REVISREVISION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

(CUACE101)

Discuss any communication model you have studied

Linear model of communication

The linear or transmission model of communication, describes communication as a linear,

one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis &
McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender and message within a communication
encounter. Although the receiver is included in the model, this role is viewed as more of a
target or end point rather than part of an ongoing process. We are left to presume that the
receiver either successfully receives and understands the message or does not. The scholars
who designed this model extended on a linear model proposed by

Aristotle centuries before that included a speaker, message, and hearer. They were also
influenced by the advent and spread of new communication technologies of the time such as
telegraphy and radio, and you can probably see these technical influences within the model
(Shannon & Weaver, 1949). Think of how a radio message is sent from a person in the radio
studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio announcer who encodes a verbal
message that is transmitted by a radio tower through electromagnetic waves (the channel) and
eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an antenna and speakers in order to be
decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you receive their message or not, but if
the equipment is working and the channel is free of static, then there is a good chance that the
message was successfully received.

The sender sends a message to the receiver in a one-way format

The linear model of communication

Although the transmission model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the
creation of this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways,
which eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication.

Interactive model of communication

The interactive or interaction model of communication, describes communication as a

process in which participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning
by sending messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts
(Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the
interactive model incorporates feedback, which makes communication a more interactive,
two-way process. Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. For
example, your instructor may respond to a point you raise during class discussion or you may
point to the sofa when your roommate asks you where the remote control is. The inclusion of
a feedback loop also leads to a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver,
this model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates
roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. Although this
seems like a perceptible and deliberate process, we alternate between the roles of sender and
receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought.

The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the
linear model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was received,
the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact, this
model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of
them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore,
communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a
single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The sender and receiver alternate roles and feedback and context are included in this model.

The interactive model of communication

The interactive model takes physical and psychological context into account. Physical context
includes the environmental factors in a communication encounter. The size, layout,
temperature, and lighting of a space influence our communication. Imagine the different
physical contexts in which job interviews take place and how that may affect your
communication. I have had job interviews over the phone, crowded around a table with eight
interviewers, and sitting with few people around an extra-large conference table. I’ve also
been walked around an office to unexpectedly interview one-on-one, in succession, with
multiple members of a search committee over a period of three hours. Whether it’s the size of
the room or other environmental factors, it’s important to consider the role that physical
context plays in our communication. Psychological context includes the mental and
emotional factors in a communication encounter. Stress, anxiety, and emotions are just some
examples of psychological influences that can affect our communication. Seemingly positive
psychological states, like experiencing the emotion of love, can also affect communication.
Feedback and context help make the interaction model a more useful illustration of the
communication process, but the transaction model views communication as a powerful tool
that shapes our realities beyond individual communication encounters.

Transaction model of communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is
used to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers,
and we don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction
unfolds. We also can’t consciously decide to stop communicating because communication is
more than sending and receiving messages. The transaction model differs from the
transmission and interaction models in significant ways, including the conceptualization of
communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970).

The transaction model of communication describes communication as a process in which

communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts. In this
model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to create
relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with others in
dialogue to create communities.

The roles of sender and receiver in the transaction model of communication differ
significantly from the other models. Instead of labelling participants as senders and receivers,
the people in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the
interactive model, which suggests that participants alternate positions as
sender and receiver, the transaction model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and
receivers. This is an important addition to the model because it allows us to understand how
we are able to adapt our communication—for example, a verbal message—in the middle of
sending it based on the communication we are simultaneously receiving from our
communication partner.

The senders and receivers are labelled as communicators who are co-creating meaning
simultaneously within a broader relational, social, physical/psychological, and cultural
context

The transaction model also includes a more complex understanding of context. The
interaction model portrays context as physical and psychological influences that enhance or
impede communication. While these contexts are important, they focus on message
transmission and reception. Since the transaction model of communication views
communication as a force that shapes our realities before and after specific interactions occur,
it must account for contextual influences outside of a single interaction. To do this, the
transaction model considers how social, relational, and cultural contexts frame and influence
our communication encounters.

