesk developed by Innovyze
References
Module Reading List in moodle link

A group working (4-5
Group students) on feasibility
study of a real urban
Coursework: drainage system with
40% steps including
conceptual design,
modelling, performance
assessment
Assessment/ Individual in-class

Numerical
problems and
Assignment assessment: 30% conceptual
questions
Detailed cost-effective
Individual and sustainable design of
urban drainage system
Coursework: 30% with critical
analysis/discussion
Timetable of the module
Week No Date Activity
Week1 (20) Friday 13 Jan 2023 Lecture/Seminar
Week4 (23) Friday 3 Feb 2023 Lecture/SWMM tutorial
Week5 (24) Friday 10 Feb 2023 Lecture/Seminar
Week6 (25) Friday 17 Feb 2023 Reading week (No lecture)
Week7 (26) Friday 24 Feb 2023 Lecture/SWMM tutorial
Week8 (27) Friday 3 Mar 2023 Lecture/SWMM tutorial
Week9 (28) Friday 10 Mar 2023 Group project presentation
Week10 (29) Friday 17 Mar 2023 Lecture/Seminar
Week11 (30) Friday 24 Mar 2023 Course evaluation and individual test
Basic concepts of hydraulic models
➢Modelling in Water Systems
➢Hydrologic modelling: rainfall-runoff models
➢Hydraulic modelling: (open channel/pressurized flow)
Hydrological Cycle
https://youtu.be/R8NQUQDZ3N0
Basic concepts of hydrological models/ flood

➢Hydrologic modelling: rainfall-runoff models
➢Hydraulic modelling: (open channel flow/pressurized flow)
➢Hydraulic modelling: (open channel flow/pressurized flow)
Applications of Hydraulic/hydrology Engineering
Dam Reservoir https://youtu.be/q4cVsOk9L-4
Agricultural irrigation https://youtu.be/I3RUFh1-87k
Water Distribution System https://youtu.be/C_lSFhZNupY
Urban drainage System https://youtu.be/LMq6FYiF1mo
Water Sensitive Urban Design https://youtu.be/b_DTnOzYTR4
https://youtu.be/2b0kcx9-e74
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
16
Urban drainage System
https://youtu.be/LMq6FYiF1mo 17
Water Sensitive Urban Design
https://youtu.be/b_DTnOzYTR4 18
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
https://youtu.be/2b0kcx9-e74
19
Sustainable Water Management Solutions
By 2050, 1) urban populations will grow, 2) changing climate is likely to
continue & 3) water usage per capita may increase
Result: The UN forecasts over six billion people will be in cities and global
water demand will be about 55% higher than today.
This will disrupt two of the essential services: availability of reliable,

affordable and safe clean water and sewerage services 24/7
Internet of Things (IoT) technologies (low-cost IoT sensors) introduce smart

water management solutions that help continuously monitor the environment,
water resources and infrastructure of water and wastewater systems.
20
Smart Water Management Service Offerings
21
Specific Benefits of Smart Water Management
• Improving water conservation
• Optimising the repair and replacement of ageing infrastructure
• Improving the response to climate change and extreme weather events
• Improving public health, water quality and environmental protection
22
Urban Flooding and Drainage | CEGE0039

Hydrology
Gabriele Manoli | g.manoli@ucl.ac.uk
Outline
▪ Definitions and Concepts
▪ Hydrological cycle
▪ Risk and return periods
▪ Methods to estimate runoff
▪ Exercises (see Moodle)
Hydrology: Definitions and Concepts I

▪ Hydrologic: occurrence, quantity, distribution of water
▪ flow rates and volumes as a function of time and with a probability
of exceedance
▪ processes in watersheds
▪ Hydraulic: conveyance of fluids (can be storm water, can also be
sewerage)
▪ depth and velocities of flow in space and time
▪ processes in pipes, channels, culverts, rivers
Hydrology: Definitions and Concepts II

▪ Drainage Basin: area of land draining to the same lowest
hydrographic feature
▪ Hydrographic Feature: river, lake, water body
▪ Other terms:
▪ Catchment (UK)
▪ Watershed (USA)
▪ River basin (international)
Hydrological Cycle
Precipitation (rain or snowfall)

▪ Main input into the hydrological cycle
▪ Key parameters:
▪ Amount (volume or depth per unit area)
▪ Rate (volume falling or flowing per unit time)
▪ Duration (period with and without precipitation)
▪ Measurement
▪ Rain gauge, radar, satellite remote sensing
▪ Effective rainfall = rainfall – losses
UK Average Rainfall
Annual Averages
Rainfall = 940mm
Actual Evaporation = 453mm
Effective Rainfall = 487mm
Hydrology: Estimating Precipitation
▪ Precipitation is spatially variable:

each rain gauge will record different
rainfall rates
▪ Point estimates e.g. for a specific
site
▪ Regional or Catchment estimates
e.g. for hydrological modelling
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk
Hydrology: Return Periods

▪ A return period is an estimate of the likelihood of an event,
such as an earthquake, flood or a river discharge flow to occur.
▪ It is a statistical measurement based on historic data
▪ Usually used for risk analysis
▪ Assumes that the probability of the event occurring does not
vary over time and is independent of past events.

▪ In terms of flooding, a return period is the average length of
time in years for an event (e.g. flood or river level) of given
magnitude to be equalled or exceeded.
▪ For example, if the river level with a 50 year return period at
a given location is 2m above flood stage, this is just another
way of saying that a river level of 2 m above flood stage, or
greater, should occur at that location on the average only
once every 50 years.

▪ What is a ‘100 year flood’?
▪ Could a 100 year flood occur the next year after one has just
occurred?
See: http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/41744-hydrology-for-
return-period-estimation-of-rainfall/?cid=parsely_rec
Hydrology: Risk and Return Periods

▪ Return Period (T) - The average length of time in years for an event
(e.g. flood or river level) of given magnitude to be equalled or
exceeded.
▪ Probability of Occurrence (p) (of an event of specified magnitude) -
The probability that an event of the specified magnitude will be
equalled or exceeded during a one year period.
▪ These two variables are inversely related to each other. That is
p = 1/T and T = 1/p
For example, the probability of a 50 year storm occurring in a one year
period is 1/50 or 0.02.

▪ Probability of Non-occurrence (q) (of an event of specified magnitude)
- The probability that an event of the specified magnitude will not be
equalled or exceeded during a one year period.
▪ Probability of Occurrence within a period of N years (pN) - The
probability that an event of specified magnitude will be equalled or
exceeded within a period of N years.
▪ Probability of Non-occurrence within a period of N years (qN) - The
probability that an event of specified magnitude will not be equalled
or exceeded within a period of N years.

The probability of occurrence and probability of non-occurrence are related by the
fact that something must either occur or not occur, so
p + q = 1 and pN + qN = 1
From basic probability theory, qN = qN. Substituting to get an equation relating
pN and p: 1 - pN = (1 - p)N. This can be rearranged to: pN = 1 - (1 - p)N.
The probability or risk that an event will equal or exceed the design storm at least
once in N years is
𝑝𝑁 = 1 − 1 − 𝑝 𝑁
For more read: Butler D and Davies JW: Urban Drainage


Recap: ▪ Return Period (T) - The average length of time in years for an
event (e.g. flood or river level) of given magnitude to be equalled
or exceeded.
▪ Probability of Occurrence (p) (of an event of specified
𝑝𝑁 = 1 − 1 − 𝑝 𝑁 magnitude) - The probability that an event of the specified

magnitude will be equalled or exceeded during a one year
period.
▪ Probability of Non-occurrence (q) (of an event of specified
magnitude) - The probability that an event of the specified
magnitude will not be equalled or exceeded during a one year
𝑁
1 ▪
period.
𝑝𝑁 = 1 − 1 − Probability of Occurrence within a period of N years (pN) -

The probability that an event of specified magnitude will be
𝑇 equalled or exceeded within a period of N years.
▪ Probability of Non-occurrence within a period of N
years (qN) - The probability that an event of specified magnitude
will not be equalled or exceeded within a period of N years.
Hydrology: Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves
▪ IDF Curves: a graphical representation of the probability that a

given average rainfall intensity will occur.
▪ Derived using a procedure known as rainfall frequency

analysis (see Butler and Davies, 2011)
Hydrology: IDF Curves
Intensity Return period (yr)

(mm/hr)
Storm Duration (min)

Evaporation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evapotranspiration
• Factors affecting evaporation: air
temperature, wind speed, surface area
• Various equations for estimating E: energy
balance and aerodynamic terms; ambient air
temperature is important variable
• Empirical methods: estimate rates by
recording ‘pan’ evaporation from an open
water surface but not helpful for land surface
evaporation
Evapotranspiration
• Evaporation from land surface: soil (E) and
vegetation (T)
• Factors affecting transpiration T: plant's
maturity, % soil cover, solar radiation, humidity,
temperature, and wind speed
• Combination of both E and T is
‘evapotranspiration’, i.e. ET = E + T
• Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is rate
when moisture supply is unlimited
• Actual evapotranspiration drops below PET as
soil dries out
Infiltration
Groundwater
Runoff
▪ Streamflow in rivers is from runoff
(overland flow due to precipitation) and
baseflow (seepage of groundwater)
▪ Runoff is critical for engineering
▪ Runoff and routing techniques are used in

hydrological models to estimate river
flows in time and space
Urban Water cycle and runoff
Natural Urban
River
flow
Time Time
Modelling Runoff
▪ Predict flows at catchment outlet
▪ Estimate peak rates or time-series of

flows known as a hydrograph
▪ Modelling approaches:
▪ Lumped – whole catchment as one
‘black box’ element
▪ Distributed or gridded
Modelling Runoff
Rational Method: uses IDF data. This is a single value rather than a time-series of
minute by minute rates. Typical Flood Risk Assessments would use a default critical storm
duration of 30 minutes for a 1 in 100 year event. This is justifiable because it is based on
“short, very high intensity, thunderstorm type event”. It is also effectively the time of
concentration that you can use for the rational method. You can therefore use the peak flow
rate from the 30 min for a 1 in 100 year storm.
Hydrograph Method: uses hyetographs which are a graphical representation of

distribution over time (e.g. 24hrs) for a design storm. Generated using Microdrainage and the
Flood Studies Report (FSR) which takes the following location based variables: r, M 560,
storm duration, return period. These variables are defined and provided in this document:
Preliminary rainfall runoff management for developments. For London:
o r is 0.4 (Page 42: Figure A2.1 5 year 60 minute rainfall depth parameters of UK)
o M560 is 20mm (Page 43: Figure A3.1 100 year 6 hour rainfall depths of UK)
Lumped runoff and catchment size

▪ Small catchments (< ~ 1 km2): Rational Method if you can
assume constant rainfall in space and time. Only overland flow
occurs.
▪ Medium catchments (< ~ 25 km2): unit hydrograph method
when you can assume rainfall is spatially constant but
temporally varied (since slower response to rainfall)
▪ Large catchments: both spatial and temporal variation in
precipitation must be considered. Routing methods must be
used since channel flow occurs.
Small catchments: Rational Method
Relates peak runoff

rate (Q) to rainfall
intensity (i) with:

Rational Method Formula:
Q = CiA
where:
▪ Q = Peak runoff in m3/s
▪ C = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
▪ i = Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
▪ A = Drainage area (ha)

Q = CiA
The Rainfall intensity (i) is typically found from

Intensity/Duration/Frequency curves for rainfall events in the
geographical region of interest.

Q = CiA
C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless):
▪ function of the soil type
▪ used with a combination of soil types, in this
case composite runoff coefficients should be
weighted for each respective land use
https://swmm5.org/2017/11/06/runoff-
coefficient-in-infosewer-and-infoswmm/

Time of concentration tc:
When does peak runoff occur?
Typically occurs when whole catchment is contributing runoff,

hence:
tc = time for a drop of water to flow from remotest point in

catchment (‘upcatchment’) to the point of interest (‘outlet’).


Assumptions:
▪ Steady state, rainfall rate must be constant
▪ Duration of the storm must be at least tc
YES
NO

Actual Peak Runoff
During and actual rain event, Q is dependent upon many factors:
▪ Antecedent moisture conditions (if the ground is already saturated from

previous rain, more runoff than would be expected if the ground was dry).
▪ Rainfall magnitude (total amount of rainfall in inches)
▪ Rainfall intensity (amount of rainfall over a period of time, inches/hour)
▪ Rainfall duration (length of time over it rainfalls occur, in hours)
▪ Rainfall distribution (over a certain portion of drainage area or over entire da)
▪ The effects of infiltration, detention and flow routing throughout watershed.
(hence, for what type of catchment would the rational method be ideal?)

Applying the Rational Method rationally
▪ The Rational Model is simplistic and depends on the user to compensate for
most of the variables listed previously
▪ Accuracy of the Rational Method is dependent on user’s judgment and
experience
▪ User must:
▪ choose the appropriate runoff coefficient(s) and
▪ determine the time of concentration based on plan information (which
will include hydrologic changes due to construction/urbanization)
Applying the rational method (rationally!)
Determine Configure Validate /

design rainfall rational verify
Estimate time Calculate
Ensure area intensity for equation
of design peak Does the
is < 1km2 duration for model,
concentration flow answer make
selected estimate
frequency parameter sense?
Medium catchments: unit hydrograph method
▪ Considers a basic unit of rainfall that creates a pulse of runoff

▪ This pulse is quantified by a unit (flow) response function
▪ If the hydrologic system can be approximated as linear,
response function is called unit hydrograph
▪ Linear systems follow 2 principles:
▪ Proportionality (all results are proportional)
▪ Superposition (all results are additive)
▪ Unit hydrograph (UH) of a

catchment is runoff generated by a
1cm depth rainfall that falls uniformly
over the drainage area at a constant
rate for a specific duration (e.g. 1
hour)
▪ These can be generated from
observed data or “synthetically” if
data are not available
Several “synthetic”,
“dimensionless”,
etc. methods exist
to estimate the UH
See Butler and

Davies (2011)
Application of UH to real storms

Large catchments: flow routing

▪ Process of determining spatial and temporal variations in flow rate
along a watercourse (e.g. river “reach”)
▪ Lumped (hydrologic routing): parameters describe up- and down-
stream reach jointly (1 parameter per reach). Flow hydrograph
calculated at downstream section is determined from upstream flow.
Flow is function of time only.
▪ Distributed (hydraulic routing): parameters are needed and flow
estimates are made at many discrete points along a continuous
domain
Exercises
See Moodle: please complete the exercises before the live
session, we will discuss the results in groups
Next Lecture
Unit hydrograph and streamflow routing: Self-study + Exercises
+ live discussion (see Moodle)
Large catchments: flow routing

Hydrologic Hydraulic
Ghanbarpour et al. (2013)

Large catchments: hydrologic routing

Large catchments: reservoir models

Catchment as one or more reservoirs connected in series
Nash (1957): series of identical

linear reservoirs (i.e. m=1). With I=1,
Α = number of reservoirs
K = time constant
Large catchments: Muskingum hydrologic flow routing

Surface routing: kinematic wave
Continuity equation
Momentum equation (Manning)

Integrated hydrological modelling systems
https://parflow.org/

Applied Hydraulics – Conventional Drainage
Dr Kourosh Behzadian, BSc, MSc, PhD, CEng, FICE, FCIWEM, C.WEM, FHEA
This Lecture
▪ Hydraulics Recap
▪ Stormwater & Conventional Urban Drainage
▪ Components
▪ Design
▪ UCL example
▪ Exercises
This Lecture
▪ Hydraulics Recap: see Moodle
▪ Stormwater & Conventional Urban Drainage
▪ Components
▪ Design
▪ UCL example
▪ Exercises: see Moodle (solution/discussion during live session)
Stormwater
▪ Definition: rainwater produced by a storm
▪ Major urban flow of concern to drainage engineers
▪ Efficient drainage to maintain public health and safety, and
protect receiving water environments
Stormwater
▪ Rainwater and stormwater are not ‘pure’.
▪ Contaminated by range of pollutants –organic and inorganic
▪ Variable from place to place, and from time to time
▪ Sometimes stormwater can be as polluting as wastewater
Stormwater: Pollutant Sources

▪ Atmospheric pollution
▪ Vehicles (emissions, wear of paved surfaces releasing
substances e.g. bitumen)
▪ Buildings and roads
▪ Animals
▪ De-icing
▪ Urban debris
▪ Spills / leaks

Example of pollutant source in the North of England (white paint)
independent.co.uk Butler and Davies (2011)

Stormwater: System Components and Layout
▪ Building Drainage
▪ Soil and waste drainage
▪ Roof drainage
▪ Site Drainage
▪ Sewers
▪ Manholes
▪ Gully Inlets
Stormwater: Building Drainage

▪ Urban drainage engineers not normally involved in planning,
design and construction of building drainage
▪ However important to be aware of main components


Soil and waste Roof
Inside component:
▪ Each appliance is protected by a trap

(U-bend or S-bend) and water seal to
prevent odours
▪ Stack: Φ=100–150 mm, at least 900
mm from the top of any adjacent
opening into the property
▪ x > 450 mm
Outside component:
▪ Individual drainage connecting

properties to public sewers are usually
<20 m with a diameter of < 150 mm.
▪ Rodding eyes: permit rodding (or
cleaning)
▪ Inspection Chambers: shallow access
points with sealed removable cover
▪ All connected to a building drain
(gradient 1:80)
Roof drainage
The design is similar to that of small
storm sewer networks:
▪ Small catchments (<60m2),

