Interaction of EMR with atmosphere

• As EMR interacts with the Earth’s atmosphere, its speed,

intensity, spectral distribution and direction may change
• Solar radiation as it passes through the atmosphere is affected
by 3 processes
– Absorption
– Transmission
– Scattering
By atmospheric molecules and aerosols

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What happens when light hits an object?

Internal atomic structure & composition

are the reasons...
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ABSORPTION
 Process by which radiant energy is absorbed and converted into other forms
of energy.
 An absorption band is a range of wavelengths in the EM spectrum within
which radiant energy is absorbed by a substance.
 Constituents that cause absorption:.
 Water vapour (H2O)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Ozone(O3)
 Oxygen(O2)
 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
 Ozone absorbs ultraviolet;
 Carbon dioxide absorbs thermal infrared portion,
 Water vapour absorbs thermal infrared and microwave radiations.
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  Those regions in the spectrum that are not influenced by atmospheric
absorption is useful for remote sensing and is called atmospheric window

 Sensors are designed to operate in these less affected wavelength regions

 Other wavelengths are blocked (completely/partially) by atmosphere 71
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SCATTERING
 The redirection of electromagnetic waves by particles suspended in the
atmosphere or large molecules of atmospheric gases
 Scatter differs from reflection is that its direction is unpredictable while
direction of reflection is predictable
 Type of scattering is a function of:
• The wavelength of incident radiant energy
• The size of gas molecule, dust particle, water vapour etc.
 Two classes of scattering:
(i) Selective
 Rayleigh scattering
 Mie scattering
(ii) Non-selective
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RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
 Occurs when the effective diameter of the atmospheric molecules are
many times smaller (< 0.1 times) than the wavelength of incident
EMR
 Unpredictable direction of emission
 Occurs in the upper 4.5 km of the atmosphere
 Amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
wavelength of radiation
 E.g. Blue light (0.4µm) scatters 16 times more than near infrared
light (0.8µm)
 Responsible for the blue sky and red sunsets 75
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MIE SCATTERING:
Occurs when spherical particles are present in the
atmosphere with diameters approximately equal to
the wavelength of radiation
Takes place in the lower 4.5 km of the atmosphere,
Water vapour and dust are the major causes
Affects longer wavelengths
Amount of Mie scatter is greater than Rayleigh
scatter 77
NON-SELECTIVE SCATTERING
 Takes place in the lowest parts of the atmosphere where
particle sizes are very large (10 times more than wavelength)
 All wavelengths are scattered proportionately.
 Water droplets, ice crystals scatter all wavelengths.
 Thus, clouds and fog appear white.

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 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features
 Three ways in which the total incident energy will
interact with earth’s surface materials :
 Reflection
 Absorption
 Transmission
 Principle of conservation of energy
EI (λ) = ER (λ) + EA (λ) + ET (λ)
(Radiation Budget equation)
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 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features
• All objects on the surface of the earth have spectral signatures
• Spectral signature is the distinctive set of distinguishable characteristics of
the object.
• Spectral reflectance / Albedo is quantifying the reflectance characteristics
of earth surface features by measuring the portion of incident energy that is
reflected

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 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features

• All matter have their unique spectral reflectance. Based on this, objects are
identified on a photograph or image

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 Energy Interactions with Earth Surface Features
 The amount and properties of reflection is dependent
on:
 The wavelength of the incident energy
 Material composition
 Condition of feature.
 Surface of the material plays a vital role.
 Two types of surface involved:
 Specular (Smooth)
 Diffuse/Lambertian (Rough)
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Spectral Signatures: Spectral reflectance curves

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Spectral Signatures: Spectral reflectance curves

• Vegetation has high reflectance

in IR region.
• Reflectance of Water is stronger
only in the visible region.
• Soil shows uniform reflectance
throughout.
• Presence of moisture in soil will
cause a decrease in its
reflectance and thus, moisture
content can be identified

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Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation

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Spectral Reflectance of Leaf

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 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
1. Strongly absorbs the energy in the visible region
Visible spectrum and the Chlorophyll pigments

• The palisade cells containing sacs of green pigment

(chlorophyll) strongly absorb energy in the bands
centered at 0.45 and 0.67 μm (blue and red)
– Causes valleys in the visible portion of the curve

• Reflection peaks for green in the visible region

– Makes our eyes perceive healthy vegetation as green
in colour
– Only 10-15% of the incident energy is reflected in the
green band
Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation in 
the visible and NIR wavelength bands 
http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
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 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
2. High reflectance in the reflected IR or NIR region

NIR and the Mesophyll Cells

 IR radiation penetrates the palisade cells and

reaches the mesophyll cells
 Mesophyll cells reflect ~ 60% of the NIR
radiation reaching this layer
 At 0.7 μm, the reflectance increases

 In 0.7-1.3 μm, ~ 50% of the incident energy is

reflected Spectral reflectance of healthy vegetation in 
the visible and NIR wavelength bands 
 Healthy vegetation shows brighter response in http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/
the NIR region compared to the green region 90
 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
3. At wavelengths beyond 1.3 μm, leaf reflectance is approximately inversely related to the
total water present in a leaf

– Total water is a function of both the moisture content and the thickness of a leaf

• A little to no transmittance of energy beyond 1.3 μm

Healthy green 
• Energy beyond 1.3 μm is absorbed or reflected vegetation

• Dips in reflectance occur at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.7 μm