Social context refers to the stated rules or unstated norms that guide communication. Norms
are social conventions that we pick up on through observation, practice, and trial and error.
We may not even know we are breaking a social norm until we notice people looking at us
strangely or someone corrects or teases us. Relational context includes the previous
interpersonal history and type of relationship we have with a person. We communicate
differently with someone we just met versus someone we’ve known for a long time. Initial
interactions with people tend to be more highly scripted and governed by established norms
and rules, but when we have an established relational context, we may be able to bend or
break social norms and rules more easily. Cultural context includes various aspects of
identities such as race, gender, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, class, and ability. We
all have multiple cultural identities that influence our communication. Some people,
especially those with identities that have been historically marginalized, are regularly aware
of how their cultural identities influence their communication and influence how others
communicate with them. Conversely, people with identities that are dominant or in the
majority may rarely, if ever, think about the role their cultural identities play in their
communication. Cultural context is influenced by numerous aspects of our identities and is
not limited to race or ethnicity.

2 Compare and contrast the linear and transactional models of communication.

There are two models of communication: linear and transactional. Linear is very basic,
whereas, transactional builds upon it. In the linear model, the sender communicates to the
receiver. It is a one way channel. The examples in the book are radio and television
broadcasting. In the transactional model there are two people communicating to one another
simultaneously. Examples are: phone, email, letters and face to face communication. I think
that many people use this form of communication because it is more convenient. There are a
few problems when it comes to this form of communication though. It is very difficult when
receiving different types of messages, such as texts or emails because you can't see the person
you are communicating with and you don't know what type of body language, tone, or word
emphasis they are using. Channels also play a big role in this model. With technology
advancements, more and more people are using this communication method.

3 Explain the importance of referencing in academic writing.

The first reason is to trace the origin ideas and identify the original work that is referred to
writing paper. Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a student. A further reason is to
spread knowledge by reading different resources. Also, it opens a new window of knowledge
to the writer to identify resources related to academic writing paper and to the readers when
they follow the referencing list so they can have many different resources to read too.
Another reason for the importance of referencing is to indicate appreciation to the work of the
writers or authors by introducing their work. A final reason is related to avoid plagiarism.
The key reason for the importance of referencing in academic writing is related to tracing the
originality of ideas. Readers would feel comfortable when they identify the original work. It
will be clear to readers from which resources the evidence is taken from. The link of the
resource can show author name, the type of resources such as books, textbooks or journal
articles. It gives a page number and the year of publication. However, to trace the original
work, referencing has to be in an appropriate citation where the reader can locate the original
work without complications. Referencing shows an important part in locating and placing
ideas as well as arguments in writers’ social, geographical, historical and cultural contexts
(Neville, 2007). In paraphrasing, the writer has to cite from whom the main idea been
introduced so it becomes clear to readers to know this evidence.

4Explain the difference between referencing and in-text citation.

Citation vs Reference

As citation and reference are two important terms used in research methodology, the
difference between these two terms have to be understood clearly. Citation is a reference to a
published or unpublished source. It is generally an abbreviated alphanumeric expression
found in the pages of a thesis or a dissertation. The primary motive of citation is to exhibit
your intellectual honesty. On the other hand, reference consists of the act of referring.
Reference appears at the bottom of a page as a footnote as well as a list at the end of the
thesis or the paper you are writing.

What is Citation?

A citation is how you quote the source of the ideas within the body of the research paper.
Citation is included at the places wherever you quote from different authors. Normally, you
put the citation at the end of the sentence within brackets. Inside this bracket, the author’s
name, year the book was published or the page in which this particular extraction appeared
are included. What exactly comes inside this bracket is a decision made by the format you
follow in writing the paper. Different formats have different styles for citation. You can see
that from the following examples.

APA – ‘Her blood warmed the earth (Martin, 2014).’

MLA – ‘Her blood warmed the earth (Martin 263).’

The very purpose of citation lies in the fact that you are wilfully acknowledging the writer of
the work from whom you have borrowed a quotation.

What is Reference?

Reference consists of the act of referring. As a researcher, you refer to some books and
journals while writing the thesis or dissertation. As a matter of fact, you would include some
references in the pages of your thesis in the form of footnotes. The footnotes contain the
reference passages taken from the relevant books and journals from which you quote them.
At the end of each chapter, you would give the corresponding books and journals from which
you have picked the quotations mentioned in the footnotes. These are references. However,
you do not have footnotes in APA style. You only have a list called ‘References’ at the end.
Also, when it comes to the end list that gives references, there are small changes between
those lists in different styles too. This list of reference is normally known as the
Bibliography. In APA, this list is known, as mentioned earlier, as ‘References.’ In MLA, the
list is named ‘Works Cited.’ Also, APA reference list only contains the sources you have
actually cited in the text. In other lists of reference, normally the sources that were only
consulted are also included. Here are some examples of the way reference appears in these
end lists.