▪ Low time of concentration (1-2 min)
▪ Short duration,
▪ High intensity rainfall events are
critical for pipe capacity estimation.
▪ Often a fixed rainfall intensity of 50
mm/h is used in design.
System Components and Layout: Site Drainage

▪ Focus of this module
▪ ‘House’ / ‘industry’ connection to main sewer:
▪ Gully inlets
▪ Manholes
▪ Sewers
▪ Rainwater harvesting included here for purposes of this
module (even though in reality it spans both building and site)

Sewers
▪ Circular in cross-section
▪ Range in diameter from 150mm (> 0.15m)
▪ Made of vitrified clay (VC), concrete, fibre
cement, PVC-U, brick etc
▪ Constructed underground either by open
trench methods (vertical excavation),
tunnelling, or trenchless construction
https://www.jdpipes.co.uk/
Sewers: Vertical Alignment - Section

Sewers: Vertical Alignment - Section

Sewers: Vertical Alignment – Section

Example
A 365 mm diameter pipe with 15 mm walls has an invert level of 52.665
m. If the ground level is 54.930, calculate the pipe:
a. Soffit Level
b. Depth
c. Cover
Sewers: Vertical Alignment – Longitudinal profile
Practice criteria:
▪ depth (min. 0.9-1.2m)
▪ slope (uniform)
Sewers: Vertical Alignment – Longitudinal profile
Practice criteria:
▪ depth (min. 0.9-1.2m)
stormwater
▪ slope (uniform)
wastewater
Sewers: Vertical Alignment – Longitudinal Profile

Recap practice criteria:
▪ Two invert levels are given at two of the manholes because one reverts to exit and
another to entry levels
▪ At MH34, dissimilar diameter pipes meet and it is good practice to show that soffit
(and not invert levels) are matched
▪ Chainage refers to the plan (horizontal) distance along the pipe from a particular
point. Top line of the profile box fixed at a given level above datum (in this case, 75
m). All vertical levels are then scaled from this line. The scale of the drawing is
usually distorted to give more detail on the vertical plane
▪ Minimum cover for rigid pipes = 0.9 m under gardens and fields, 1.2 m under roads
Sewers: Horizontal Alignment

System Components and Layout: Site Drainage*
Manholes
▪ Access points for testing/inspection /cleaning
▪ They are provided at:
▪ Changes in direction
▪ Heads of runs (of pipes)
▪ Changes in gradient
▪ Changes in size
https://www.precastdrainage.co.uk
▪ Major junctions with other sewers
▪ Generally every 90 m (increased to 200 m where man-access is possible,
though undesirable)
System Components and Layout: Site Drainage*
Manholes
▪ Normally constructed of precast concrete rings
▪ Diameter depends on size of sewer + orientation / number of inlets
▪ Backdrops
▪ Used where a high sewer level is connected to one of significantly lower
level
▪ Bring the flow from high level into a manhole (rather than lowering the
length of the last sewer lengths)
▪ Require additional maintenance
https://www.precastbuildcon.com
Gully Inlets
▪ Used to admit flow from roads and paved areas
▪ Consist of grating and underlying sump (gully pot)
▪ Connected to sewers by lateral pipes
▪ Size, number and spacing determine extent of
surface ponding of runoff during storm events
▪ Placed at low points and typically spaced along
the road channel adjacent to the kerb
▪ Simplest approach is standard of 50 m spacing
Stormwater Design
▪ Fundamental stages to follow to design a rational and cost-effective
urban drainage system
▪ Key whether using conventional or SuDS approaches
▪ Stages are:
1. Define the contributing area
2. Produce a preliminary horizontal alignment
3. Preliminary component sizing
4. Preliminary vertical layout
5. Revise as needed
Stormwater Design: Design Stages

1. Topographical Map / Define the contributing area
▪ Obtain or develop a map of the contributing area
▪ Add location and level of existing or proposed details e.g.
▪ Contours
▪ Physical features (e.g. rivers)
▪ Any road / path layouts
▪ Any buildings
▪ Any existing sewer or other services
▪ Outfall point (e.g. Near the lowest point or next to receiving water body

Theodoratos et al (2018)

Meng et al (2019)

2. Preliminary horizontal layout
Sketch preliminary system layout
▪ Locate elements of your system so potential users can readily connect
▪ Locate pipes perpendicular to contours
▪ Try to follow natural drainage patterns
▪ Ensure that elements that require access are in readily accessible positions

3. Preliminary sewer sizing
Establish preliminary pipe sizes and
gradients across your site:
▪ Peak discharge (hydrology)
▪ Optimum slope (topography)
▪ Pipe size (hydraulics)
▪ Velocity?
▪ Redesign slope if necessary

4. Preliminary vertical layout
▪ Draw preliminary longitudinal profiles (vertical alignment)
▪ Ensure pipes (or similar relevant to SuDS) are deep enough so all users can
connect to the system / can cope with runoff
▪ Ensure pipes (or relevant similar to SuDS) arrive above outfall level
▪ Gravity, avoid pumping (unless really necessary)


5. Revise layout
Revise the horizontal / vertical alignments to minimise cost by reducing pipe (or
relevant SuDS elements):
▪ Lengths
▪ Sizes
▪ Depths
Stormwater Design: Relevant Design Codes
▪ SuDS: CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015

▪ Sewers for Adoption
▪ Covers construction and design advice
▪ Contains standard details
▪ Includes model civil engineering specifications
▪ Includes forms of agreement as from the UK WaterAct

Conventional Design of Urban Drainage Systems
This Lecture
▪ Types of sewer systems
▪ Design Principles of Conventional Urban Drainage Systems
▪ Two design examples
Sewer systems
Combined sewers Issue with:

(carry both foul/sanitary swage and surface runoff) Combined Sewer
Overflow
Sewer/Sewage systems (CSO)
Sewerage Separate sewers: surface and foul sewers
(foul/sanitary sewers carry sewage and surface sewers carry surface runoff)
Combined/Separated Sewer Systems
https://youtu.be/iH_UEu_SZvo
Performance of Combined Sewer Systems in the US
https://youtu.be/uuWpDtkvd9Q
Performance of Combined Sewer Systems in the UK
https://youtu.be/f4IHOiPQaQM
Environment Agencies fine Water Companies for
Discharging untreated wastewater into receiving water
Record £90m fine for Southern Water
following EA prosecution
Southern Water sentenced to pay record £90
million in fines for widespread pollution after
pleading guilty to 6,971 unpermitted sewage
discharges. (link July 2021)
Thames Water fined £4 million after 30

hour waterfall of sewage discharge
Thames Water has now accrued £32.4m
in fines since 2017 for 11 cases of water
pollution (link November 2021).
link for the news (Nov 2022).

Surface water sewer design using modified rational method
Rational equation:
𝑄𝑃 = 𝐶𝑖𝐴
QP =peak discharge; i =rainfall of intensity A =area of catchment;
C=coefficient of runoff (0-1)
𝑄𝑃 = 0.278𝐶𝑖𝐴
Units: C is dimensionless, QP in m3/s, A in km2 and i in mm/h
Modified rational equation:

𝑄𝑃 = 0.278𝑖𝐴𝐼𝑀𝑃 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐶 = 1.0)
Rainfall intensity (i)
The rainfall intensity is the average value during the time of rainfall (t).
We assume t = tC, (tC =the time of concentration at the design point).
tC=the time at which runoff from the most remote part of the catchment arrives at the design
point and hence the earliest time at which all of the catchment contributes to flow.
At sewer network (SN):
tE=the time of entry of SN (flow over the ground
𝑡𝐶 = 𝑡𝐸 + 𝑡𝐹
and enter the first sewer)
tF=the time to flow through SN to the design
point
IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curve
IDF curve to identify

intensity of rainfall:
Design of urban drainage systems
Mays, Larry W. Stormwater Collection Systems Design Handbook. McGraw-Hill Education, 2001.
https://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/
Butler, D., Digman C.J., Makropoulos, C., and J. Davies. Urban drainage. Crc Press, 4th Edition, 2018.
Typical Point intensity-duration equation
HR Wallingford procedure by using modified rational method
To improve the accuracy of storm sewer design and

To reduce the tendency to over-estimate QP:
Modified rational method can be employed with drainage areas:

Up to 1.5km2,
tC < 30min
pipes up to 1.0m diameter.
C is calculated as: 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑅
CR=recommended constant value of 1.30,

CV=volumetric runoff coefficient (proportion of rainfall converted to runoff for impermeable
areas). Recommended values:
average: about 0.75;
catchments with rapidly draining soils about 0.6;
catchments with heavy soils about 0.9.
On-line/off-line storage tanks
To prevent flood during a more extreme storm.
Online storage tank: built into the sewer
Offline storage tank: for larger storage; separate from sewer; diverted from the sewer and
can be used for other purposes (e.g. playground or pitch).
Some guidelines for design of surface water sewers
• The roughness value for pipes (k or kS) should be 0.6mm.

• The minimum velocity should be 1 m/s.
• Pipe gradients should not be so small.
• Public sewers should be in the highway at least 1m from the kerbline, manholes 0.5m from the
kerb, and the normal minimum cover should be 1.2m for road and 0.9m for elsewhere.
• Manholes should be less than 100 m apart and located at every change of alignment, gradient,
diameter or pipe material; at the start of every sewer; at every junction of public sewers or with a
private sewer serving 3 or more properties.
Discharge/velocity for full pipe flows
(k=0.60 mm: absolute roughness)
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
ν =The kinematic viscosity of fluid
1.005 × 10-6m2/s for Water at 20 °C
D=pipe diameter (m)
SF= hf/L (hydraulic gradient)
hf =pipe friction head loss
L=pipe length (m)
V=Velocity (m/s)
Q=discharge (m3/s)
Example of Urban Drainage Systems Design
A plan of a sewer network for a housing estate is shown in the Fig. below and additional details
are given below. The pipes’ roughness is the stipulated k = 0.6mm. Assume that the standard
pipe sizes available are 0.150m, 0.225m, 0.300m, 0.375m, 0.450m, 0.525m, 0.600m, 0.675m,
0.750m. The site has a ground slope > 1% so the sewers are to be designed for a return period
of 1 in 1 year. At this particular location the rainfall intensity is given by i = 690/(t + 7) mm/h.
Determine a suitable diameter for pipes running full.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution

Hydraulics - Recap
Hydraulics - Recap
The following slides provide an overview of Basic Hydraulics Principles (including pipe
flow and open-channel flow) which are needed for designing urban drainage systems.
For further details, read Chapter 8 of Butler D, Davies J. (2011) Urban Drainage, E &
FN Spon (available online, UCL Libraries).
Hydraulics: introduction
▪ Pipe flow: a liquid flows in a pipe under pressure

▪ Open-channel flow: a liquid flows in a channel by gravity, with a free surface at
atmospheric pressure
▪ Part-full pipe flow (sewer systems): a hybrid of the two above, in which a liquid
flows in a pipe by gravity, with a free surface. The liquid only fills the pipe area when
the flow-rate equals or exceeds the designed capacity
Hydraulics: flow classication
Uniform means constant with distance

Steady means constant with time
Hydraulic conditions in urban drainage systems can be:
▪ uniform steady: the flow cross-sectional area is constant with distance, and flow-rate is
constant with time
▪ nonuniform steady: the flow area varies with distance, but flow-rate is constant with time
▪ uniform unsteady: the flow area is constant with distance, but flowrate varies with time
▪ nonuniform unsteady: the flow area varies with distance, and flow-rate varies with time.
Hydraulics: flow classication

Laminar
Inertial forces
=
viscous forces
Turbulent
When Re < 2000, the flow in the pipe is laminar; when Re > 4000, flow is turbulent.
In most urban drainage applications, flow is firmly in the turbulent region
Hydraulics: basic principles
Pressure
Continuity
Total head, H
potential head
pressure head
velocity head
Three main types of energy: pressure, velocity and

potential –expressed in terms of head, i.e. energy per
unit weight (common units, m).

Hydraulics: pipe flow
Friction losses (Darcy-Weisbach equation)

Hydraulics: Moody diagram
Relative
Friction factor roughness
Reynolds number
Hydraulics: Moody diagram
Relative
Friction factor roughness
Colebrook-White equation
Reynolds number
Colebrook-White equation Wallingford charts and tables

Local losses
Total losses
Hydraulics: part full pipe flow



Ground level
water
sewer

Ground level
▪ Minimum velocity: to avoid long-term deposition water
of solid material, typically V > 1 m/s
sewer
▪ Maximum velocity: to avoid abrasion or damage,

typically V < 3 m/s. With higher velocities, pay
attention to:
▪ energy losses
▪ Formation of hydraulic jumps leading to
intermittent pipe choking
▪ cavitation
▪ air entrainment
▪ the possible need for energy dissipation or scour
prevention
▪ safety provisions
Hydraulics: open channel flow
Uniform flow
Non-uniform flow
Non-uniform flow
Froude number
Fr = 1 Critical depth
Fr < 1 subcritical flow (tranquil)
Fr > 1 Supercritical flow (rapid)
Hydraulics: gradually varied flow

Hydraulics: rapidly varied flow

Hydraulics: flow controls

Hydraulics: flow controls
Throttle pipe: pipe itself provides the flow

control. Flowrate through the pipe depends
on its inlet design, length, diameter and
hydraulic gradient
Hydraulics: weirs
*see derivation here:

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/weirs
Hydraulics: inverted siphon

Hydraulics: road gullies

Hydraulics: road gullies
(runoff + bypass)
With:
(Rational Method)
And hydraulic efficiency E:

Hydraulics: gully spacing

Initial gully
Intermediate gullies
Hydraulics: useful references
▪ Butler D, Davies J. (2011) Urban Drainage, E & FN Spon

▪ Mays, L.W. (1999) Hydraulic Design Handbook: McGraw-Hill
▪ Massey, B.S. (2006) Mechanics of Fluids, 8th edition: Taylor & Francis
▪ Chow, V.T. (1959) Open-Channel Hydraulics: McGraw-Hill
Available from UCL Libraries


Applied Hydraulics: UCL Example (conventional)
Responsible Stormwater Management
Natural System Conventional Drainage SuDS
https://docplayer.net/21804199-Stormwater-management-planning-and-design-guidelines-for-new-developments.html
UCL example
Contributing area
UCL example
SuDS
(next lectures)
Conventional
(this lecture)
UCL example: Rational method

Modified rational method:
▪ C = Cv + CR
▪ Contributing Area: Ac
= Ai + Ap
Q = C i Ac
Q = Ci i Ai + Cp i Ap
UCL example
Ac ~ 80500 m2
Ap ~ 9800 m2
Ai ~ 70700 m2
UCL example: Rainfall intensity

T5years:
I15m = 55 mm/h
I (1h) = 22 mm/h
I (6h) = 6 mm/h
T30years:
I15m = 80 mm/h
I (1h) = 32 mm/h
I (6h) = 9 mm/h
T100years:
I15m = 105 mm/h
I (1h) = 42 mm/h
I (6h) = 12 mm/h

T5years:
I15m = 55 mm/h
I (1h) = 22 mm/h
I (6h) = 6 mm/h
T30years:
I15m = 80 mm/h
I (1h) = 32 mm/h
I (6h) = 9 mm/h
T100years:
I15m = 105 mm/h
I (1h) = 42 mm/h
I (6h) = 12 mm/h

T5years:
I15m = 55 mm/h
I (1h) = 22 mm/h
I (6h) = 6 mm/h
T30years:
I15m = 80 mm/h
I (1h) = 32 mm/h
I (6h) = 9 mm/h
T100years:
I15m = 105 mm/h
I (1h) = 42 mm/h
I (6h) = 12 mm/h
Norris (1948), Hamil (2011)

Wallingford procedure
See Urban Drainage Book

UCL example: Wallingford procedure

1. From Figure 5.3 obtain: M5-60 min = 20 mm
2. From Figure 5.4: r = 0.45
3. From Figure 5.5 for 15 min:
▪ Z1 = 0.63,
▪ M5-15 min = Z1 x 20 = 12.6 mm
4. From Table 5.2 for 100 year return period:
▪ Z2 = 1.67 (M5 = 12.6 mm).
▪ M100-15 min = 1.67 x 12.6 = 21.04 mm
5. Average Intensity: i = 21/ (15/60) = 84 mm/h
6. Apply Area Reduction Factor:
▪ f1 = 0.0394 A0.354 = 0.0394(0.08)0.354 = 0.016 (note A = km2, valid for A < 20)
▪ f2 = 0.040 – 0.0208 ln(4.6 –lnA) = -0.00085
▪ ARF = 1 – f1 Df2 = 1-0.016(0.25)-0.0008 = 0.98 (note 15 m = 0.25 h)
▪ Areal intensity = 82 mm/h
See Urban Drainage Book

UCL example: Development Runoff
PEAK RUNOFF RATES/ RUNOFF VOLUMES
▪ Runoff will be required as inflows to the drainage system.
▪ Site developments have 2 types of surfaces (different runoff):
▪ Impermeable (paved and roof) areas
▪ Permeable (grassed and vegetated) areas
▪ Climate Change + Future urban creep allowances.