 Water in the leaf strongly absorbs the energy at these wavelengths

 These wavelength regions are referred to as water absorption bands

• Reflectance peaks occur at 1.6 and 2.2 μm, between the absorption bands
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 Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…
• Healthy vegetation
 Chlorophyll content in the palisade cells absorbs blue
and red in the visible region
 Mesophyll cells strongly reflects the NIR radiation
• Stressed vegetation
 Decrease in the chlorophyll content
 Less absorption in the blue and red bands
 Red and blue bands also get reflected along with the
green band, giving yellow or brown colour

 NIR bands are absorbed by the stressed mesophyll

cells
 Causing dark tones in the image 92
Spectral Reflectance Curve for Vegetation…

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Spectral Reflectance Curve

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Spectral reflectance of vegetation, soil and
water

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 Spectral Reflectance of Soil
• Factors influencing are:
– moisture content
– soil texture
– surface roughness
– presence of iron oxide
– organic matter content
• Presence of moisture decreases the reflectance (water absorption
bands – 1.4, 1.9, 2.2,2.7 μm also clayey soil at 1.4 and 2.2 μm
• Coarse and sandy soils – low moisture content – high reflectance
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 Spectral Reflectance of Water
• Longer wavelength visible and near IR radiation is absorbed more
by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Water appears blue or
blue – green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths

• Presence of suspended sediments in the upper layers of water body

gives better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of water

• Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of blue wavelengths and reflects

green-making water green – used to monitor presence of algae
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Spectral Reflectance of Water

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Spectral Reflectance of Water

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Remote Sensing Systems

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 Remote Sensing Systems
Remote Sensing systems : Imaging and Non Imaging
Imaging
• Framing Type Imaging system : Entire frame of image is acquired
instantaneously in the basic image unit
• Scanning Type Imaging system : Information is acquired
sequentially from the surface in bits of picture elements point by
point or line by line arranged into frame format after acquisition
Non Imaging
• Used for ground observations and meteorology
• Record a spectral quantity or as a function of time/distance
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 Multi-Spectral Scanning
• A Scanning system used to collect data over a variety of different
wavelength ranges – Multi Spectral Scanning
Photographic system Multi spectral Scanning system
Spectral range – visible and near infrared Spectral range – visible, near infrared
regions region, thermal infrared region
Spectral resolution is low Spectral resolution is high
Uses separate optical system to acquire Acquire all the spectral bands through the
different bands same optical system
Records the energy by a photochemical Records the energy electronically and
process easy to measure the amount of energy
Tedious process Fast and efficient process
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 Multi-Spectral Scanning
• Two main methods of scanning
– Across track scanning
– Along track scanning

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Across Track Scanning

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Across Track Scanning

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 Across Track Scanning
• As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor "sees" a certain portion of the
Earth's surface. The area imaged on the surface, is referred to as the swath.
• Uses optical – mechanical scanner
(known as Whiskbroom scanner)
• Imageries are recorded by the
combination of motion of platform and
a rotating mirror scanning perpendicular
to the platform direction.

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• Scans swath line by line perpendicular to flight direction
(track) – Across Track Scanner
• Scanning employs a optical system, spectrographic system,
scanning system, detector system and reference system

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• Rotating mirror – Detector gathers the information – measures
energy for each spectral band – converts electromagnetic
energy to electrical signal
• Scans and records pixel by pixel mechanically
• Instantaneous Field of View and altitude determine the
Ground resolution and thus the Spectral resolution
• Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV) – Angular cone of
visibility of the satellite and determines the area on the earth’s
surface which is seen from a given altitude at a particular time.
• Landsat MSS - First satellite to use this technique
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Along Track Scanning

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Along Track Scanning

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• CCD detector – Charge Coupled Device (image is projected
through the lens to a capacitor array and each capacitor
accumulates an electric charge corresponding to light intensity
at that location
• Scans and records line by line electronically using a linear
detector array
• CCD is a small light sensitive silicon chip
• Pushbroom scanner scans and records line by line
electronically using a linear detector array
• First pushbroom scanner used was the multi spectral electro
optical imaging scanner (MEIS) built by Canada
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 Whiskbroom scanners Vs Push broom scanners
Whiskbroom scanner
Has got mechanical parts that
leads to wear and tear in a long
run
Less spatial resolution as
compared
Optical mechanical system
Push broom scanner
No mechanical parts, so the
mechanical reliability is high
High spatial resolution
Micro electronic devices –
lighter, requires less power and
lasts long
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 Applications of Remote Sensing
FORESTRY
• Forest cover type determination
• Monitoring the health of forests for sustainability
• Burn Mapping
• Biodiversity assessment
MARINE AND COASTAL ZONE
• Marine and coastal zone management
• Information on coastal landforms, shoreline changes
• Tidal boundaries, brackish water areas
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• Identification of plant community
• Mapping of filmy material – oil spills
• Navigation routing for vessels
HYDROLOGY
• Offers view of spatial and dynamic distribution of
hydrological phenomenon often unattainable by
traditional ground surveys
• Degree of water pollution
• Mapping of snow/ice
• Monitoring the real extent of flooded areas 117
ATMOSPHERE MONITORING
• Understanding of weather and climatic conditions
• Water vapour, surface temperature, precipitation
LAND USE PATTERN
• Periodic updating and monitoring of existing land use
• Study urban growth and its trend
• Site suitability
• Slum detection, monitoring and updating
AGRICULTURE
• Classify crops types, crop yield estimation, crop health
and viability
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Application of Remote Sensing

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 Application of Remote Sensing

River Morphology

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