Difference between Citation and Reference

Citation vs Reference

Usually, references are included at the end of every chapter of a thesis or towards the end of
the thesis. The purpose of reference is only to let the reader of the thesis know the various
books from which you have quoted, from the list at the end or footnotes.

What is the difference between Citation and Reference?

It is customary to write the references in the preparation of research papers and dissertations.
It is important to note that both reference and citation contribute to the making of a thesis.
Both are equally important but in different senses. A reader of a thesis gets to know about the
authors and the subject while going through the reference and the citation. Remember, the
format of the citation and reference is decided according to the format of the paper you are
following.
• A citation is how you quote the source of the ideas within the body of the research paper.
Reference is the sources you have used to write the sources. These sources can include both
included and consulted sources. However, in APA, only included sources come under the
reference list.

• List of reference that appears at the end of an APA paper is known as References. List of
reference that appears at the end of a MLA paper is known as Works Cited. Citation is known
as citation in any format.

• Usually, references are included at the end of every chapter of a thesis or towards the end of
the thesis. On the other hand, citation is included at the places wherever you quote from
different authors.

• The very purpose of citation lies in the fact that you are wilfully acknowledging the writer
of the work from whom you have borrowed a quotation. On the other hand, the purpose of
reference is only to let the reader of the thesis know the various books from which you have
quoted, from the list at the end or footnotes.

5Examine the value of critical thinking in university education.

Critical thinking helps someone to think clearly and rationally. It is also the ability of
thinking clearly, independently and reflectively. It is lugubrious that most people
misunderstand critical thinking and normal thinking. There is a great difference between
critical and normal thinking. Below are some of the qualities of a good critical thinker.

People with good critical thinking skills should be able to:

Think actively and open minded

Explores situations with questions

Think Independently

Raise important questions and formulate them clearly

Views situations from different aspects of life

Identify the relevance and advantages of ideas

Supporting his views with evidence

Critical thinking is not all about accumulating ideas. Not all people with good memory, who
also have lot of facts are very good in critical thinking. A critical thinker should be able to
make good use of what he/she knows to solve various problems, and seek various sources of
information in order to inform himself.

Critical thinking should not be compared or mistaken to being argumentative or being able to
criticize other people. Though critical thinking skills can be used to expose false information
and rumours, it can also play a very important role in cooperative and constructive tasks.
Critical thinking helps people to acquire knowledge and strengthen one’s arguments. Critical
thinking skills can be used to improve social institutions and enhance work processes.

In academics, critical thinking allows people to understand and apply things instead of just
remembering and maybe later forgetting them. Being a good student requires thinking
critically about what is going on in your school and other institutions. It can be argued that
being a good human requires you to learn actively and make choices rationally.

Critical thinking in education also helps people to analyse interpret, observe and explain
concepts. Critical thinking also has deep effect to all the learning processes. In our lives,
critical thinking is advantageous because it helps us to overcome any form of deception.

Every successful university student is expected to be a very good critical thinker. Critical
thinker can be seen as someone who has the ability and capacity to think at a higher level.
Students are expected to think critically in such a way that their ideas would provide better
life for themselves and the people around them. Lots of people take thinking for granted but it
is very important. However, people tend to develop their thinking when they find out their
weakness and strengths.

Critical thinking also applies when someone is in search of competent school mate or class
mate. People often find it difficult to search for a reasonable course mate while some others
find it difficult in taking care of some academic challenges. This can be improved by
attacking the complex course of studying and sharing of ideas between one another and
charting each other understands to bring out best results.

When people read textbooks and some other vital materials like legal method, government,
history and so on, they are expected to use their skill in critical thinking to consider some
notable events and dates as some of these courses like history as mentioned above deals with
date and making precise description of the events that is being taught.
In some academic writings specifically English, students are expected to get used to spellings
correctly as English language is often seen as the universal language used nationwide for
communicating and writings.

Students in the university also use critical thinking when writing of notes and learning
actively. People who take and make good note for themselves often success in universities.
Some strategies a good college student can use when writing is jotting down main points
when a lecturer or a tutor is presenting lectures. These main points mainly serve as a support
when someone is trying to read what he must have learnt during the lectures.