UCL example: Runoff coefficients
Average value for the Surface: C = 0.70 - 0.95

For pervious surfaces: C = 0.10 - 0.25
For impervious surfaces: C = 0.75 - 0.95
We assume
▪ Cp = 0.1 for parks/green areas
▪ Ci = 0.9 for roofs/roads

https://swmm5.org/2017/11/06/runoff-
coefficient-in-infosewer-and-infoswmm/
UCL example: Rational Method

Rational Method (1 hour)
Return period
Greenfield Runoff (m3/s) (l/s)
Qg05 0.05 49.19
Q = Cp i Ac 5 yr
Qd05 0.39 394.84
Qg30 0.07 71.56
Qd30 0.57 574.31 30 yr
Development Qg100 0.10 100.71
Qd100 0.81 808.27 100 yr
UCL example: Runoff (FEH method)

Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) method:
▪ Statistical method
▪ Rainfall – runoff method (ReFH – Revitalised Flood Hydrograph model)
▪ Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) methods preferred; however dependent on
access to FEH documentation / software + suitable modelling experience.
▪ Generally included in software packages e.g. Microdrainage uses FEH
▪ New methods have been updated in the UK this year: ReFH2 and FEH13:
https://fehweb.ceh.ac.uk/
https://www.ceh.ac.uk/services/flood-estimation-handbook-web-service

Climate Change/Urban creep allowances:
Climate change: Residential sites use the 2085-2115 design horizon, shorter
horizons for industrial: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/flood-risk-assessments-
climate-change-allowances
▪ Storage volumes increase by the square of rainfall uplift factors, so 10%
increase in rainfall (uplift factor = 1.1) will result in a 20% increase in storage
(1.21). A 40% increase in rainfall (uplift factor = 1.4) means a 100% increase in
storage (2).
Urban creep: is defined as increase in impervious area without planning
permission: construction of patios, paved driveways, etc.
▪ An increase in paved surface area of 10% is suggested.
UCL example: design method

1. Assume design rainfall return period (T), pipe roughness (ks), time of entry
(te) and runoff coefficients (Ci, Cp).
2. Prepare a preliminary layout of sewers, including inlet locations.
3. Mark pipe numbers on plan according to convection.
4. Estimate contributing areas (impervious) for each pipe.
5. First attempt at setting gradients and diameters of each pipe.
6. Calculate the pipe-full velocity (Vf) and full discharge (Qf)
7. Calculate time of concentration tc = te + tf, tf = L/Vf.
8. Obtain rainfall intensity from IDF curves/equations/methods/data.
9. Estimate the cumulative contribution area.
10. Calculate Peak flow Qp from Rational Method eq. Qp = C*i*A
11. Check Qp < Qf and vmax > vf > vmin (vmax = 3 m/s, vmin = 1m/s)
12. Adjust Pipe diameters and gradients to meet conditions.

1. Assume design rainfall return period (T), pipe roughness (ks), time of entry (te) and runoff coefficients (Ci, Cp).

UCL example
p1.1: 200 m (1:100)
p2.1: 190 m (1:200)
p1.2: 170 m (1:100)
p3.1: 140 m (1:200)
p3.1
p1.3: 70 m (1:100)
p1.3
p2.1
p1.2
p1.1


UCL example
A (p1.1) = 200 x 50 = 10,000 m2

A (p2.1) = 140 x 70 = 9,800 m2
A (p1.2) = ½ x 50 x 170 = 4,250 m2
A(p1.3)
A (p3.1) = 140 x 100 = 14,000 m2
A(p3.1)
A (p1.3) = 140 x 70 = 9,800 m2
A(p2.1)
A(p1.1) A(p1.2)
p1.1


UCL example: design considerations
p1.1 D = 750 mm s = 1:100 Vf = 2.80 m/s Qf = 1235 l/s

p2.1 D = 450 mm s = 1:200 Vf = 1.43 m/s Qf = 227 l/s
p1.2 D = 750 mm s = 1:100 Vf = 2.80 m/s Qf = 1235 l/s
p3.1 D = 300 mm s = 1:200 Vf = 1.11 m/s Qf = 78 l/s
p1.3 D = 750 mm s = 1:100 Vf = 2.80 m/s Qf = 1235 l/s
0.6 mm 𝐷2
𝑄𝑓 = 𝜋 𝑣𝑓
4
1.14 x 10-6 m2/s

3. Mark pipe numbers on plan according to convection. te Contributing
4. Estimate contributing areas (impervious) for each pipe. area
6. Calculate the pipe-full velocity (Vf) and full discharge (Qf) tf
7. Calculate time of concentration tc = te + tf, tf = L/Vf. outlet


Calculations:
ks (m) 0.0006
v (m2/s) 0.00000114
Pipe Pipe t conc = Rainfall
Pipe Gradient Contributing Sum Area Diameter Velocity capacity te + tf intensity
Number Length (m) (-) Area (m2) (m2 (mm) (m/s) Qf (l/s) tf (min) (min) (mm/h) Qp (l/s) Qf>Qp? vf>1 m/s?
1.1 200 0.01 10000 10000 750 2.80 1235.63 1.19 6.19 159.30 442.49 Yes Yes
2.1 190 0.005 9800 9800 450 1.43 227.78 2.21 7.21 149.28 406.38 No Yes
190 0.01 9800 9800 500 2.17 426.21 1.46 6.46 156.54 426.15 Yes Yes
1.2 170 0.01 1750 19800 750 2.80 1235.63 1.01 12.20 114.12 904.34 Yes Yes
3.1 140 0.005 14000 14000 300 1.11 78.21 2.11 7.11 150.23 584.22 No Yes
140 0.01 14000 14000 600 2.43 688.08 0.96 5.96 161.78 629.14 Yes Yes
1.3 70 0.01 9800 33800 750 2.80 1235.63 0.42 17.62 90.90 1736.02 No Yes
70 0.02 9800 33800 750 3.96 1750.15 0.29 17.50 91.32 1737.16 Yes Yes
See example in Moodle!


Urban Water
Urbanisation and Drainage

▪ Drainage systems are needed in developed and developing
urban areas due to the interaction between human activity and
the natural water cycle (unesco.ihe)
▪ Two-way interaction:
• Abstraction of water to provide water supply to sustain life
• Covering of land with impermeable surfaces that divert
rainwater away from the local natural system of drainage
Water in Cities
▪ Drinking water
▪ Wastewater
▪ Stormwater
▪ Groundwater
Water in Cities
Also known as Potable Water: Water that is
▪ Drinking water
suitable for human consumption
▪ Wastewater Non-potable water is the water that has not been
examined, properly treated, and not approved by
▪ Stormwater
appropriate authorities as being safe for
▪ Groundwater consumption
Water in Cities
▪ Output of drinking water supply, contaminated
▪ Drinking water by human use (toilets, household drains, …)
▪ Contaminants (fecal matter, food, paper, hair,
▪ Wastewater baby wipes, …)
▪ Industrial waste to sewer
▪ Stormwater ▪ Variable but predictable quality and flow
(domestic routines, industrial processes)
▪ Groundwater
Water in Cities
▪ Surface runoff during rainfall events (roof, roads
▪ Drinking water and pavement)
▪ Runoff depends on storm intensity and surface
▪ Wastewater permeability
▪ Urbanization decreases permeability of land
▪ Stormwater surfaces, increases storm water runoff
▪ Contaminants (Oil and grease, surface
▪ Groundwater particulates, fertilisers and pesticides)
Water in Cities
▪ Drinking water
▪ Wastewater
▪ Stormwater
▪ Groundwater
https://www.thames21.org.uk
Water in Cities
Groundwater is the water present beneath
▪ Drinking water the Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in
the fractures of rock formations.
▪ Wastewater ▪ Accounts for about 27% of the total
public water supply nationally.
▪ Stormwater
▪ In the past it usually required little
▪ Groundwater treatment, but diffuse pollution (runoff
from roads, houses & commercial)
Water in Cities
▪ Drinking water
▪ Wastewater
▪ Stormwater
▪ Groundwater
Ghasemizade et al. (2019)
Urban Flooding
https://www.citylab.com https://www.dawn.com
What is Urban Flooding?
▪ Pluvial (rain)
▪ Fluvial (river)
▪ Storm surge (sea)
▪ Groundwater
▪ Sewer
Urban Flooding: causes

What causes urban flooding?
▪ Increase in impermeable surfaces

▪ Inadequate drainage
▪ Heavy rain / Overbank flows
▪ Natural disasters e.g.
▪ Cyclones / Hurricanes
▪ Tsunamis
▪ Dam break
▪ Dumping of solid waste in open drains
Urban Flooding: impact

▪ Emergency response
▪ Social impacts
▪ Immediate disruption and danger
▪ Long term recovery
▪ Economic impacts
▪ Damage and cleanup
▪ Lost productivity
Flooding in less known cities and towns often goes unreported but has the
potential to have the same (and potentially even more devastating) long term
impact (e.g. Flooding in Hull vs. Flooding in London)
Urban Flooding: planning?

▪ Land use planning?
▪ River channel maintenance? Controversy:
▪ Flood defences
▪ Permanent and temporary
▪ Decisions about investment
▪ Emergency planning and response
▪ Flood resilience To dredge or not to drdge?
▪ The Guardian, 9 Feb 2014
▪ Structures and infrastructures ▪ The Guardian, 30 Jan 2014
▪ Social systems
Urban Drainage
Bazalgette sewer, North Kensington. Constructed c. 1861

What are Urban Drainage Systems?

▪ Urban drainage systems are those which are needed to drain water in
developed urban areas because of the interaction between human
activity and the natural water cycle
▪ Urban Drainage systems handle two key types of water: wastewater and
stormwater
▪ Wastewater is very small compared to stormwater.
▪ Wastewater does nor cause floods.
▪ Urban drainage is mainly designed for stormwater
What are Urban Drainage Systems?

A very old profession, dating back to around 3000 BC!
Lothal, ca 3000 BC - Wikipedia Cloaca Maxima, ca 600 BC - Science


Urban drainage systems aim to minimise the problems caused to
human life and the environment.
Flushing Pollution
URBAN
Public DRAINAGE ENVIRONMENT
SYSTEM
Flooding Rainfall
Urban Drainage interfaces: Available from unesco.ihe, 2012


Conventional drainage: Artificial system of interconnected
sewers, pipes and structures that collect and dispose of water
(typical of developed and rapidly developing cities)
Urbanisation and Drainage: London

Early settlements based on water courses
Why?
▪ Transport
▪ Industry
▪ Farming
▪ Drainage
Because we need fresh water!
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londinium

▪ early 19th century: the River Thames was an open sewer,
with disastrous consequences for public health (cholera
epidemics, typhoid fever, etc)
▪ 1842: ”The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population”
by Edwin Chadwick
▪ 1848: Public Health Act to improve the sanitary condition of
towns and populous places by placing water supply, sewerage,
drainage, etc. regulation under a single local body.
▪ Summer 1858: the “Great Stink”. Parliament resolved to
create a modern sewerage system.
▪ Joseph Bazalgette, Chief Engineer of the Metropolitan Board
of Works, was given responsibility for the work.
Section of Thames Embankment, 1865 London Drainage, 1930 (http://mappinglondon.co.uk/)

Chadwick building, UCL
Sir Edwin Chadwick Sir Joseph William Bazalgette Bazalgette Memorial, Victoria Embarkment
Low income communities (e.g. slums):

▪ Waterways used for waste
▪ Local drains installed for storm water
▪ Polluted rivers and streams
incorporated into drainage system
Slums near a garbage dump in East Cipinang, Jakarta


▪ Low income communities (e.g. slums)
hardly have effective drainage systems.
▪ Often located on marginal land, low-lying
land, riverbanks, floodplains and steep
hillsides.
▪ Benefits of living nearer the sources of
employment and urban services generally
outweigh the disadvantages associated
with flooding
An open sewer in Kibera, Nairobi
Effect of Urbanisation on drainage
Evapo- Rainfall Evapo- Rainfall

transpiration Runoff transpiration Runoff
Infiltration
Pre-urbanisation Post-urbanisation
Effects of urbanisation on
drainage:
▪ Higher Peak Discharge (Q)
due to increase in runoff
▪ More rapid Peak Discharge
due to faster runoff
http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2013/02/7909/1
Removing urban water

▪ Convenience
▪ Public health (e.g. diarrheal and
mosquito borne diseases)
▪ Prevent flooding (surface water
and sewer)
▪ Protect environment
Where does it go?

▪ Drainage network
• Separate or combined
• Gravity and pumped
▪ Treatment
• Sewage treatment
• Wetlands or ponds
▪ Receiving environment
(Groundwater, Rivers, Ocean)
Approaches to urban drainage

Traditional approaches:
▪ Piped networks and intensive treatment (using combined or
separate systems)
▪ “Natural drainage” or Making Space for Water (i.e. undeveloped
areas but possible pollution of natural waterways…)
Modern approaches:
▪ Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
▪ Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)
Piped Networks
Combined System Separate System
1. Piped networks: Combined Sewers

▪ Storm water and wastewater
combined
▪ Highly variable flow and quality
▪ Overflows during storm events (dilute
untreated sewage discharged into
environment)
▪ Treated at wastewater treatment plant
• Variable flow, larger plant
• Control for variable quality inflow
1. Piped networks: Combined Sewers

▪ Cheaper construction (1 pipeline) but …
▪ More expensive treatment facilities
▪ Overflows during storm events have serious environmental
impacts (worse during summer)
1. Piped networks: Combine Sewer Overflows (CSOs)
▪ Discharge dilute sewage into environment

▪ High organic matter content (BOD)
▪ Biological contamination (viruses, bacteria)
▪ Other pollutants (oil and grease, heavy
metals, solids etc)
1. Piped networks: Thames Tideway Tunnel

▪ Around 50 CSO overflows per year
in London
▪ London's sewerage system is no

longer fit for purpose as these
overflows mean spilling millions of
tones of sewage into the tidal
section of the river every year.
▪ Overflows need to comply with EU
Waste Water Treatment Directive
https://www.tideway.london/

1. Piped networks: Separate Systems
▪ Separate networks for storm water and

waste water
▪ Intensive treatment of waste water

▪ Low intensity treatment of storm water
▪ Higher capital and maintenance costs
▪ Lower operating costs
▪ Better environmental protection
1. Piped networks: comparison (see Butler and Davies, 2011)
Combined Separated
2. Natural Drainage: Storm water management

▪ Reduce storm water as much as possible
▪ Increase permeability
▪ Increase local storage
▪ Increase natural attenuation of flow
▪ Low intensity treatment
▪ Gross pollutant traps
▪ Oil and grease traps
▪ Sediment settling ponds
▪ Artificial wetlands
Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD),

Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SuDS) Image: https://www.newcivilengineer.com/latest/
3. Sustainable (Urban) Drainage Systems – SuDS
▪ Reduce peak flows into sewers due to stormwater runoff

▪ Local infiltration
▪ Attenuate flow
▪ Techniques
▪ Ponds
▪ Swales
▪ Rainwater harvesting
▪ Green roofs
Images: CIRIA, http://www.ciria.com/suds/
3. Sustainable (Urban) Drainage Systems – SuDS

Benefits
▪ Reduce inputs into drainage networks
▪ Reduce overflows into the environment
▪ Improve water quality
▪ Restore urban water courses
▪ Reduce carbon emissions
▪ Utilise storm water and waste water
▪ Build resilience to flooding
▪ Reap social benefits https://www.thames21.org.uk
SuDS Management Train
Image: CIRIA, http://www.ciria.com/suds/

Further info at: https://www.susdrain.org/delivering-suds/using-suds/suds-principles/management-train.html
SuDS Management Train Example
Image: http://www.permcalc.co.uk/why-suds/sudsmanagement-train/
SuDS Example
Rotterdam Water Square, Opened Dec 2013
Link: Water Square: Rotterdam
SuDS Example
4. Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)
▪ Water sensitive urban design (WSUD) is an approach to

design that delivers greater harmony between water, the
environment and communities.
▪ This is achieved by integrating water cycle management with
the built environment through planning and urban design.
See Brown et al. 2009

The future
▪ More urbanisation
▪ More people
▪ More variable climate
▪ Higher intensity rainfall events
▪ Changing seasonal rainfall
patterns
▪ Rising sea level
▪ Pressure on terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems

Applied Hydraulics – SuDS (Part 1)
Remember …
▪ This module has NO exam. Emphasis is on applying the standard formulae
(that appear in guidelines and codes) to real problems.
▪ You will have to apply this in your case study work
▪ The 3rd Assessment will include some Practical Example related to the
Course Work to be solved individually (26th March)
▪ Other deadlines:
▪ Oral Presentation: 19th March.
▪ Group work: 28 April
▪ Individual Report: 28th April
Assessment: SUDS case study (40%)
Case studies:
▪ See Moodle
▪ London (or UK)
▪ Somewhere else?
Past weeks
▪ Introduction
▪ Urban Water
▪ Hydrology
▪ Urban drainage (conventional):
▪ Stormwater components
▪ Stormwater design
This week
▪ Applied Hydraulics, specifically for SuDS
▪ Greenfield runoff rates
▪ Swales
▪ Rainwater Harvesting
▪ Pervious Pavement
▪ Detention Basin/Attenuation Storage Tanks/Ponds
▪ Infiltration systems
▪ Exercises
SUDS Design Process

• Hydraulic Design
• Treatment Design
• Amenity Design
• Biodiversity Design
• Physical Specification
• Materials
• Landscape Design
• Construction Requirements
• Operation and Maintenance Refer to CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015
SuDS Design: Introduction and Background
Greenfield Development
Maryland Department of the Environment CIRIA SuDS

Stormwater Design Manual Manual


▪ In flood risk assessments (FRAs), the Environment Agency (EA) request that a
development should not increase the risk of flooding to other properties.
▪ To understand this risk, we need to know:
▪ For greenfield and previously developed sites: An estimate of the peak
runoff rates and runoff volumes from the site in its greenfield state
▪ For previously developed sites: An estimate of the peak runoff rates and
volumes from the site in its previously developed state
▪ For the proposed development: an estimate of the runoff rates and
volumes from the site in its developed state
▪ This is now a requirement for sustainable home developments
For any new development:
▪ Runoff rates calculated for a proposed development will exceed the allowable
discharge rates (how fast)
✓ therefore SuDS design will need to include attenuation storage / infiltration
▪ The volume of runoff from a proposed development will also exceed allowable
discharge volumes (how much)
✓ therefore SuDS designs will need to ‘use’ the runoff, infiltrate it and/or
store and tightly control any additional storage volume (long term storage)
SuDS Hydraulic Design

▪ Greenfield Flows
▪ Swales
▪ Infiltration System
▪ Detention
Basins/Ponds/attenuation
Storage Tanks
Greenfield Flows
▪ Definition: This is the measure of the runoff that would have been
produced from the site prior to any development.
▪ In order to reduce the chance of flooding due to the increased runoff from
developed areas, rainwater should somehow be stored or delayed when it
runs off the building and impermeable area.
▪ The green field runoff rate therefore, gives an allowance of rainfall that can
flow directly form the buildings or roads, to the water course without
increasing the natural water level rise that would result from a storm.
▪ The green field runoff is related to the size and soil properties of the catchment
Greenfield Flows
▪ The greenfield runoff rate should be calculated for rainfall events of different
sizes to give the range and extents of storm events which could occur within
100 years.
▪ It is not possible to fully limit the flow of more extreme events; however the
runoff can be managed to reduce the chance of flooding
▪ More commonly now an additional 30%, sometimes 40% needs to be

accounted for to allow for climate change.
Greenfield Flows: Calculations

▪ Estimated peak runoff rates of a development site in its greenfield condition
for a range of return periods is normally used to define the discharge limits
for a new development site
▪ Peak runoff rates for any return period related to the site’s catchment
characteristics (inc soils). Values derived from any analysis should be
regarded as approximate
▪ Overall objective of using an agreed method is to provide a consistent and
reasonable estimate upon which storage design can be based, rather than
finding the exact runoff rate for any specific site which is not possible

Greenfield: Peak runoff rate

1. Modified Rational Method

2. IH124

2. Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH)
Greenfield Flows: IH 124

▪ Calculated using IH Report 124 (Marshall & Bayliss, 1994), which is a
simple method for estimating the design flow in streams draining
greenfield areas of 0-50 ha (<25 km2)
▪ The median annual flood flow (QBARrural) is calculated using an

empirical formula from the results of small catchment studies.
𝑸𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 = 0.00108 x AREA0.89 x SAAR1.17 x SOIL2.17


𝑸𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 = 0.00108 x AREA0.89 x SAAR1.17 x SOIL2.17
▪ QBarrural = Catchment mean annual peak flow (approximately 43% annual

probability or 2.3 year return period) (m3/s)
▪ AREA = Catchment area (km2)
▪ SAAR = Standard average annual rainfall for the period 1941 to 1970 (mm)
▪ SOIL = Soil index (from Flood Studies or Wallingford Procedure WRAP
maps). It is a weighted sum of individual soil class fractions
Where developments are smaller than 50 ha, the analysis for determining green field
discharge rate should use 50 ha in the formula but linearly interpolate the flow rate
value based on the ratio of the size of the development to 50 ha
Greenfield Flows: IH 124, SAAR + SOIL

Greenfield Flows: IH 124, Growth frequency curve


Greenfield Flows: Challenges of method

▪ Surface runoff from 1ha is
not 1/50 of the peak flow
from the 50 ha catchment
▪ Lag times, attenuation,
different slope, soils and
land use all affect the river
flow

▪ What if you use the rational method to calculate runoff from a
developed site of 1.9 ha?
▪ Use the rational method for calculating the flow: Qp = 0.278 C i A
Where:
▪ C is the runoff coefficient (0-1)
▪ i is the rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
▪ A is the area (km2)
▪ Remember: 0.278 is a factor to ensure consistency of units as Qp [m3/s]
▪ Generally assume C = 1-0.9 (90-100% runoff) or C = 0.1 (10% runoff in
greenfield)

C i (mm/hr) A (km2) Q (l/s)
Rational Method:
0.1 149.5 0.019 79.5
• 79.5 l/s (greenfield)
• 795.3 l/s (developed) 1 149.5 0.019 795.3
SAAR SPR Qbar (l/s) FSR Q 100 ( l/s)

IH 124: 13.9 l/s! Growth
702 0.47 5.77 2.42 13.9

What is 13.9 l/s?
▪ Base flow in a small stream, approx. 1.5m wide water depth 0.1m , velocity 0.5m/s. Flow = 75 l/s
▪ A typical bucket = 20 l
Or, in other words, a 1:100 year flow of 13.9 l/s from 1.9 ha is nothing.
Therefore, IH 124 Method can significant underestimate flows in certain areas, resulting in
over design for attenuation. It should therefore be used with caution in heavily developed
areas.
However, note that the Rational method also assumes all the drainage water will reach the
outlet simultaneously, therefore the 795.3 l/s is likely to be an over-estimate. The value of 79.5
l/s seems more realistic for a natural stream here.
Greenfield Flows: FEH Method

▪ Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) method:
▪ Rainfall – runoff method (ReFEH)
▪ Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) methods preferred; however
dependent on access to FEH documentation / software + suitable
modelling experience.
▪ New methods have been updated in the UK : ReFH2 and FEH13
Greenfield Flows
Remember
▪ Recently, FEH based methods preferred to IH 124
because latter likely to under estimate runoff rates,
potentially leading to overdesign of attenuation components
▪ In practice, the method used should be agreed with the
drainage approval body (EA, Council, etc)
▪ Overall objective of agreed method is to provide a
consistent and reasonable estimate for storage design,
rather than finding ‘exact’ runoff rate which is not possible
Greenfield Flows
Remember
▪ Peak runoff rates in Greenfield Condition for a range of

Return Periods are used to define the discharge limits for
a new development site.
▪ The peak runoff rates from greenfield areas is related to
catchment size, shape and soils.
Greenfield flows: IH124

Exercise: To be done at your own time (see Moodle)
Greenfield: Runoff volume

▪ Greenfield runoff volume defines the allowable volume that can be
discharged from development site, in order to protect downstream areas
from increased flood risk (100 year 6 hour duration design storm)
▪ Greenfield runoff volumes can be calculated in two ways:

1. Calculating the PR (percentage runoff), considering the catchment
wetness. Assuming runoff is not dependent on wetness (=SPR):
Runoff Vol = (SPR or PR) x Catchment AREA x Rainfall Depth
2. From design event runoff hydrographs (using previous rainfall-runoff

methods) for 100 year, 6 hour event: Vol = Qp x t

Percentage Runoff (PR)
Previously Developed Runoff

▪ Runoff from paved areas is effectively instantaneous when compared to greenfield

runoff.
▪ The objective is to meet greenfield runoff rates/volumes, considering relaxation
depending on sewer capacity. (Principle of betterment on existing).
▪ Flood Risk Assessments should be checked for runoff requirements for previously
developed sites.

▪ Estimation of Runoff characteristics:

▪ If the drainage system is operational, the discharge limit is the design flow rate
(T = 1, 30 and 100 yr) from piped system.
▪ If no records from the drainage system, the discharge limit is:
a) runoff is the greenfield response for low permeable soils (the previous
methods are applied, Ci = 0.9 - 1.0).
b) runoff can be estimated using urbanization methods within the ReFH2
software.
Development Runoff

Development Runoff
▪ Development runoff volumes define the allowable volume that can be
discharged from development site, in order to design storage systems to
reduce these runoff volumes (100 year 6 hour duration design storm)
▪ Development runoff volumes can be calculated in two ways:


methods) for 100 year, 6 hour event. Vol = Qp x t
Development runoff
C = 0.9-1.0
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: Fixed runoff model
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: Variable runoff model (replace the fixed runoff model)
The model provides an increasing % runoff during a rainfall event, to account

changes in catchment wetness as storm progresses.
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: UKWIR runoff model
Development Runoff
storage (2).


SuDS components could be….
▪ Rainwater Harvesting ▪ Bio-retention Systems

▪ Green Roofs ▪ Trees
▪ Infiltration Systems (trenches) ▪ Pervious Pavements
▪ Proprietary Treatment ▪ Attenuation Storage
▪ Filter Strips ▪ Detention Basins
▪ Filter Drains ▪ Ponds and Wetlands
▪ Swales
SuDS Hydraulic design: Interception

▪ It’s the capture and retention on site of the first 5 mm of the majority of rainfall
events. Runoff will not occur for the majority of small rainfall events.
▪ Interception is delivered by one or combination of processes:
▪ Rainwater harvesting
▪ Infiltration
▪ Evapotranspiration using shallow ponding/storage within upper soil layer.
▪ Worst scenarios are better simulated with no Interception
SuDS Hydraulic design: Attenuation storage
▪ Attenuation storage is used to

temporally store water when the
runoff rates exceed the allowable
discharges. Attenuation volumes
are designed to drain at a rate
controlled by the outlet structure.
▪ Attenuation Storage can be
provided by:
▪ a dry storage component, or
▪ a pond/wetland.
▪ A stage-storage curve defines the

relationship between the depth of water
and storage volume in a storage facility.
▪ The storage volume may be evaluated
using a topographic map and integrating the
depth-area relationship of the storage unit.
▪ The storage can then be estimated by
averaging the areas for each increment of
elevation over the full storage depth of the
unit.

▪ Simple outlet structures will only discharge

the max. discharge rate at the max. level. A Q = K H0.5
stage-discharge curve: relationship Q = K H1.5
between depth of water and the discharge
or outflow.
▪ For simple assessments of storage this
rating curve Q-H can be accounted for by
including a 25 - 30% additional storage
allowance.
▪ A secondary or emergency outlet route
should be designed.
SIZING:
Design criteria are:
▪ Rate of outflow:
▪ Discharge at greenfield conditions
▪ Discharge capacity of downstream
sewer
▪ Design storm:
▪ Small areas for 2-5 years storms
▪ Large Storage: 100 years
▪ What is the active storage volume
required?
STORAGE ROUTING: More accurate assessment (level-pool routing)

Solution for differential equation (fixed time steps):
See Butler and Davies (2011)


Solution for differential equation (fixed time steps):



LONG-TERM STORAGE
▪ Long-Term Storage is the difference in runoff volume between development
and greenfield states. Design for long-term storage is needed for developments
that can increase flood risk downstream.
▪ For extreme events it is required runoff volume control for:
▪ the 100 year, 6 hour rainfall event
▪ the 100 year, rainfall critical duration ( max. volume of 1h – 24 h).
▪ Only the volume equal to the greenfield runoff is allowed to discharge at
greenfield rates, while retaining the rest of the runoff to discharge as infiltration
or very low rates (usually 2 l/s/ha or less). For 1.9 ha, Qo = 2 x 1.9 = 3.8 l/s
LONG TERM STORAGE

Volume for Long-Term Storage
in greenfield conditions:
▪ Volxs
▪ ReFH2
LONG TERM STORAGE

▪ Volume for Long-Term
Storage in developed
drainage:
▪ Volxs
▪ ReFH2
▪ Agreed by the drainage
approval body
▪ Assumes drainage system is
operational

▪ Swales
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
https://www.susdrain.org/
Swales: Definition
Shallow, flat bottomed vegetated open
channels designed to convey, treat and (often)
attenuate surface water runoff (CIRIA 2015)
▪ Enhance natural landscape
▪ Drain roads, paths, car parks
▪ Can replace conventional pipework
Types of swales:
▪ Conveyance and attenuation swale
▪ Dry swale
▪ Wet swale
Types of Swales: Conveyance Swale
CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015

Types of Swales: Dry (enhanced) Swale

Types of Swales: Wet Swale

Swales: Typical Plan

Swales: Typical Considerations

▪ Trapezoidal / parabolic best for hydraulic performance, construction
and maintenance
▪ Bottom width, generally = 0.5-2.0m
▪ Longitudinal slope: 0.5-6%. Check dams where slope is >3%
▪ Side slopes flat as possible to aid pre-treatment. Also safety / easy
access for mowing. 1V:3H recommended
▪ Depth: 400-600mm; deeper could mean higher land take, deeper
water, costly excavations
Swales: Typical Considerations

Swales: Check dams
Check Dams: small

dam in a waterway to
counteract erosion by
reducing flow velocity. In
SuDS they increase
inflitration rate.
Swales: Considerations
▪ Adequate capacity to convey / store the design return period
event
▪ Ability to safely convey extreme event flows
▪ Design event runoff flows should half-empty within 24 hours
Conveyance Swale Design

Average velocity calculated using Manning’s Equation:

n value
▪ roughness coefficient, critical for sizing.
▪ Varies with type of vegetative cover and flow depth
▪ Value of 0.3 or 0.35 recommended for depth of water below or
equal to the height of the grass
▪ Higher value if larger plants / greater range of plant sizes
Velocity: <1.0 m/s. (2.0 m/s if conditions allow) to prevent

erosion.
Dry (enhanced) Swale Design

▪ Have underdrain therefore additional
design needed for this.
▪ Performance defined by relative head
in each swale
▪ Capacity of drain + Bedding could
both be limiting conditions
▪ Underdrain capacity recommended 2
l/s/ha.
Dry (enhanced) Swale Design

If filtration into underdrain >
required limit of discharge, flow
control is required
Dry swale with flow control (CIRIA 2015)

Wet Swale Design

▪ Same design approach as
conveyance swale.
▪ Min. depth of water 150mm, max
depend on site but should account
for technical, amenity (including
safety) and biodiversity criteria
▪ Appropriate for biodiversity /
specific treatment / amenity
purposes
Swale Design: Infiltration

▪ No runoff in majority of small rainfall
events for dry / conveyance swales.
▪ Infiltration / Evapotranspiration
▪ Infiltration Design (Refer Ciria Guide)
Swale Design: Peak flow control design
▪ Additional storage e.g. beneath swale

base (e.g. for dry swale)
▪ Available attenuation storage in filter

media and drainage layer of swale
system:
Storage = Vol x Θ
(Vol of system x void ratio in soil drainage layer)
Swale Design – Exceedance Flow Design
▪ Flow route required for rainfall events that

exceed design capacity of swale
▪ Overflow pipe
▪ Weir structure
▪ Several likely required
▪ Weir, orifice, pipe flow hydraulics design
required to calculate this

Exercise: To be done at your own time (see Moodle)

▪ Swales
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
https://www.rainharvesting.co.uk/
Rainwater Harvesting
RWH storage tanks for domestic and commercial application (courtesy Stormsaver)
Rainwater Harvesting: Definition

▪ Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is the collection of rainwater runoff for use
▪ Roofs; other impermeable areas.
▪ Stored, treated (if required)
▪ Used as needed
Types of RWH
▪ Gravity
▪ Pumped
▪ Composite (gravity + pumped)
Rainwater Harvesting: Gravity vs Pumped
Typical gravity and pumped RWH systems, CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015
Rainwater Harvesting: Objectives and Design Implications
▪ Supply
▪ Storage sized to capture volume to meet project use requirements
▪ Performance in extreme events cannot be relied on
▪ Supply + Passive Surface Water Management
▪ As above + storage for rainfall in large event
▪ ‘Passive’ – space available in tank to store water at anytime. Not managed
in an ‘active’ way.
▪ Supply + Active Surface Water Management
▪ As above + storage for rainfall in large event
▪ ‘Active’ - storage managed e.g. using pumps
Rainwater Harvesting: Design

Sizing of storage tank a function of
▪ demand,
▪ regularity of demand,
▪ area contributing runoff,
▪ local rainfall characteristics,
▪ design level of service
Automated calculation of storage tank size for residential RWH

can be accessed from www.uksuds.com

Parameters for calculating size of storage are:
▪ Storm rainfall depth to be captured
▪ Average annual demand
▪ Daily demand for non-potable water
▪ Building occupancy
▪ Contributing surface area
▪ Runoff factor
▪ Filter efficiency factor
Rainfall Depth
Any value; however runoff volumetric
control criteria often linked to storm
rainfall depth of 60mm in the UK
Average Annual Rainfall

Average annual rainfall is obtained from
tools such as the Flood Estimation
Handbook.

Daily demand for non-potable water
Household
Toilet flushing?
▪ 9 litre cistern, 50 l/c/d
▪ 6 litre cistern, 20 l/c/d
Washing Machine
▪ 20 l/c/d
Commercial:
▪ Dependent on use, e.g. schools,
supermarkets, offices different.
▪ Refer BS 8542:2011
Occupancy rates of
domestic properties
▪ Obtained from
statistical data / census
data from government
▪ Linked to type of
property (including
number of bedrooms)
Illustration of values for household occupancy, Cherwell District, Oxfordshire


Contributing Areas
Actual contributing roof areas in plan, watch for pitch arrangements!