College students are also required to use their skills in critical thinking when writing
assignments. Most students often plagiarise their assignments from friends, internet or
sometimes books which is not advisable. Students often see plagiarism as a minor offence
which is not true. Other people refer to plagiarism to as an academic fraud which am sure is
true. Plagiarism is really not acceptable for someone to successfully pass and make good
grades in the university.

In absence of critical thinking, most university students will not be able to do anything
reasonable in their academic environment. Thinking is very crucial to learning. Thinking
requires entire personality in people’s learning process. As Kabila rightly observes, “To
become proficient in a language learners need to use creative and critical thinking through the
target language.” Teaching students “how to think” rather than “what to think” is a way of
assessing their ways of thinking, researching and learning independently. Critical thinking
can therefore help in motivating students to learn and application of their knowledge.

Most lecturers or tutors see students as “empty vessels that needs refilling.” They mostly
focus on drilling students to memorise notes and make answers readily available. At times,
they tend to ignore student’s personality. As a result of this, student’s critical thinking skill is
never fully developed. Most students come into class silent minded and do not participate in
the interactive academic sections. This teaching approach is highly criticised by a writer
named Paulo Frere who sees it as “the banking approach.” Paulo rather suggested a
“dialogical approach” method of teaching because he thinks that would be the best.

From the essay above, critical thinking can simply be described as a desirable skill in ALL
aspects of university work because it is the only skill that will allow someone’s knowledge
and skill to develop and evolve. It’s necessary for one’s: Reading, Note making, Assignment
writing, Presentations, 7and lastly, for students whose studies involve a practical component.
7 Analyse any critical thinking model you have studied.

Why the Analysis of Thinking Is Important

Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased,
distorted, partial, uninformed, or downright prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and of what
we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking
is costly, both in money and in quality of life. If you want to think well, you must understand
at least the rudiments of thought, the most basic structures out of which all thinking is made.
You must learn how to take thinking apart.

All Thinking Is Defined by the Eight Elements That Make It Up

Eight basic structures are present in all thinking: Whenever we think, we think for a purpose
within a point of view based on assumptions leading to implications and consequences. We
use concepts, ideas and theories to interpret data, facts, and experiences in order to answer
questions, solve problems, and resolve issues.

Thinking, then:

Generates purposes

Raises questions

Uses information

Utilizes concepts

Makes inferences

Makes assumptions

Generates implications

Embodies a point of view

Open the "Elements and Standards" Online Model

Each of these structures has implications for the others. If you change your purpose or
agenda, you change your questions and problems. If you change your questions and
problems, you are forced to seek new information and data. If you collect new information
and data…

Why the Assessment of Thinking is Important

Once you have analysed thinking, you then need to assess it, using universal intellectual
standards. Reasonable persons judge reasoning using these standards. When you internalize
them and explicitly use them in your thinking, you’re thinking becomes clearer, more
accurate, more precise, more relevant, deeper, broader and fairer. You should note that we
generally focus on a selection of standards. Among others are credibility, sufficiency,
reliability, and practicality.

Using the Elements and Standards Online Model

The easy-to-use online model you will find at the following two links were developed to
further introduce you to the Elements of Reasoning and Universal Intellectual Standards, and
enable you to apply them to real life problems.

These pages are self-guided and self-paced, allowing you to move back and forth between the
elements and standards. When moving around in the model realize that the cursor will need
to be moved carefully around the wheel to keep from activating parts of the model you are
not focusing on at the moment. With some practice you will see how the model works and be
able to work with it effectively.

Open the "Elements and Standards" Online Model

Using the Elements and Standards to Analyse a Problem

An interactive extension of the Model Above, this tool will allow you to analyse a problem
by identifying each of the Elements of Thought you are using in your reasoning. Pay
attention to the intellectual standards as you do so. Your analysis and conclusions can be
viewed and printed in a report form when you have completed your analysis. You can save
the logics of multiple problems in the database and return to review them or update them at
any time.

Open the "Analysing a Problem" Online Model

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Foundation for Critical Thinking

Discuss the value of non-verbal communication in face-to-face communication.

Personality / Psychology & Mental Health / Uncommon Science

Most of all communication is nonverbal and it may be the most important way you interact
with others. There are many forms of nonverbal communication and they are part of what
makes us human.

They allow us to communicate with others despite language barriers or cultural differences.
They are a way to share what you’re feeling when you may not be able to say it. We use them
every day without even knowing it and they share our true intentions.