Runoff (yield) coefficients
▪ Overall proportion of runoff yield <100%
▪ Many rainfall events small (initial wetting losses)
▪ Green roofs / permeable pavements (infiltration)
▪ Evapotranspiration
Hydraulic Filter Efficiency
▪ Generally, 90%
▪ Appropriate coefficient should be used in design (available from
manufacturer)
Rainwater Harvesting: Tank Sizing Methods
1. Simple method – for water conservation (supply only)

2. Intermediate method – water conservation (supply only)
3. Simple surface water management method – with passive control
4. Intermediate surface water management method – with passive control
5. Detailed surface water management method – with passive control
6. Surface water management method – with active control
Available from: BS 8518:2009+A1:2013. Rainwater Harvesting Systems. Code of

Practice, CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015 Section 11
Above assume regular daily demand. If unusual demand requirements, then analysis from
first principles will be needed
Documents for design of RWH Systems

▪ BS 8515:2009+A1:2013: Rainwater Harvesting Systems. Code of
Practice
▪ BS 8542:2011 Calculating domestic water consumption in non-
domestic buildings. Code of Practice
▪ BS 8595:2013 Code of practice for the selection of water reuse
systems
▪ EA (2010) Harvesting water for domestic uses: an information guide
▪ CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015 Section 11


▪ Swales
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Pervious Pavement
▪ Pervious pavements are suitable for pedestrian

and/or vehicular traffic, while allowing rainwater to
infiltrate through the surface and into the
underlying layers.
▪ The water is temporarily stored before infiltration
to the ground, reuse, or discharge to a watercourse
or other drainage system.
▪ Pervious Pavements with aggregate sub-bases
manage surface water runoff close to its source:
▪ Intercepting runoff
▪ Reducing the volume and frequency of runoff
▪ Providing a treatment medium
https://en.wikipedia.org

TYPOLOGY
▪ Porous pavements: infiltrate water across their entire surface material,
e.g. reinforced grass or gravel surfaces, porous concrete and porous
asphalt
▪ Permeable pavements: are formed of material that is itself impervious to
water. The materials are laid to provide void space through the surface

TYPOLOGY
The main type surfaces are:
▪ Modular permeable paving
▪ Grass reinforcement
▪ Resin bound gravel - Porous
Concrete/Asphalt
▪ Macro pervious
▪ Sport surfaces
▪ Block porous paving (These are summarised
in sections 20.1.1 to 20.1.8)
I) Type A - Total Infiltration:

▪ all the rainfall passes through
the sub-structure (where it may
be temporarily stored) into the
soil beneath.
▪ No discharge to a sewer/river.
▪ An emergency overflow is
required (less efficient due to
excessive rainfall or siltation)
II) Type B - Partial Infiltration:

▪ the proportion of rainfall that
exceeds the infiltration capacity of
the subsoils flows to the drainage
system by:
▪ By direct drainage or
▪ by perforated pipes within or
below the pavement
▪ Preventing the build-up of water
above the sub-grade, risks to soil
stability are reduced.
III) Type C - No Infiltration:

▪ the system is generally wrapped in
an impermeable, flexible
membrane placed above the sub-
grade (formation level). The water is
conveyed to the outfall via
perforated pipes or fin drains
▪ This is used for situations where:
▪ soils have low permeability/strength
▪ the water is harvested and reused
▪ the groundwater is sensitive
▪ the water table is within 1 m
▪ the site is contaminated, the risk of mobilising contaminants is minimised.

DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ Any pervious pavement (PP) need to be able to capture the required design storm
event and discharge it in a controlled manner to the subgrade/drainage system.
▪ pervious surface and sub-base to be structurally designed (vehicular loading)
▪ surface infiltration rate > design rainfall intensity (order of magnitude)
▪ temporary subsurface storage volume to meet requirements for infiltration and/or
controlled discharge
▪ geotextile may be specified as a filtration treatment component near the top of the
structure
▪ soil and other material must prevent to contaminate the pavement surface and
sub-structure.

DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ The use of PP should be avoided where high risk of silt loads on the surface.
▪ Pervious pavements are typically built as an alternative to impermeable surfaces
and require no additional development space for their construction.
▪ They can be employed on very flat terrain, as they only require a small head
difference from the runoff surface to the outfall.
▪ Asses the effects of water storage on structural capacity of the underlying
soils.

DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ Appropriate pavement
systems for a range of
sub-grade conditions,
according to soil
classification
DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ Structural design
▪ Hydraulic design
See SuDS manual, CIRIA


HYDRAULIC DESIGN
There are four aspects to the hydraulic design of pervious pavements:
1. Adequate rate of infiltration of rainwater through the pavement

surface.
2. Storage volume required for design storm rainfall event
management.
3. Adequacy of outfall capacity to convey water from the pavement
structure.
4. Management of extreme events (i.e. in excess of the design storms)

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 1. Infiltration
▪ The design surface infiltration rate > the design rainfall intensity:
▪ Avoid surface water ponding and
▪ Inflow rate should include anticipated runoff from adjacent areas.
▪ A minimum infiltration = 2500 mm/h (new pavement) is required.
▪ The typical percolation rate (concrete block paving joints) is ≈ 4000 mm/hr. This
rate will decrease but stabilize with age, due to the build-up of silt/debris in the
joints.
▪ A factor of safety of 10 is recommended to allow effect of clogging over the
design life.

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 1. Infiltration
▪ Determine infiltration coefficient, q

▪ Apply a Factor of Safety, F (q)
▪ Design storm: rainfall intensities/duration
▪ Select type of Infiltration System
▪ Calculate size and shape of Inf System
▪ Calculate highest water level: hmax
▪ Iterative process (hmax → reSize)
▪ Check emptying time (< 24h)
https://rcflood.org/

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 2. Storage volume
Storage volume required for design storm rainfall event management:
▪ The required capacity of the sub-base depends on rainfall characteristics, T,
infiltration rate into subgrade, discharge constraints, and the impermeable
area draining to pavement.
▪ The actual capacity available (STORAGE) is a function of the depth and
area of storage material and the voids volume.
▪ The procedure assumes no outflow of water during the storm (worst case
scenario). Proprietary drainage software computes capacities for design
events in more detail.
▪ Calculations for a range of rainfall durations should be carried out to verify
the performance of the available storage volume.

At least twice the area of the pervious pavement can be

served by the structure (Area of drainage) when very
tight throttle controls are applied, and nearly three times
the area when the throttle rate is greater than 5 l/s/ha.

Calculate size/shape/hmax of infiltration system (SuDS manual)
Storage = VOL rain – VOL Infiltration
Storage = Ab ∙ n ∙ hmax
VOL rainfall = AD ∙ i ∙ D
VOL infiltration = Ab ∙ q ∙ D

▪ Infiltration coeff , q
▪ Factor of Safety
▪ Porosity of granular fill
▪ PreDesign (AD , Ad )
▪ Rainfall worst scenario
▪ Check hmax
▪ Check time emptying...

▪ Check hmax

▪ Check hmax

▪ PreDesign (AD , Ab)
▪ Check hmax
Usual Pervious
▪ Check time emptying... Pavement, R = 1, and:

Different volumes (time, i): (5 min, i5)/(30 min,

i30)/(1h, i1h)/ (2h, i2h)/ (24h,i 24h)
Select the largest value hmax

▪ Check hmax

Given the maximum depth (hmax):

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 3. Outflow from pavement structure
▪ The drainage capacity of the

permeable sub-base material and
the spacing of the outlet pipes or
collector pipes for sealed systems
can be assessed by Cedergren
(1974).
▪ The maximum surface runoff rate
that can be removed by a flat
permeable sub-base is estimated
using the equation 20.1:

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 3. Outflow from pavement structure
▪ For sloping subgrades and non-

symmetrical pipe layouts, the flow
in the sub-base can be estimated
using Darcy’s law (Eq. 20.2):
▪ Pipe perforations should be 10 mm
in diameter and should terminate
300 mm from any connection
point. The upper ends of the pipes
should be capped.

HYDRAULIC DESIGN: 4. Management of extreme events (i.e. in excess
of the design storms)
▪ Pervious pavement systems must consider and design emergency overflow provisions
for extreme storm events which exceed the design criteria.
▪ One option is to use storm drain inlets (gullies) set slightly above the elevation of the
pavement. This would allow for some ponding above the surface, but would accept
bypass flows that exceed the surface infiltration capacity.
▪ Alternatively, excess volumes of floodwater can be routed safely from the site to a
suitably-sized temporary detention area or stream.

▪ Swales
▪ Infiltration Systems
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Infiltration systems

DESCRIPTION
▪ There are different types of drainage components to facilitate infiltration:
▪ Soakaways
▪ Infiltration trenches/blankets
▪ Infiltration basins
▪ Others (bioretention systems and pervious pavement)
▪ Infiltration contribute to reduce runoff rates and volumes while supporting
baseflow and groundwater recharge process
▪ Intercepting runoff
▪ Reducing the volume and frequency of runoff
▪ Providing a treatment medium

SOAKAWAYS
They are excavations filled with a void-forming material that allows temporary
storage of water before it soaks into the ground.

INFILTRATION TRENCHES
They are simply linear soakaways. They can be shallower and they distribute
the infiltration area so that the impact of less permeable areas of soil is lower.

INFILTRATION BASINS
They are flat-bottomed, shallow landscape depressions that store runoff before
infiltration into the subsurface soils. Generally vegetated and with sediment and
contaminants treatment.

GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ Infiltrations Systems (IS) facilitate the discharge of stormwater runoff to the
ground and ultimately into groundwater.
▪ It is crucial that any runoff be clean before entering the IS to avoid
groundwater is not put at risk of contamination.
▪ The performance is dependent on the infiltration capacity of the
surrounding soils and the depth to groundwater (a minimum 1 m between
the base of the IS and the Groundwater level is usually adopted)
▪ The bottom should be flat and the side slopes should not be steeper than
1H:3V (for vegetative stabilisation and public safety reasons)
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Infiltration Systems

HYDRAULIC DESIGN
▪ Infiltrations Systems should manage storms up to the design standard of
service: T = 10 or 30 years.
▪ As discharge criteria from a development are based on a 100 years event (plus
climate change allowance) the 100 years IS performance needs to be known.
▪ The IS should discharge to half empty within 24 hours for 10-30 years event.
For 100 years event it is allowed longer half emptying times.
▪ Exceedance flow design: For rainfall events that exceed the design storage
capacity of IS an overflow pipe should convey runoff downstream.
▪ Infiltration: 1. provides Interception, 2.reduces Attenuation Storage Volumes
and 3. reduces the Volume of Runoff

HYDRAULIC DESIGN – Storage Volume (3D Infiltration System)
Calculate size/shape/hmax of 3D Infiltration System (SuDS Manual):
Cuboid/Trench shape, infiltration in sides Asides > Abase.
STORAGE = VOL rain - VOL infiltration

The solution is a STORAGE = Ab ∙ n ∙ dh
VOLr = AD ∙ i ∙ dt
Differential eq. VOLi = P ∙ q ∙ h ∙ dt
Like variable head VOLi = Ab ∙ q ∙ dt
permeameter test.

3D Infiltration System

3D Infiltration System: emptying time checks

▪ Swales
▪ Infiltration Systems
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Detention Basins

▪ Detention basins (DB) are surface storage basins/facilities that provide flow
control through attenuation of stormwater runoff (settling pollutants)
▪ DB are normally dry (certain situations: recreational facility)

KEY DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ detention volume to manage design storms via
constrained outflow
▪ minimum length:width ratio of 2:1 (3:1 to 5:1)
▪ maximum side slopes of 1V:3H for maintenance
and safety reasons, (steeper slopes only in
special situations)
▪ Maximum depth should not exceed 2m.
▪ Bioretention and/or wetland/micropools at outlets
is desirable for enhanced pollution control

KEY DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ Size to provide flood attenuation for
all events (10, 30 year storms)
▪ Discharges constrained to
greenfield/sewer capacity
▪ Additional storage for 100 y
▪ Interception, Peak Flow, Volume
Control and Exceedance flow
design.
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Bioretention Areas

▪ Bioretention areas are shallow
landscaped depressions,
typically underdrained and rely
on engineered soils and
enhanced vegetation and
filtration to remove pollution and
reduce runoff downstream.
▪ They are aimed at managing
and treating runoff from frequent
rainfall events.
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Bioretention Areas

KEY DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ sufficient area to temporarily store the Water Quality Treatment Volume (Vt) at a
depth <0.15 m on the surface
▪ the water quality treatment event should half drain within 24 hrs to provide adequate
capacity for multi-event scenarios
▪ min depth to groundwater of 1 m, if unlined
▪ overflow/bypass facilities for extreme events.
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Ponds

▪ Ponds can provide both stormwater
attenuation and treatment.
▪ They are designed to support emergent
and submerged aquatic vegetation
along their shoreline.
▪ Runoff from each rain event is detained
and treated in the pool.
▪ They are aimed at managing and
treating runoff from frequent rainfall
events.
SuDS Hydraulic Design: Ponds

KEY DESIGN CRITERIA
▪ permanent pool volume for water quality
treatment
▪ temporary storage volume for flow
attenuation
▪ sediment forebay or upstream pre-treatment
▪ length:width ratio between 3:1 and 5:1
▪ minimum depth for open water areas of 1.2 m
▪ maximum depth of permanent pool of 2 m
▪ side slopes > 1V:3H for slopes.
Summary
▪ Runoff rates: FEH - IH 124 - MRational Methods for
calculation of greenfield runoff rates.
▪ Attenuation Storage: considering the inflow/outflow
▪ Swales design: open channels design; allow for infiltration,
attenuation, n values as appropriate
▪ Pervious Pavement: infiltration in plane surfaces
▪ Infiltration Systems: infiltration in 3D surfaces + Storage
▪ Retention Areas: attenuation storage and Long-Term Storage
(Retention/Bioretention basins, Ponds, Tanks, etc)
Tips for General Approaches

▪ Flow problem:
▪ what sort of problem are you looking at?
▪ which formulae apply to the problem?
▪ What info do you have? What can you derive, assume or estimate?
▪ What are you solving for?
▪ Does your result feel right? What is the order of magnitude, likely errors?
Is it a conservative estimate?
▪ What are the limitations of the approach? (simplifications and method)
Tips for SuDS Design:
▪ CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015 a good

first guide
▪ Contains Technical Detail and
Supporting Guidance
▪ Downloadable (for free) from
www.ciria.org
Tips for SuDS Design:


Flood Risk Management
Week 7- 3 Mar 2023
Learning Outcomes of today’s lecture
▪ Flood Risk & Impact

▪ Flood Resilience
▪ Case Study examples:
▪ UK: Resilience in building
▪ Risk of failure for a structure
▪ Flood Defences
▪ SuDS in the context of flood plains
▪ Flood Estimation
What is Urban Flooding?
▪ Fluvial/ Riverine flooding (river)

▪ Pluvial/ surface water flooding (rain)
▪ Sewer flooding
▪ Storm/high tides/tidal surges (sea)
▪ Infrastructure failure
▪ Groundwater flooding
Flood occurrences and fatalities. Total number of flood events and fatalities (unadjusted, reported values)
between 1870 and 2016, a by month and b by country. Source of data: HANZE database
Paprotny et al. (2018), see article in Moodle
(a) (b)
Piadeh et al. (2022)

Piadeh, F., Behzadian, K. and Alani, A.,
(c) (d) 2022. A critical review of real-time
modelling of flood forecasting in urban
Figure 1. Geographical occurrences of flood events (1990-2021): a) number of flood events, b) average human loss, c) drainage systems. Journal of
average affected people, d) average economic loss Hydrology, p.127476.
Blöschl et al. (2017), see article in Moodle
Changing climate both increases and

decreases European river floods
Blöschl, G., Hall, J., Parajka, J., Perdigão, R.A., Merz, B., Arheimer, B.,
Aronica, G.T., Bilibashi, A., Bonacci, O., Borga, M. and Čanjevac, I., 2017.
Changing climate shifts timing of European floods. Science, 357(6351),
pp.588-590.
Flood Risk
▪ The combination of the probability of a flood event and of the
potential adverse consequences for human health, the
environment, cultural heritage and economic activity
associated with a flood event. (Technische Universiteit Delft)
▪ A combination of the probability and the potential

consequences of flooding from all sources – including from
rivers and the sea, directly from rainfall on the groundsurface
and rising groundwater, overwhelmed sewers and drainage
systems, and from reservoirs, canals and lakes and other
artificial sources. (Planning Guidance, Dept for Communities
and Local Government)
Flood Risk
Risk = probability × consequence
Risk = Hazard x Exposure x Vulnerability
The probability is how often the flood will occur.