It’s been debated, but there’s always been the thought communication is 7% verbal, 38%
vocal, and 55% facial. Regardless of the actual numbers, it’s clear that what we say is not as
important as how we say it – and how we show it.

,, Facial Expression as a Form of Nonverbal Communication

Of all the different communication forms that are nonverbal, this might be the most
prominent. It is also one that has a universal understanding. Any people or culture can
understand a simple smile or frown.

Different cultures may have some variations on how facial expressions are interpreted, but
the core emotions shown through the face are universal. A smile is the same no matter where
you are in the world. If you frown in Moscow, it’s understood the same way if you were to
frown in Boston.
The face cannot hide a sense of joy or concern, and all people share these strong emotions.
Seeing a small child’s face fill with a sense of wonder and joy can be understood across any
age and culture. Facial expressions can convey our many feelings without having to say a
thing.

Gestures

Hand gestures can take on different meanings as you go around the world, but they are still an
important form of communicating. A wave, peace sign, or thumbs up can convey meaning
and are 2generally understood through different cultures. We see hand gestures as being able
to emphasize points, and they are used by politicians, and leaders the world over.

3. Paralinguistic

Paralinguistic aren’t what you say, but more how you say it. It doesn’t matter what language
you’re speaking, but your tone, loudness of voice, inflection, and pitch set the stage for what
you’re saying. It’s how we emphasize how we are feeling and it can be as important as the
words we use.

Using a softness to your voice can help comfort those in distress and help calm them. The
words you choose in those situations are always important, but it might be how they are
delivered that conveys your true intent.

4. Body Language

The way you present yourself with your body may communicate more about you than you
could ever do with words. Simple things like your posture give insights into how you’re
feeling and the impression you want to convey.

Standing with crossed arms and legs shows you to be closed off and unapproachable. While
sitting or standing with your arms open can allow others in. Someone who is leaning, or
slumping their shoulders, can convey they are bored and it shows how powerful nonverbal
communication really is.

5. Proxemics
This might be an unfamiliar word, but you probably know it better as ‘personal space‘.
Everyone has their own preference as to how comfortable they are when people get close to
them. This is a form of nonverbal communication that may work better than words.

Standing too close to someone may bring on feelings of discomfort and you’ll be able to pick
up on this by seeing them move away. You can also see this with people speaking to groups:
they may have to move back a little from everyone and this is the way they convey the space
level they need to feel comfortable.

6. Eye Gaze

Eye gaze is another form of communication that is nonverbal and universal. Keeping eye
contact with someone shows that you are engaged and interested while not maintaining it
shows the opposite. Keeping eye contact can also be a form of authority and a way to signify
dominance over someone else.

It is a powerful way to communicate without ever having to say a word. If you’re wanting to
gauge if someone is interested in you, you can just watch their eye gaze. People who feel
attracted to one another have their pupils dilate and their blinking increase. You may say you
feel a certain way, but the body never lies.

7. Communicating Through Touch

We also know this as ‘haptic ‘and it can be a way to share warmth with another person. A
soft touch can convey more in a brief second than 100 words. A gentle touch from another
person may stay with you for a long time. Nothing needs to be said, but we can share
everything in that one touch.

We as humans require physical contact, not only to boost our mood but for reassurance and
security. Touch is a basic human requirement and a very important part of communicating.

We touch to share love, affection, and familiarity. Touch is used to comfort others and to
communicate how we are feeling while saying nothing. We can use even

Explain any three categories of non-verbal communication you have studied.

Gestures
Hand gestures can take on different meanings as you go around the world, but they are still an
important form of communicating. A wave, peace sign, or thumbs up can convey meaning
and are 2generally understood through different cultures. We see hand gestures as being able
to emphasize points, and they are used by politicians, and leaders the world over.

7. Communicating Through Touch

We also know this as ‘haptic ‘and it can be a way to share warmth with another person. A
soft touch can convey more in a brief second than 100 words. A gentle touch from another
person may stay with you for a long time. Nothing needs to be said, but we can share
everything in that one touch.

We as humans require physical contact, not only to boost our mood but for reassurance and
security. Touch is a basic human requirement and a very important part of communicating.

We touch to share love, affection, and familiarity. Touch is used to comfort others and to
communicate how we are feeling while saying nothing. We can use even

Body Language

The way you present yourself with your body may communicate more about you than you
could ever do with words. Simple things like your posture give insights into how you’re
feeling and the impression you want to convey.