The consequence is the impact the flood will have.
Flood Risk
In the context of flood risk management, the terms hazard, vulnerability and exposure
are often used:
1. Hazard corresponds to the likelihood / source of danger / probability of occurrence
of a flood event of certain magnitude and characteristics (e.g. depth and velocity of
water, duration of the flood and its load).
2. Exposure is defined as the people, property, systems, or other elements present in

hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential damage.
3. Vulnerability corresponds to the characteristics and circumstances of a community,

system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of flood hazard; it
can be considered as a combination of susceptibility and value.
Flood Zones: Environment Agency

Zone 1 Land having a less than 1 in 1,000 annual probability of river or sea flooding.
Low Probability (Shown as ‘clear’ on the Flood Map – all land outside Zones 2 and 3)
Land having between a 1 in 100 and 1 in 1,000 annual probability of river flooding; or
Zone 2
Land having between a 1 in 200 and 1 in 1,000 annual probability of sea flooding.
Medium Probability
(Land shown in light blue on the Flood Map)
Land having a 1 in 100 or greater annual probability of river flooding; or

Zone 3a
Land having a 1 in 200 or greater annual probability of sea flooding.
High Probability
(Land shown in dark blue on the Flood Map)
This zone comprises land where water has to flow or be stored in times of flood.
Zone 3b
Local planning authorities should identify in their Strategic Flood Risk Assessments areas
The Functional
of functional floodplain and its boundaries accordingly, in agreement with the
Floodplain
Environment Agency. (Not separately distinguished from Zone 3a on the Flood Map)
Low Risk – Zone 1

( P < 1/1000 y)
High Risk – Zone 3

( P < 1/100 y)
https://flood-warning-information.service.gov.uk/long-term-flood-risk/map
https://flood-map-for-planning.service.gov.uk
Flood Damage Impact

▪ All varieties of damages caused by flooding:
▪ HUMAN: A wide range of harmful effects on humans, their health
and their belongings.
▪ ECONOMIC: Land use (properties, business), business
(interruption, indirect losses)
▪ STRUCTURAL: Structural damage to buildings.
▪ OTHERS: diseases, destruction of crops, livestock
▪ but seasonal flooding can have some benefits (Nile agriculture)
Flood Damage: human/structural impact
Velocity x Depth = Damage Factor
Clausen & Clark 1990
https://www.hamilton.govt.nz/our-council/council-publications/districtplans/flood/Pages/Flood-FAQ.aspx
Flood Damage
Classification of flood damage, based on Vrouwenvelder and Vrijling (1996)

Flood Risk Mapping

An indication of areas at risk of flooding is important for:
▪ Development Control
▪ Emergency Planning
▪ Infrastructure Design
▪ Insurance
https://www.southwarknews.co.uk/news/southwark-has-most-
properties-at-risk-of-flooding-says-study/
London flood conjecture map

Flood Risk Mapping
Velocity x Depth =
Damage Factor
VxD < 0.5 LOW

VxD < 1.0 MED
VxD > 1.0 HIGH
Approaches to Flood Risk Reduction

▪ Structural / Design measures: Any physical construction to reduce or avoid
possible impacts of hazards (Flood Defences), or application of engineering
techniques to achieve hazard-resistance and resilience in structures or systems
(Flood Resilience)
▪ Non-structural measures: Any measure not involving physical construction that

uses knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, in particular
through:
▪ policies and laws
▪ public awareness raising
▪ training and education
▪ flood warning systems
Design Approaches to managing flood risk
▪ Factors to consider when undertaking a site specific Flood

Risk Assessment (FRA), known as a Flood Consequence
Assessment (FCA).
▪ UK design strategy guidance offers design options, the choice

of which will depend largely on the characteristics of
flooding likely to affect a development site and the
availability of space
See: Improving the flood performance of new buildings: flood resilient construction
Rationale for Design Strategies:

▪ First step: determine the types of flooding and their characteristics
which are likely to impact the development site (considered in the
FRA/FCA during the planning process)
▪ Second step: calculate a design flood depth at a building
▪ Finally, consider whether Avoidance/Resistance/Resilience or any
practical measures such as local bunds, landscaping (SuDS) or
construction of boundary walls will be an option to try to keep floodwaters
away from new buildings.

Rationale for Design Strategies
Determine the types of flooding and their characteristics:
▪ Potential sources of flooding: e.g. stormwater, seawater, foul water,groundwater
▪ Predicted Flood Level: the normal output from an FRA/FCA is a range of predicted flood levels for
different event frequencies
▪ Duration: River and groundwater flooding can take several days/weeks (or months, in the case of
groundwater) to drain away (pumping may be required, structural problemsmay arise)
▪ Frequency: In areas where flooding is frequent but shallow, avoidance or resistant measures can
be used. Otherwise, use of resilient material, to reduce the damage and subsequent costs of repair
▪ Depth: main parameter in the design strategy. the Environment Agency requires that floor levels are
set 300mm above the predicted 100 year flood level plus climate change allowance, for river
flooding
Available from: Improving the Flood Performance of New Buildings Flood Resilient Construction, CLG, 2007
Definitions (from communities.gov.uk):

▪ Flood avoidance: Constructing a building and its surroundings (at
site level) in such a way to avoid it being flooded (e.g. by raising it
above flood level, re-siting outside flood risk area etc)
▪ Flood resistance: Constructing a building in such a way to prevent
floodwater entering the building and damaging its fabric.
▪ Flood resilience: Constructing a building in such a way that
although flood water may enter the building its impact is reduced (i.e.
no permanent damage is caused, structural integrity is maintained
and drying and cleaning are facilitated).
Design Approaches to managing flood risk: Avoidance
Avoidance Measures:
▪ Don’t build in flood risk area
▪ Raise ground / floor level
▪ Landscaping (linked to SuDS!)
▪ Boundary Walls
Note: avoidance measures are only likely to delay the floodwaters reaching
a development or entering a building so it would always be prudent not to
rely solely on them.
Design Approaches to managing flood risk:
Resistance & Resilience Measures:

▪ an integral part of the building fabric or are features inside a
building.
▪ Allow water into property, to minimise risk of structural
damage (but attempt to keep low flood depth water out)
▪ Give occupants more time to relocate ground floor contents.
▪ Generally suitable for short duration, low depth flooding
(0.3m)
Flood Risk Management & Resilience

RESILIENCE:
▪ the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness (ability to recover readily
from illness, depression, adversity, or the like; buoyancy)
▪ the ability of a substance or object to spring back into shape; elasticity.
▪ resilience in a system is defined as the system ability to withstand i.e. absorb and bounce
back from, shocks and pressures, whether economic, climatic or demographic in nature
FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT:

▪ Mitigating, preparing for and building resilience against global risks is long and
complex, something often recognised in theory but difficult in practice.
▪ In the context of Flood Risk Management, should be a programmed and flexible process of
continuously improving management practices directed at enhancing resilience, by active learning
about the outcome of earlier and ongoing interventions and drivers of change
Example of resilience strategy: UK

<0.3m flood depth
▪ At predicted depths less than 0.3m, and for short duration floods, the
strategy is to adopt a “resistant” approach and try to keep water out
of a building i.e. water exclusion strategy.
▪ E.g. build walls and floors with low permeability materials, with
associated minimal (or no) damage or deformation
▪ the materials should be easy to clean and dry out, e.g.
engineering bricks, water resistant renders
▪ Under this scenario, people may safely leave their houses as there is
a low possibility of flood water flowing at speeds greater than 2m/s,
which could present a danger to the most vulnerable

0.3-0.6m flood depth
▪ A decision needs to be taken as to whether it is feasible or practical to
adopt the water exclusion strategy.
▪ If yes, then low permeability materials can be used up to 0.6m.
▪ If structural integrity of the building is an issue or concern, allow
for partial water entry as set out below. In this case, measures
can be again used to minimise water ingress up to 0.3m.
▪ It is important that a structural assessment of the risks posed by flood
water is considered by an experienced professional during the
building design phase

>0.6m flood depth
Structural damage could occur in traditional masonry construction due to excessive water pressures,
can be worsened by impact from water-borne debris:
▪ allow water into the building, i.e. the water entry strategy. This should apply irrespective of
the flood duration or frequency.
▪ In design, use of materials that retain their structural integrity, but allow passage of water.
Materials should also have good drying and cleaning properties.
▪ Consider sacrificial materials as internal or external finishes; e.g. gypsumplasterboard.
▪ use measures to minimise water ingress up to 0.3m with the aim of ‘buying time’ for removal
of valuables and safe evacuation (suitable when the rate of rise of flood water is relatively
slow, i.e. several hours).
For flood depths above 0.6m, the likely flood velocity should be assessed. If >5m/s can pose a
problem to the most vulnerable
Flood Resilience
Recovering and getting back to normal as quickly as possible
after the event.
“We must get used to living with the realization that some inundation is
possible, but similarly we have a right to expect the cities and towns have
a plan to recover and restore quickly with no peril to the community or
emergency service providers. We are beginning to see pioneering agencies
and authorities adopting this approach with great success.”
Tom Kennedy, Arup
Flood resilience: Venice, Italy
High Water > 110 cm Nov. 2019: 187 cm

High Water > 110 cm Up to 110 cm…


Frequency analysis
It evaluates the relationship between the return period (T) and the magnitude of a particular
hydrological event, such as a peak flood discharge, a drought flow, or rainfall depth or intensity.
e.g. 1 in 100 years flood means the peak flood flow (Q)
that on average will be equalled or exceeded in only
one out of every 100 years.
The flood with a return period of T years is denoted by QT

and is called the 1 in T year flood, or often just the T-year
flood.
Percentage annual probability (P%):
The relationship between T and P %
Risk of failure for a structure
The probability that the event won’t be exceeded in any one year, i.e. non-occurrence, is
(100 - P %) or (1 – P).
During the design life (L) of a particular structure, the probability or risk of failure (J) that at
least one event will occur which exceeds in magnitude that of a specified return period (T):
1 𝐿
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐽 = 1 − (1 − )
𝑇
𝐿
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1 − 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1 − 1 − 𝑃 … (1 − 𝑃)
0
Combination 𝐿
Binomial distribution:
In a given period of n years, the probability of a given number r of events of a probability of
occurrence μ is given by the binomial distribution:
=
Risk of failure for a structure
Binomial distribution:
In a given period of n years, the probability of a given number r of events of a probability of
occurrence μ is given by the binomial distribution as follows:
𝐿
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑃 × (1 − 𝑃) … (1 − 𝑃)
1
𝐿−1
𝐿
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃 × 𝑃 × (1 − 𝑃) … (1 − 𝑃)
2
𝐿−2
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 1 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example
(a) A dam is to be constructed to withstand a 1 in 10000 year flood. It is anticipated that the
dam will have a 100 year life. What is the probability that a flood that exceeds the design
flood will occur during the lifetime of the dam?
(b) A bridge has an intended design life of 120 years and is designed for a 1 in 100 year flood.
What is the probability that something bigger will be experienced?
(c) A bridge pier is to be constructed inside a temporary cofferdam. If the cofferdam is
designed for a 1 in 20 year flood and will be in the river for 2 winters, what is the probability
that a larger flood will occur?
(d) What is the significance of the answers to these questions?
Solution
(d) The significance is that there is always a risk of failure. Statistically there is often a
surprisingly large probability that a flood will occur which is larger than the one you designed
for. Thus, there is always a very real risk of failure. For engineers, the question is often what
degree of risk can be tolerated, and how much money can be spent justifiably to reduce the
risk to an acceptable level?
Flood Defences
Hydraulic structures with the primary objective to provide
protection against flooding along the coast, rivers, lakes and
other waterways
Flood Defences: Types

▪ Dikes / Levees
▪ Dam
▪ Storm Surge Barrier
▪ Dune
▪ Flood Wall
▪ Temporary Flood Defence
▪ Hydraulic Structures
▪ Multifunctional Flood Defences
Dike / Levee Core77.com
A water retaining structure consisting

of soil with a sufficient elevation and
strength to be able to retain the water
under extreme circumstances
Example: New Orleans

http://www.history.com/topics/hurricane-katrina
Dams
A dam is another type of water retaining structure which holds back
water and raise its level, forming a reservoir used as water supply or
to generate electricity.
Tawila Dam, Darfur Hoover Dam, USA

Storm Surge Barrier

A partly movable flood defence in a river or an estuary. A storm surge barrier
can be temporarily closed by means of gates during high water levels to
prevent high water level in the basin behind the barrier
Thames Barrier (UK) Maeslant Barrier (Netherlands)

Dune
A ridge of sand along the coast,
which is general formed by natural
processes. Dunes provide protection
against storm surges especially
through their large sand volume and
resistance against erosion. During
high water levels and waves, a part of
the dune will erode
Camber Sands, East Sussex
Flood Wall
A water retaining structure which generally consists of concrete, and
sometimes also of steel (or more recently, glass!). Due to the high horizontal
forces on the flood wall, a solid foundation is necessary
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxEkExkgK3I
Others
▪ Temporary flood defences:
Examples of temporarily flood
defences e.g. sandbags, temporary
demountables
▪ Hydraulic structures: e.g.
pumping stations, actively pumping
during flood event
▪ Multifunctional flood defences: a
structure that has other purposes,
e.g. a dike with a road or a parking
garage located in the flood zone
and has a water-retaining function.
Functions of Flood Defence

▪ Primary function: retain high water
▪ Secondary functions:
▪ Inlet or discharge function for waterways crossing the water defence;
▪ Traffic route on, along or through the flood defence;
▪ Recreational function, e.g. touristic routes on dikes, along dams and
through dunes;
▪ Cultural-historical value. For example in the city of Dordrecht, the flood
defence is part of a street (theVoorstraat) in the historical city center
Flood Defences: “hard” engineering

Channelisation:
works in rivers to increase the capacity to carry flood flows:
▪ Channel maintenance (vegetation cut, dredging)
▪ Enlarging river section (widening or deepening).
▪ Straightening (increasing slope by removing bends)
The river suffers environmental degradation, no longer acceptable.

Increased flood capacity by creating a flood bypass channel around
the properties/infrastructure (Flood relief channel – Jubilee river)
Flood Defences: “soft” engineering

▪ Floodplain Storage Areas
▪ Floodplain Woodland/Washlands
▪ Water Meadows
▪ River Restoration
▪ Afforestation/Reforestation
▪ SuDS (small scale of the previous)
https://medwet.org/2017/02/floodplains-and-flooding-risk-prevention/
Flood Defences: “soft” engineering

▪ Floodplain Storage Areas
▪ Floodplain Woodland/Washlands
▪ Water Meadows
▪ River Restoration
▪ Afforestation/Reforestation
▪ SuDS (small scale of the previous)
Kallang River (Singapore)

SuDS and Flood Risk

▪ SuDS designed for:
▪ Water quantity
▪ Water Quality
▪ Amenity
▪ Biodiversity
▪ Most effective at reducing flood risk (surface water, sewer, small /
medium watercourses) for relatively high intensity, short and medium
duration events.
▪ Less impact on flood risk associated with larger waterbodies e.g. tidal
rivers (e.g. Thames).
SuDS and Flood Risk

▪ SuDS for a single site could
potentially be demonstrated to
have limited impact, but it is
the cumulative impact of all
development in the catchment
(+ potential effects of climate
change) that should be taken
into consideration.
▪ Also help with reducing
pollution https://www.salixrw.com/solution/erosion-control-suds-project/
SuDS and Flood Risk: considerations
▪ Attenuation measures can

inadvertently increase likelihood of
flooding…
▪ …due to extended duration of
discharge into a receiving
watercourse.
▪ If sites discharge to sewer systems,
changes in volume are particularly
important because of …risk of
sewer flooding + CSO spills

▪ Design Criteria outlined in SuDS Manual for attenuation to mitigate
flood risk to receiving waterbodies
▪ Support management of flood risk in the receiving catchment
▪ Prioritise where runoff is discharged
▪ filtration
▪ Discharge to surface waters
▪ Discharge to surface water sewer, highway drain, other drain
▪ Discharge to combined sewer
▪ Control volume of runoff discharged from site
▪ Control peak runoff rates from the site
▪ Relevant local flood authority should be consulted where

discharge is to watercourse
▪ Design should take account of the time it takes for runoff to

drain through the system.
▪ Specific to flooding: the impact of potential downstream
constraints (e.g. high water levels in receiving watercourse)
should be considered
SuDS Design in Floodplains

Should presence of a floodplain preclude a site from including
SuDS?
It is highly unlikely that storage volume achieved in a flood plain
would be allowed to meet a development’s total surface water
attenuation catchment
▪ Role of a flood plain is primarily to mitigate flood risk from rivers /
tides, therefore during extreme events will flood.
▪ Therefore ineffective for use in storing surface water runoff.
SuDS Design in Floodplains

▪ However, SuDS can still be
used to manage routine rainfall,
and help to discharge runoff
safely across a floodplain.
▪ Can also provide treatment for
frequent events.
Pensthorpe Natural Park, Fakenham, Norfolk
SuDS Design in Floodplains: Considerations
So YES, we can use SuDS in floodplains, but …

▪ SuDS should not reduce flood plain storage or conveyance
on a development
▪ SuDS within floodplain should take full consideration of
influence of river levels on design performance.
▪ Siltation and subsequent clearance after a flood event has
subsided should be taken into account in the design
Why do we need Flood Estimation?

The estimation of flood magnitude is a basic requirement for many applications:
▪ Flood forecasting
▪ Emergency planning
▪ Development (building)
▪ Insurance
▪ Engineering design
▪ Dams
▪ Flood defences and alleviation
▪ Hydraulic structures
▪ Drainage schemes
▪ Transport
Methods of Flood Estimation (rainfall – discharges)

Remember ...
Hydrological methods:
▪ Small Catchments: Rational Method/IH124
▪ Larger Catchments:
▪ The Flood Studies Report (superseded, in limited use)
▪ The Flood Estimation Handbook
Gauging Stations: direct measurements of depth, empirical discharges
Methods of Flood Estimation (discharges - depths/velocities)
Hydraulic methods:
▪ Traditional empirical formulae (Manning’s equation)
▪ Conveyance Estimation System (Environment Agency)
▪ Numerical modeling
▪ 1D numerical models (HEC-RAS, MIKE 21, ISIS)
▪ 2D/3D computational fluid dynamics (TUFLOW, INFOWORKS,
TELEMAC)
Gauging Stations: direct measurements of depths.