Standing with crossed arms and legs shows you to be closed off and unapproachable. While
sitting or standing with your arms open can allow others in. Someone who is leaning, or
slumping their shoulders, can convey they are bored and it shows how powerful nonverbal
communication really is.

Argue for the importance of communication in formal organisations.

Effective Communication is significant for managers in the organizations so as to perform the

basic functions of management, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Leading and Controlling.

Communication helps managers to perform their jobs and responsibilities. Communication

serves as a foundation for planning. All the essential information must be communicated to
the managers who in-turn must communicate the plans so as to implement them. Organizing
also requires effective communication with others about their job task. Similarly leaders as
managers must communicate effectively with their subordinates so as to achieve the team
goals. Controlling is not possible without written and oral communication.

Managers devote a great part of their time in communication. They generally devote
approximately 6 hours per day in communicating. They spend great time on face to face or
telephonic communication with their superiors, subordinates, colleagues, customers or
suppliers. Managers also use Written Communication in form of letters, reports or memos
wherever oral communication is not feasible.

Thus, we can say that “effective communication is a building block of successful

organizations”. In other words, communication acts as organizational blood.

The importance of communication in an organization can be summarized as follows:

Communication promotes motivation by informing and clarifying the employees about the
task to be done, the manner they are performing the task, and how to improve their
performance if it is not up to the mark.

Communication is a source of information to the organizational members for decision-

making process as it helps identifying and assessing alternative course of actions.

Communication also plays a crucial role in altering individual’s attitudes, i.e., a well-
informed individual will have better attitude than a less-informed individual. Organizational
magazines, journals, meetings and various other forms of oral and written communication
help in moulding employee’s attitudes.

Communication also helps in socializing. In today’s life the only presence of another
individual fosters communication. It is also said that one cannot survive without
communication.

As discussed earlier, communication also assists in controlling process. It helps controlling

organizational member’s behaviour in various ways. There are various levels of hierarchy
and certain principles and guidelines that employees must follow in an organization. They
must comply with organizational policies, perform their job role efficiently and communicate
any work problem and grievance to their superiors. Thus, communication helps in controlling
function of management.

An effective and efficient communication system requires managerial proficiency in

delivering and receiving messages. A manager must discover various barriers to
communication, analyse the reasons for their occurrence and take preventive steps to avoid
those barriers. Thus, the primary responsibility of a manager is to develop and maintain an
effective communication system in the organization.

Establish the value of informal communication in organisations.

For the following reasons, informal communication system is given most importance now a
days

1. Completeness of Formal Communication: In modern age, an organization cannot fully

depend on one type of communication system.

In+ order to complete any formal communication, informal communication and grapevine
communication provides a huge boost to organizational employees.

2. Organizational Solidarity: The existence of informal communication proves that the

workers are interested in their association.

The important fact is that they talk among themselves and help to promote organizational
solidarity. If properly used, it may raise the morale of the workers.

3. Supplement to other channels: All information cannot be transmitted to the employees

through the official channels. If there is some useful information unsuitable for being
transmitted through official channels, it can be transmitted through the informal channel.

4. Quick Transmission: The speed at which informal communication is transmitted is just

remarkable.

Just select a leader and give him some information, cleverly describing it as 'Top Secret', and
within minutes, it will spread like wild fire to all.

5. Feedback: Informal communication provides feedback to the management. It enables

management to know what the subordinates think about the organization and its various
activities.

Increased Efficiency: Such communication helps to solve various complex issues existing in
any organization. It opens the door for mutual communication between uperiors and
subordinates. Therefore, subordinates feel free to interact frankly which can influence their
efficiency.
7. Prompt Solution: Employees can put forward their various complaints and superiors can
give prompt solution accordingly. This helps a lot for creating a congenial working and
communication environment.

8. Better Working Environment: Informal communication is free from any pressure and
hazard. This helps the sender and receiver to resolve their respective problem mutually.

9. Spontaneous Attitude: People involved with informal communication do not hesitate to

exchange views and ideas as there is no pressure to all. They have open mind to share
information with positive attitude.

10. Development of Personal Relation: Informal communication is very much helpful to

create intimacy.

Communicator and communicate come closer to each other to express their views. This helps
to develop personal relation.

For the above reasons, Informal communication is desired and conducted in any organization.
It has a lot of benefits if it can be controlled in a proper way.

Evaluate the importance of social media in organisational communication.

Social Media and Big Business

An interesting info graphic recently posted by our market outlined the good, the bad, and the
ugly about social media and big business. Noting this tension between the pro- and anti-social
media groups, the info graphic states: “While social media is a powerful branding and
engagement tool that can make or break a brand’s reputation, it alone can’t resolve a
business’s need to drive revenue”.

Of course, organizations can’t expect social media to function as their entire marketing or
customer engagement strategy. Rather, it’s one important part of a much larger strategy. Once
incorporated into a larger marketing or engagement initiative, social media can deliver
significant value to both the organization and the customer.

Enabling Employees

Internally, social apps can help create a socially charged work atmosphere that fosters
collaboration and innovation. Social apps provide employees with spaces where they can
engage with each other, discuss ideas, express themselves, and more.
At Open Text, we use Open Text Tempo Social to share information, videos, and resources,
post blogs, participate in discussion forums and more.

Social media tools such as Content Server Pulse give customers another, and far more
personal, way to interact with the organization. Social apps gives employees the tools they
need to connect with one another and with customers, and to access the wealth of knowledge
within the organization. Social media helps us to quickly and efficiently share content and
information with each other and with customers.

It also gives customers a tangible, easy-to-use voice. With social media, customers can
provide instant feedback on their experience, and can rest assured that their ideas and
concerns are being heard. Through social media, we have the opportunity to create personal
and lasting relationships with our customers—relationships that help us to provide better
products, better support, and a better customer experience.

Explain how an organisation can benefit from computer mediated communication.

For many years, CMC has been a debatable issue. It is seen as a double edged sword. As the
Chinese proverb goes, ‘Water can float a boat, but also sink it’, CMC has its own share of
advantages and disadvantages. In this post, I will attempt to address the pros and cons of
CMC in the context of UNIMAS students and staff.

Advantages:

CMC disregards time and place dependence. Compared to face-to-face communication, CMC
is not restricted in terms of time and place. This means that communication can happen
anytime, anywhere. Two communicating people do not need to be available at the same time
in order to communicate. They do not need to be at the same place either. A very good
example would be communication between lecturers and students. During semester breaks,
students would be miles away from their lecturers. However, when the need arise, students
could easily approach their lecturers via emails or more simply, just through Facebook. For
that same reason, many lecturers are also taking it to Facebook to communicate with their
students. For example, lecturers use Facebook to spread information or instructions.

CMC ensures superiority in reach. Compared to face-to-face communication, CMC enables

users to reach out to a vast number of receivers simultaneously. This is particularly useful
when it comes to informing a large group of people about the same thing. For example, if a
lecturer wants to inform about a sudden cancellation of class, it makes more sense to use
Facebook for this purpose instead of the more unreliable word of mouth. The lecturer’s first-
hand message can reach a large amount of student at the same time, compared to
irregularities that might happen when a message gets passed around by students.

CMC facilitates the archive of information. Previous conversations can be kept for future
reference. A good example that I personally experience would be when doing group
assignments. When passing out instructions, or receiving instructions from someone else, it is
always better to use a written medium so that we could always refer back to the instruction
when needed to (especially when we forget). It also saves the communicator some time and
effort from having to say the same thing over and over again. My guess would be this is why
many UNIMAS students are using What Sapp as their main medium of assignment
discussion (including and especially myself).

CMC breaks down the barriers of communication. It helps one to overcome the relationship
initiation barriers that are caused by reasons such as shyness, appearance or physical
limitations. I believe that many UNIMAS students share the problem of shyness when trying
to approach lecturers. For some, talking to lecturers are worse than trying to overcome the
Fear Factor. This is particularly worst the higher the lecturers’ positions, or the more
unapproachable they deem the lecturers to be. Therefore, for many students, emailing or
sending a Facebook message to the lecturers are a much appreciated alternative. Obviously,
this shouldn’t be preached in the long run, but for now, students would choose whatever gets
things done. On the other hand, studies worldwide have noted that CMC provided a platform
so that even students with hearing or speech impairment can engage in text-based
communication online without a mediator.