Flood Estimation
Why not use existing records? (large catchments)
▪ The locations of gauging stations are sparse

compared to the length of rivers
▪ The effects of tributary rivers need to be included
▪ Observation records are short in relation to the
design standard – commonly less than 50 years.
Not good practice to use short records for
calculating a 1 in 100 year flood
▪ Design flood magnitudes are controlled by the
physical properties of the catchment
Gauge stations UK
Flood Estimation Handbook

▪ FEH is the industry standard used to estimate local flood risk and develop
resilient infrastructure. It is used for estimating flood discharges.
▪ Rainfall – runoff method (ReFEH), recently updated (aka ReFEH2)
▪ Dependent on access to FEH documentation / software + suitable modelling
experience.
▪ FEH is recommended for runoff rates and volumes (CIRIA SuDs guidance)
The latest version, ReFH2,

incorporates scientific urban
advances developed by
Kjeldsen et al (2013)
rural
Kjeldsen, T. R., Miller, J. D., & Packman, J. C. (2013). Modelling design flood hydrographs in catchments with mixed
urban and rural land cover. Hydrology Research, 44(6), 1040-1057.
Flood Estimation Handbook – available in UCL

library – Wallingford
▪ Originally released in 1999 – and continuously improved

▪ Intended as a handbook of estimation procedures rather than a
report
▪ Included 20+ years additional data to Flood Studies Report
▪ 50% more rain gauge - years
▪ Employed new technology
▪ Software based using digital data FEH consists of 5 volumes,
▪ More automated, but a combination of flood estimation techniques
are included, therefore the design flood derivation requires a degree
of hydrological expertise.
Catchment Descriptors
Catchment descriptors:
▪ The basis of the FEH methodology
▪ 30 parameters used to describe the characteristics of any UK
catchment > 0.5 km2.
▪ Digital catchment descriptors help quantify physical,
hydrological and climatological properties of a catchment
▪ Makes use of GIS based data including 50m DTM, drainage
network, land use and soils data
▪ FEH includes a stand alone GIS for using this information
Catchment Descriptors
Catchment descriptors:
where:
AREA is catchment Area (km2),
SAAR is Standard Average Annual Rainfall (mm),
FARL is Flood Attenuation due to storage in Reservoirs/Lakes (by default = 1).
BFIHOST is the Baseflow Index. It defines soil type, estimated from soil type by
Hydrology Of Soil Types (HOST) classification (Bayliss and Morris 1999).
FEH Software (1): FEH web service

▪ Formerly CD-ROM
▪ Stand alone GIS to extract
catchment descriptors for selected
catchments down to 0.5 sq. km in
size..
▪ DTM used to define flow pathways

although in some areas (e.g.
Chalk) they may not actually
represent rivers
FEH Software (2): WINFAP-FEH3

▪ Calculates flood frequency curves
▪ Pooling based on catchments with
similar area, SAAR and soil
properties
▪ Can only calculate the peak value of
design flood and associated
statistics
▪ Uses a number of extreme value
statistical approaches to derive return
periods
FEH Software (3): ReFH2

▪ XL Spreadsheet tool
▪ Uses catchment
descriptors
▪ A rainfall-runoff model to
generate the flood
hydrograph
▪ Design rainfall calculated
with a profile over time
(rainfall hyetograph)
FEH Software (3): ReFH2

Results:
flood hydrograph rainfall
and components

Flood Levels and Mappin
▪ Manning equation: Q – h (depth)/Vx.

One Cross Section, Uniform Flow
▪ Conveyance Est Sys - CES: Q – h/Vx
▪ 1D Numerical Modeling: Q – h/Vx
River reach (km), Unsteady Flow
▪ 2D Numerical Modeling: Q – h/Vx/Vy
River reach (km), Usteady Flow
http://ftp.comet.ucar.edu/memory-stick/hydro/basic_int/routing/print.htm

Flood Levels and Mapping

▪ Conveyance Est Sys: Q – h/Vx
User Guide Gahey et al (2008)




Bhola et al. (2019)
http://hydro.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~yamadai/cama-flood/ http://www.opentelemac.org/index.php/presentation?id=17
https://www.bristol.ac.uk/geography/research/hydrology/models/lisflood/
https://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-ras/
Additional resources
▪ See articles in Moodle

▪ LISFLOOD-FP training:
http://www.bristol.ac.uk/geography/research/hydrology/mo
dels/lisflood/training/
▪ HEC RAS tutorial:
https://serc.carleton.edu/getsi/teaching_materials/storm_flo
oding/unit4.html

Revisions
Week 9- 17 Mar 2023
Revisions/Preparation for in-class assessment
Group coursework: 40% (10 Mar and 7 Apr 2023)
Individual In-class Assessment (open book): 30% (24 Mar 2023)
Individual Coursework: 30% (14 Apr 2023)
References for Study for Final in-class assessment

1- Power point/PDF presentation
2- Understanding Hydraulics by Les Hamill
3- Urban Drainage by David Butler et al.
Individual In-class Assessment (24 March 2023)

▪ Start at 2pm on 24 March 2023
▪ Duration 2 hours
▪ Three questions including calculations and conceptual/open-ended answer
▪ Open book and you can use scientific calculator and laptop and any reference
▪ Please note the instruction
First page/instruction:
Last year in-class assessment

▪ Please see in the moodle under Week 9 – 17 Mar 2023
Revise/review the previous slides/presentation
▪ Please revise/review in the past presentations in the moodle Week 1-7


Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) tool
Week 4- 3 Feb 2023
• SWMM is dynamic rainfall-runoff simulation model that computes runoff quantity and
quality from primarily urban areas.
• The routing portion of SWMM transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels,
storage/treatment devices, pumps and regulators.
SWMM tracks down the following in a simulation

period:
• quantity and quality of runoff in each subcatchment
• flow rate/depth and water quality in each conduit

Applications:
• Mainly for design of urban drainage system
components for flood control
https://www.epa.gov/water-research/storm-water-
management-model-swmm
Software tools for Stormwater/wastewater modelling
SewerCAD/SewerGEMS/CivilStorm/StormCAD developed
by Bentley's Haestad Methods (Hydraulics & Hydrology) group
SWMM developed by US EPA

Application: Pre-development and Post-development conditions
Undeveloped site Developed site

Task 1: basics of SWMM model simulation [20 minutes]
Load and simulate the SWMM model examples 1 (pre-development) & 2 (post-development)
and observe the results over the simulation period and compare the peak flows (total inflow)
of the most downstream point (free outfall) under different conditions of rainfall.
-2 yr 2-hr storm
-10 yr 2-hr storm
-100 yr 2-hr storm
Results of task 1: Compare the peak flows

Task 2: Design problems of urban drainage systems [20 minutes]
2.1 Learn how to use the SWMM software for design of urban drainage systems.
Design purpose: to minimise the peak flow by finding the best size of culverts and its coverage
that will convey the runoff with specific design storm (here 100-year return period, 2-hr
duration) without any flooding at any node in the system
Hydraulic Elements in SWMM: Nodes
Hydraulic Elements in SWMM: Links
Offset
Characteristics of the conduits
used in Example 2
Discharge Equations for flow in open channel
Flow discharge: Q=VA where A= cross-section area
𝐴 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Manning’s Unit: s/m1/3

Typical values of Manning’s n
𝐴 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Hamill, L.. Understanding Hydraulics, 3rd Edition. Palgrave Macmillan (UK), 05/2011. Electronic access can be done through VitalSource Bookshelf https://support.vitalsource.com/hc/en-us.
Task 2: Design practice
Use design skill to manually improve the design of the system under post-development
conditions in example 2 using the following assumptions and procedure:
•Design objective is to minimise the peak flow of free outfall point (Junction O1) for 100-year
2-hr storm event.
•Design parameters are:
1- Manning’s coefficients of all conduits using the following ranges:

➢ Manning’s n of 0.05-0.15 for swales and 0.012-0.017 for concrete in culverts;
2- dimensions of open channel conduits as long as the same surface

width for swale cross-section is respected
T=B+2hZ
1 h 1
Z Z
B
Task 2: Design Procedure
Systematically do the following steps for conduits:
i. Enter new values for roughness of conduits based on the ranges (Manning’s n of 0.05-
0.15 for swales and 0.012-0.017 for concrete in culverts).
ii. Run SWMM and check the node flooding using Summary button
in Report Menu.
If there was node flooding, do the following loop for each trial: Offset
1. Start from upstream conduits where the

flooding happens
Change the dimensions of conduit
3. Run the model again/check flooding
4. If not, repeat step 1
The best hydraulic cross-section for maximum discharge
Hint: Once modifying the conduit dimensions, try to use the best hydraulic section.
What is the hydraulic cross-section that carry the maximum flow to save excavation/
construction/lining?
Trapezoidal
-The one with the minimum wetted perimeter (P).
Rectangular
Task 3: Detention Ponds
Learn how a detention pond can be added in SWMM to control peak runoff.
Design of side orifice and transverse weir
Q = flow rate, C = discharge

coefficient (0.65), A = area of orifice
opening, g = acceleration of gravity,
and h = head difference across the
orifice
Cw = weir discharge coefficient (3.3 for

sharp crested transverse weirs), L = weir
length, h = head difference across the
weir,
Designed outlets of side orifice and transverse weir
0.86m
0.076m 1.83m
0.15m
0.966m
0.677m
0.09m 0.457m
Task 4: LID (Low Impact Development) or SuDS
Learn how SuDS/LID technologies can be added in SWMM to attenuate peak flow and treat
stormwater.
Filter Strips/verges
Processes: infiltration and storage
Infiltration Trenches
Infiltration trenches are excavations backfilled with stone aggregate used to capture runoff
and infiltrate it to the ground.
Processes: infiltration, storage and the water flow along the trench

Week 4- 3 Feb 2023
• SWMM is dynamic rainfall-runoff simulation model that computes runoff quantity and
quality from primarily urban areas.
• The routing portion of SWMM transports this runoff through a system of pipes, channels,
storage/treatment devices, pumps and regulators.
SWMM tracks down the following in a simulation

period:
• quantity and quality of runoff in each subcatchment
• flow rate/depth and water quality in each conduit

Applications:
• Mainly for design of urban drainage system
components for flood control
https://www.epa.gov/water-research/storm-water-
management-model-swmm
Software tools for Stormwater/wastewater modelling
SewerCAD/SewerGEMS/CivilStorm/StormCAD developed
by Bentley's Haestad Methods (Hydraulics & Hydrology) group
SWMM developed by US EPA

Application: Pre-development and Post-development conditions

Task 1: basics of SWMM model simulation [20 minutes]
Load and simulate the SWMM model examples 1 (pre-development) & 2 (post-development)
and observe the results over the simulation period and compare the peak flows (total inflow)
of the most downstream point (free outfall) under different conditions of rainfall.
-2 yr 2-hr storm
-10 yr 2-hr storm
-100 yr 2-hr storm
Results of task 1: Compare the peak flows

Task 2: Design problems of urban drainage systems [20 minutes]
2.1 Learn how to use the SWMM software for design of urban drainage systems.
Design purpose: to minimise the peak flow by finding the best size of culverts and its coverage
that will convey the runoff with specific design storm (here 100-year return period, 2-hr
duration) without any flooding at any node in the system
Hydraulic Elements in SWMM: Nodes
Hydraulic Elements in SWMM: Links
Offset
Characteristics of the conduits
used in Example 2
Discharge Equations for flow in open channel
Flow discharge: Q=VA where A= cross-section area
𝐴 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Manning’s Unit: s/m1/3

Typical values of Manning’s n
𝐴 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
Hamill, L.. Understanding Hydraulics, 3rd Edition. Palgrave Macmillan (UK), 05/2011. Electronic access can be done through VitalSource Bookshelf https://support.vitalsource.com/hc/en-us.
Task 2: Design practice
Use design skill to manually improve the design of the system under post-development
conditions in example 2 using the following assumptions and procedure:
•Design objective is to minimise the peak flow of free outfall point (Junction O1) for 100-year
2-hr storm event.
•Design parameters are:
1- Manning’s coefficients of all conduits using the following ranges:

➢ Manning’s n of 0.05-0.15 for swales and 0.012-0.017 for concrete in culverts;
2- dimensions of open channel conduits as long as the same surface

width for swale cross-section is respected
T=B+2hZ
1 h 1
Z Z
B
Task 2: Design Procedure
Systematically do the following steps for conduits:
i. Enter new values for roughness of conduits based on the ranges (Manning’s n of 0.05-
0.15 for swales and 0.012-0.017 for concrete in culverts).
ii. Run SWMM and check the node flooding using Summary button
in Report Menu.
If there was node flooding, do the following loop for each trial: Offset
1. Start from upstream conduits where the

flooding happens
Change the dimensions of conduit
3. Run the model again/check flooding
4. If not, repeat step 1
The best hydraulic cross-section for maximum discharge
Hint: Once modifying the conduit dimensions, try to use the best hydraulic section.
What is the hydraulic cross-section that carry the maximum flow to save excavation/
construction/lining?
Trapezoidal
-The one with the minimum wetted perimeter (P).
Rectangular
Task 3: Detention Ponds
Learn how a detention pond can be added in SWMM to control peak runoff.
Design of side orifice and transverse weir
Q = flow rate, C = discharge

coefficient (0.65), A = area of orifice
opening, g = acceleration of gravity,
and h = head difference across the
orifice
Cw = weir discharge coefficient (3.3 for

sharp crested transverse weirs), L = weir
length, h = head difference across the
weir,
Designed outlets of side orifice and transverse weir
0.86m
0.076m 1.83m
0.15m
0.966m
0.677m
0.09m 0.457m
Task 4: LID (Low Impact Development) or SuDS
Learn how SuDS/LID technologies can be added in SWMM to attenuate peak flow and treat
stormwater.
Filter Strips/verges
Processes: infiltration and storage
Infiltration Trenches
Infiltration trenches are excavations backfilled with stone aggregate used to capture runoff
and infiltrate it to the ground.
Processes: infiltration, storage and the water flow along the trench
SuDS (Sustainable Drainage System)

Week 5- 10 Feb 2023
Remember …
▪ Oral Presentation of Group Coursework (work in progress)(10%): 10 March 2023
▪ Individual In-class Assessment (30%): 24 March 2023
▪ Group work submission deadline (30%): 31 March 2023
▪ Individual Coursework (30%): 14 April 2023
Greenfield Development
Maryland Department of the Environment CIRIA SuDS

Stormwater Design Manual Manual


▪ In flood risk assessments (FRAs), the Environment Agency (EA) request that a
development should not increase the risk of flooding to other properties.
▪ To understand this risk, we need to know:
▪ For greenfield and previously developed sites: An estimate of the peak
runoff rates and runoff volumes from the site in its greenfield state
▪ For previously developed sites: An estimate of the peak runoff rates and
volumes from the site in its previously developed state
▪ For the proposed development: an estimate of the runoff rates and
volumes from the site in its developed state
▪ (We already practiced this in SWMM modelling tutorial last week)
▪ This is now a requirement for sustainable home developments
For any new development:
▪ Runoff rates calculated for a proposed development will exceed the allowable
discharge rates (how fast)
✓ therefore SuDS design will need to include attenuation storage
▪ The volume of runoff from a proposed development will also exceed allowable
discharge volumes (how much)
✓ therefore SuDS designs will need to ‘infiltrate it and/or store and tightly
control any additional storage volume (long term storage)

▪ Swales
▪ Detention
Storage Tanks
Greenfield Flows
▪ Definition: This is the measure of the runoff that would have been
produced from the site prior to any development.
▪ In order to reduce the chance of flooding due to the increased runoff from
developed areas, rainwater should somehow be stored or delayed when
it runs off the building and impermeable area.
▪ The greenfield runoff rate therefore, gives an allowance of rainfall that can
flow directly form the buildings or roads, to the water course without
increasing the natural water level rise that would result from a storm.
▪ The greenfield runoff is related to the size and soil properties of the
catchment
Management train
Management train: to maintain the runoff from the developed catchment at the
predevelopment level by a series of interlinked components.
The components at the start of the train are relatively small and progressively increase in size
as the area they serve increases.
runoff prevention source control site control regional control

Hierarchy of Strategies in Management Train
Runoff prevention: water butt, Grey water system, green roof;
Source control: soakaway, permeable (pervious) pavement, porous pavement, filter strip,
swale, infiltration trench, infiltration basin;
Site control: detention basin, balancing pond;
Regional control: natural wetland, constructed wetland;

Runoff Prevention
• Small scale measures.
• Controls that may be removed by householders in future.
Water butt: collects roof runoff, use in the garden. For throttled
outlets, local attenuation storage.
Grey water system (water harvesting): Collect roof and hard

surface runoff, domestic reuse, Plumbing errors.
Green roof: promotes evapotranspiration, reduces runoff.

Maintenance critical to avoid water penetration.
Stormwater Runoff Solution: Permeable Pavement
https://youtu.be/JOIM2yR_B6k
Source control
Best with permeable strata & uncontaminated;
Regular inspection and maintenance.
Soakaway: a subsurface structure, lined or unlined, with

granular fill that promotes storage and groundwater recharge.
Permeable (pervious) pavement: often small paviors with the

joints filled with fine gravel to facilitate infiltration; car parks; no
gullies; infiltration rate exceeds the design rainfall intensity;
vacuuming and sweeping.
Porous pavement: the entire surface is porous and permeable;

porous concrete or asphalt. unobtrusive.
Stormwater Runoff Solution: Permeable Interlocking
Concrete Pavement
https://youtu.be/jKH4f6JmdO4
Porous Asphalt Demonstration
https://youtu.be/I16WGau3jxE
Source Control
Filter strip: sloping grass verge between a surface and a swale or infiltration
system; no kerbline; remove particulate pollution by filtering and
infiltration. Limited flood potential
Swale: usually a long/dry/shallow/vegetated depression used to store or

convey runoff; promote evapotranspiration and infiltration; instead of
gullies and pipes; regular cutting;
Infiltration trench: deep trench filled with granular material to promote

temporary storage and infiltration, perforated/porous pipe
Infiltration basin: a dry/shallow/vegetated depression used to store

floodwater and to promote infiltration.
Site Control
Essentially small temporary/ permanent storage
reservoirs; possible dual use; public safety (drowning)
Detention basin: normally dry, a low lying area used to

temporarily store water to attenuate flows.
Balancing pond: incorporates a deeper, permanent

body of water with aquatic vegetation and shallower
areas. Improves water quality through sedimentation
and biological means.
Regional Control
Not suitable near airports due to the risk of bird strike.
Natural floodplain: naturally stores flood water, reducing peak

discharges
Natural wetland: such as an area of marsh, ponds and reedbeds.

They store water, attenuate floods, provide valuable habitats
Constructed wetland: not natural; sediment needs removing

periodically, and management of the vegetation may be required.
requires a continuous flow of water through the wetland
Two typical SuDS technologies
Soakaways Reservoir for flood attenuation
-The most common in the UK.
-For areas <100 m2, 1.5–2.5m deep
-For areas >100 m2, 3-4m deep
Soakaways (key features)
-The most common infiltration device in the UK.
-The only means where permission to connect to existing surface water sewers has been
denied.
-Suitable for permeable ground, not contaminated.
-Either lined (e.g. with perforated precast concrete rings) or unlined.
-Either rectangular pits or trenches.
-Trenches constructed along contours.
-At least 5m from buildings’ foundations.
-For areas of less than 100 m2, typically 1.5–2.5m deep
-For areas over 100 m2, 3-4m deep
Soakaways (Design assumptions)
-100% runoff occurs from the impermeable area (AIMP).
-Effective storage volume is dS × A where A is the plan area.
-The bottom is assumed to be clogged and impermeable
-Percolation takes place only through an area equal to the lower 50% of the sides of the
soakaway, i.e. aS50= dS50 × 2(W + L).
inflow - outflow = change in storage
Inflow = impermeable area × depth of rainfall (= AIMP × R)
Outflow = 50% side area (aS50)×percolation rate(f)×storm duration (t)
Storage S = dS × plan area (A) × porosity of the granular fill (P)
Soakaways (Design assumptions)
Thus for a rectangular soakaway:
Inflow = AIMP × R
outflow = dS50 × 2(W + L) × f × t
Storage S = dS × W × L × P
-The time to empty from full to half volume (tS50) should be less than 24h where:
Rectangular pit
Typical Point intensity-duration equation
Example
A roof of area 80m2 drains to a rectangular soakaway like that in the Fig. below. It is to be
designed for rainfall with a return period of 30 years. Assume W = 1.2m, dS = 1.5m, the void
space (porosity) of the granular fill is 25% (i.e. 0.25), and the soil percolation rate (f) is 2.78×10-5
m/s.
Calculations need to be undertaken for range of rainfall depths (R) to find the maximum L. In
this example R can be obtained indirectly from Table 12.5. To illustrate the procedure, say the
storm duration t = 15min, so with a return period of 30 years the average point intensity i =
1780/(t + 8) mm/h. Thus i = 1780/23 = 77.4mm/h. This is the depth in 1h, so in 15min the depth
will be 77.4 × (15/60) = 19.4mm or R = 0.0194m. Note the following.
Solution
Attenuation & Flood routing through a reservoir
-One of the benefits of SUDS is that they attenuate flood flows (e.g. reservoirs and purpose built
flood storage reservoirs)
Change in storage = inflow - outflow
-During a period of time Δt (15 or 60 minutes), the change in storage with the surface area (AWS)
and the corresponding change in water level ΔH is equal to the difference between the inflow
and outflow during the period Δt.
QMI=mean inflow and QMO=corresponding mean outflow during Δt
where C=coefficient of discharge,

b=breadth of the weir perpendicular to
the flow, and H=head over the weir.
Example
A reservoir has a constant surface area AWS of 0.15km2. The inflow

hydrograph to the reservoir is shown in the first two columns of the
Table. The outflow from the reservoir is over a broad crested weir that
has a coefficient C=1.6 and a breadth b = 10m. Assuming that initially
QI=QO, using a time interval Δt=30min, calculate the routed outflow
from the reservoir and determine the attenuation and time lag
between the two hydrograph peaks.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Potential Problems with SUDS
- Unsuited for some sites due to geology/hydrology/topography conditions.

- For high density areas, requirement of 5m away from buildings is difficult.
- Limiting runoff to the pre-development level using only SUDS is difficult.
- Long linear swales in the verges of highways may be dangerous.
- Open bodies of water (ponds) may be regarded as a drowning hazard.
- Powers to inspect and enforce repair may be rather controversial.
- Possibility of paving front gardens to create parking for vehicles.
- SUDS requires systematic regime of inspection and maintenance.
https://www.ciria.org/ItemDetail?iProductCode=C753F&Category=FREEPUBS
SUDS Design Process

• Hydraulic Design
• Treatment Design
• Amenity Design
• Biodiversity Design
• Physical Specification
• Materials
• Landscape Design
• Construction Requirements
• Operation and Maintenance Refer to CIRIA SuDS Manual 2015
Greenfield Flows
▪ The greenfield runoff rate should be calculated for rainfall events of different
sizes to give the range and extents of storm events which could occur within
100 years.
▪ It is not possible to fully limit the flow of more extreme events; however the
runoff can be managed to reduce the chance of flooding
▪ More commonly now an additional 30%, sometimes 40% needs to be

accounted for to allow for climate change.

▪ Estimated peak runoff rates of a development site in its greenfield condition for a
range of return periods is normally used to define the discharge limits for a new
development site
▪ Peak runoff rates for any return period related to the site’s catchment
characteristics (inc soils). Values derived from any analysis should be regarded as
approximate
▪ Overall objective of using an agreed method is to provide a consistent and
reasonable estimate upon which storage design can be based, rather than finding
the exact runoff rate for any specific site which is not possible



2. IH124

2. Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH)

▪ Calculated using IH Report 124 (Marshall & Bayliss, 1994), which is a simple
method for estimating the design flow in streams draining greenfield areas of 0-
50 ha (<25 km2)
▪ The median annual flood flow (QBAR (rural)) is calculated using an

empirical formula from the results of small catchment studies.
𝑸𝑩𝒂𝒓(𝒓𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍)= 0.00108 × AREA0.89 × SAAR1.17 × SOIL2.17


𝑸𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍= 0.00108 × AREA0.89 × SAAR1.17 × SOIL2.17
▪ QBarrural = Catchment mean annual peak flow (approximately 43% annual

Where developments are smaller than 50 ha, the analysis for determining greenfield
discharge rate should use 50 ha in the formula but linearly interpolate the flow rate
value based on the ratio of the size of the development to 50 ha
Greenfield Flows: IH 124, SAAR + SOIL



▪ Surface runoff from 1ha is

not 1/50 of the peak flow
from the 50 ha catchment
▪ Lag times, attenuation,
different slope, soils and
land use all affect the river
flow
Greenfield Flows: FEH Method

▪ Rainfall – runoff method (ReFEH)
▪ Flood Estimation Handbook (FEH) methods preferred; however
dependent on access to FEH documentation / software + suitable
modelling experience.
▪ New methods have been updated in the UK : ReFH2 and FEH13

▪ Greenfield runoff volume defines the allowable volume that can be
discharged from development site, in order to protect downstream areas
from increased flood risk (100 year 6 hour duration design storm)
▪ Greenfield runoff volumes can be calculated in two ways:

methods) for 100 year, 6 hour event: Vol = Qp x t

Percentage Runoff (PR)

▪ Runoff from paved areas is effectively instantaneous when compared to greenfield

runoff.
▪ The objective is to meet greenfield runoff rates/volumes, considering relaxation
depending on sewer capacity. (Principle of betterment on existing).
▪ Flood Risk Assessments should be checked for runoff requirements for previously
developed sites.

▪ Estimation of Runoff characteristics:

▪ If the drainage system is operational, the discharge limit is the design flow rate
(T = 1, 30 and 100 yr) from piped system.
▪ If no records from the drainage system, the discharge limit is:
a) runoff is the greenfield response for low permeable soils (the previous
methods are applied, Ci = 0.9 - 1.0).
b) runoff can be estimated using urbanization methods within the ReFH2
software.
Development Runoff

Development Runoff
▪ Development runoff volumes define the allowable volume that can be
discharged from development site, in order to design storage systems to
reduce these runoff volumes (100 year 6 hour duration design storm)
▪ Development runoff volumes can be calculated in two ways:

methods) for 100 year, 6 hour event. Vol = Qp x t
Development runoff
C = 0.9-1.0
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: Fixed runoff model
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: Variable runoff model (replace the fixed runoff model)
The model provides an increasing % runoff during a rainfall event, to account

changes in catchment wetness as storm progresses.
Development runoff
2. UK runoff models: UKWIR runoff model
Development Runoff
storage (2).

Applied Hydraulics: UCL Example (SuDS)
Responsible Stormwater Management
Natural System Conventional Drainage SuDS
https://docplayer.net/21804199-Stormwater-management-planning-and-design-guidelines-for-new-developments.html
UCL example
Contributing area
SuDS
(this lectures)
UCL example: Rational Method (Greenfield)
Greenfield Return period

Rational method (1 hr)
Q = Cp i Ac Flow rate m3/s l/s
Qg05 0.05 49.19 Greenfield 5 yr
Qd05 0.39 394.84 After Development
UCL example: IH124 Method (Greenfield)
𝑸𝑩𝒂𝒓 = 0.00108 x AREA0.89 x SAAR1.17 x SOIL2.17
▪ QBar = Catchment mean annual peak flow (approximately 43% annual

Where developments are smaller than 50 ha, the analysis for determining green field
discharge rate should use 50 ha in the formula but linearly interpolate the flow rate value
based on the ratio of the size of the development to 50 ha




▪ QBar = Catchment mean annual peak flow for 2.3 year return period (m3/s)
▪ AREA = 80,500 m2 = 0.0805 km2
▪ SAAR = 700 mm (the highest)
▪ SOIL = 0.37 – 0.53 (0.47)
QBar2.3(50ha) = 0.00108*0.50.89 x 7001.17 x 0.472.17 = 0.24 m3/s = 241.4 l/s
▪ QBar5(50ha) = 1.28*0.24 = 0.31m3/s = 309 l/s → QBar5(8.1ha) = 49.8 l/s

▪ QBar100(50ha) = 3.19*0.24 = 0.77m3/s = 770 l/s → QBar100(8.1ha) = 124 l/s
Where developments are smaller than 50 ha, linearly interpolate the flow rate for 50 ha

Rational Method vs IH124
▪ QBar = Catchment mean annual peak flow for 2.3 year return period (m3/s)
The discharges by rational method Flow rate m3/s l/s
▪ AREA = 80,500 m2 = 0.0805 km2 Qg05 0.05 49.19 Greenfield
in greenfield state seem more
▪ SAAR = 700 mm (the highest) Qd05 0.39 394.84 After Development
“rational”?
▪ SOIL
IH124 = 0.37
is very – 0.53 (0.47)
conservative (very
Qg30 0.07 71.56 Greenfield
flat areas with SOIL (C) < 0.5) Qg100 0.10 100.63 Greenfield
QBar2.3(50ha) = 0.00108*0.5 0.89 x 7001.17 x0.81
0.472.17 =807.63
0.24After
m3/s = 241.4 l/s
Qd100 Development

▪ QBar100(50ha) = 3.19*0.24 = 0.77m3/s = 770 l/s → QBar100(8.1ha) = 124 l/s
Where developments are smaller than 50 ha, linearly interpolate the flow rate for 50 ha
UCL example: Flood Estimation Handbook (Greenfield)

UCL example: Greenfield
Rational IH124 FEH

Rational method (1 hr) IH124 FEH
Flow rate m3/s l/s for 50 ha for 8.05 ha for 50 ha for 8.05 ha
Qg05 0.05 49.19 Greenfield Flow rate m3/s l/s m3/s l/s Flow rate m3/s l/s m3/s l/s
Qd05 0.39 394.84 After Development Qbar 0.24 241.39 0.04 38.86 QMED 0.27 273.03 0.04 43.96
Qg30 0.07 71.56 Greenfield Qg05 0.31 308.98 0.05 49.75 Qg05 0.35 349.47 0.06 56.27
Qd30 0.57 574.31 After Development Qg30 0.58 579.34 0.09 93.27 Qg30 0.66 655.26 0.11 105.50
Qg100 0.10 100.63 Greenfield Q100g 0.77 770.04 0.12 123.98 Q100g 0.87 870.96 0.14 140.22
See Moodle
UCL example: Rational Method (after development)
Return period
Flow rate m3/s l/s
Development
UCL example: Development runoff

UK runoff models
See SuDS
Manual
IF = 0.75 (good impervious area) (CIRIA)
PIMP = 65/75 x 100 = 87
PF = 35 (see table)
NAPI = 40 (worst scenario)
PR = 0.75 x 87 + (100 – 0.75 x 87)x 40/100 = 47 (summer) - 79 (fall)

Climate Change/Urban creep allowances
https://www.gov.uk/guidance/flood-risk-assessments-climate-change-allowances
UCL example: Runoff Volume in Greenfield state
Defined as the 100 year 6 hour duration design event (Kellagher, 2002)
1. Using equations that predict the proportion of runoff (PR) in the site for the design
event:
▪ Runoff Volume = (SPR or PR) x Catchment Area x rainfall depth
▪ e.g. PRrural = Runoff Volume = 0.79 x 80,500 x 12/1000*6 = 4,600 m3
2. From design event runoff hydrographs (rainfall-runoff methods) for the 100 year 6
hour storm
3. Attenuation Storage can be provided by:
▪ A dry storage component
▪ A pond/wetland

SuDS components could be….
▪ Rainwater Harvesting ▪ Bio-retention Systems

▪ Green Roofs ▪ Trees
▪ Infiltration Systems ▪ Pervious Pavements
▪ Proprietary Treatment ▪ Attenuation Storage
▪ Filter Strips ▪ Detention Basins
▪ Filter Drains ▪ Ponds and Wetlands
▪ Swales
SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

Assessment: SUDS case study (40%)

▪ Work in groups of 4/5.
▪ Produce a detailed case study and include a critical evaluation of the SUDS
scheme
▪ For each member in the group 1,000 words must be included in the report, i.e. 4
member group = 4,000 words
▪ Submit 1 report per group in Moodle
Assessment criteria:
▪ Rigorous approach to evaluation of an engineering project
▪ Choice and justification of evaluation criteria
▪ Ability to summarise technical information for a general audience
▪ Quality of the document in terms of its appearance, content, images and diagrams
▪ Ability to search for and reference material correctly
SuDS Design: Examples

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

SuDS Design Process

https://www.susdrain.org/case-
studies/case_studies/derbyshire_street_
pocket_park_london.html
https://www.susdrain.org/case-
studies/case_studies/lamb_drov
e_residential_suds_scheme_ca
mbourne.html
https://www.susdrain.org/case-studies/case_studies/moor_park_blackpool.html
https://www.susdrain.org/case-studies/case_studies/melton_school_suds_scheme_mowbray.html
https://www.ice.org.uk/knowledge-and-resources/case-studies/the-benefits-of-the-new-cira-suds-manual-2015
SuDS Design: a nice online video!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_cgcDs-UW4

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOMATIC ENGINEERING

Urban Flooding and Drainage CEGE0039

Introduction to urban flooding/drainage

➢Greeting/ getting to know each other

➢Aims of the module/learning outcomes

➢Reference/key text books

➢Overview of Assessment/ Assignment

➢Overview of Module outline

➢ Basics Concept of Hydraulic and Hydrologic modelling

• The Focus of the module are on the thee main areas

• Flood risk mapping through hydrological concepts

• Flood defence and mitigation through permanent/temporary defence measures

• Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) through state-of-the-art techniques for

Understand Understand the difference between flood defense, resistance

Describe the principal techniques used for flood defense

Understand the principles of sustainable drainage

Conventional Drainage Systems

Sustainable Drainage Systems

• Autodesk® Storm and

Module Reading List in moodle link

Assessment/ Individual in-class

➢Modelling in Water Systems

Agricultural irrigation https://youtu.be/I3RUFh1-87k

Water Distribution System https://youtu.be/C_lSFhZNupY

Urban drainage System https://youtu.be/LMq6FYiF1mo

Water Sensitive Urban Design https://youtu.be/b_DTnOzYTR4

This will disrupt two of the essential services: availability of reliable,

Internet of Things (IoT) technologies (low-cost IoT sensors) introduce smart

• Improving the response to climate change and extreme weather events

• Improving public health, water quality and environmental protection

Urban Flooding and Drainage | CEGE0039

Hydrology: Definitions and Concepts I

Hydrology: Definitions and Concepts II

Precipitation (rain or snowfall)

Hydrology: Estimating Precipitation

▪ Precipitation is spatially variable:

Hydrology: Return Periods

Hydrology: Return Periods

Hydrology: Return Periods

Hydrology: Risk and Return Periods

Hydrology: Risk and Return Periods

Hydrology: Risk and Return Periods

For more read: Butler D and Davies JW: Urban Drainage

Hydrology: Risk and Return Periods

𝑝𝑁 = 1 − 1 − 𝑝 𝑁 magnitude) - The probability that an event of the specified

𝑝𝑁 = 1 − 1 − Probability of Occurrence within a period of N years (pN) -

Hydrology: Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) Curves

▪ IDF Curves: a graphical representation of the probability that a

▪ Derived using a procedure known as rainfall frequency

Hydrology: IDF Curves

Intensity Return period (yr)

Storm Duration (min)

▪ Runoff is critical for engineering

▪ Runoff and routing techniques are used in

Urban Water cycle and runoff

▪ Estimate peak rates or time-series of

Hydrograph Method: uses hyetographs which are a graphical representation of

Lumped runoff and catchment size

Small catchments: Rational Method

Relates peak runoff

Small catchments: Rational Method

Small catchments: Rational Method

The Rainfall intensity (i) is typically found from