Disadvantages:

CMC limits the richness of communication. Communication is not all about text and words.
CMC is long noted to be lacking in terms of socio-emotional and non-verbal cues.
Misunderstandings might happen due to wrong interpretations of the tone and meaning of
words. For instance, one person might say something as a joke, but another person on the
other side might deduce it as a fact. Misunderstandings and unintended unfriendliness might
also arise particularly when dealing with late or short replies in asynchronous
communication. For example, when I get a short reply from someone I’m talking to on
Facebook, I constantly worry that my conversation is bothering them, even if the other party
does not actually have that feeling and might just be busy with something else.
The issue of confidentiality and trust. When we communicate via CMC, we are really putting
ourselves out there. Phone and video calls can be taped, messages can be screen shot or copy
pasted. In short, we have no idea what the other party can and will do with information we
just shared with them. We cannot fully trust that the other party is telling the truth, because
we cannot see what is really going on the other side. Let’s give a simple example. A group
had just found out an ingenious way of doing a creative assignment. However, the idea was
shared on What Sapp, and one group member showed it to others even though it was
previously agreed that none of them would expose their secret. In the end, several groups got
high marks because of one man’s idea. Now imagine another situation, a girl confesses to a
guy, and he pretends to reject her kindly, but behind the screen, he is laughing together with
his friends.

There is also limitations in technology. Computers might get spoilt, Internet servers might be
down, smartphones might be out of battery, the possibilities are endless. There are a lot of
things that could happen to cause a setback in CMC. For example, a few semesters ago,
UNIMAS’s own Morpheus was down for an entire week soon after the semester reopened,
and it caused difficulties to students and lecturers. Nothing could be shared via that portal. It
is equally easy for one to avoid communication with other people. Just ignore the
notifications on both smartphones and computers and you are set. The sender cannot get
through to you until you are ready to receive the message. This just goes to show how
limiting and unreliable CMC is when it comes to emergencies.

In my opinion, CMC cannot and should not replace face-to-face human interaction. CMC is
an unavoidable part of our daily communication, and it also a tool that we use to simplify our
lives. Care must be taken that we do not become over dependent on CMC in our daily
communications. As responsible human beings, we must also make sure that we do not abuse
the comfort CMC had given us.

What is your stand about this issue? Do you think that the advantages outweighs the
disadvantages? I would love to know if CMC had ever saved your life. Or have you been
thoroughly failed by it before?

Examine the potential threats of computer mediated communication to organisations.

As workplace computer-mediated communication (CMC) rises, negative behaviours

associated with toxic disinhibit ion effect (TDE) occur (Super, 20014). Behaviours include
bullying and flaming, which affect workplace productivity, and can lead to claims of hostile
work environments. Laws shifting in favour of victims require managers and Human
Resource staff to face these challenges. Potential solutions include policies designed to
prevent the behaviours and CMC technologies such as videoconferencing and webcams to
increase social presence and decrease dehumanization. LESS

Explain any five factors which can be used to evaluate electronic sources of information.

Below is a chart listing key questions for each of the six criteria.

Authority Is it clear who is responsible for the

contents of the page?

Is there a way of verifying the legitimacy

of the organization, group, company or
individual?

Is there any indication of the author's

qualifications for writing on a particular
topic?

Is the information from sources known to

be reliable?
Accuracy Are the sources for factual information
clearly listed so they can be verified in
another source?

Is the information free of grammatical,

spelling, and other typographical errors?
Objectivity Does the content appear to contain any
evidence of bias?

Is there a link to a page describing the

goals or purpose of the sponsoring
organization or company?
 If there is any advertising on the page, is it
clearly differentiated from the
informational content?
Currency Are there dates on the page to indicate
when the page was written, when the page
was first placed on the Web, or when the
page was last revised?
Coverage Are these topics successfully addressed,
with clearly presented arguments and
adequate support to substantiate them?

Does the work update other sources,

substantiate other materials you have
read, or add new information?

Is the target audience identified and

appropriate for your needs?
Appearance Does the site look well organized?

Do the links work?

Does the site appear well maintained?

Write a progress report on the task you have been given by your manager.

1. Introduction

This part provides an overview of the contents of the progress report. It’s best to write this
after you’ve completed all the other parts of the report. That way, you’ll be able to provide an
accurate summary.

2. Accomplishments

Numbers and details are your friends, especially when writing this section of the progress
report. The accomplishments you write should correspond to your goals.
3. Goals

What were your goals for the period covered by the report? This could be a goal for the day,
week, month, or quarter. On the other hand, it could be a team goal, too.

4. Roadblocks

Explain what situations, if any, prevented you from achieving your goals, or may prevent you
from reaching this month’s targets.

But don’t stop there. Be proactive and present an action plan and timeline for resolving the
roadblocks. Include details, such as funds, materials, and human resources you may need to
implement the solution.

To guide you better, here are progress report template examples that are visually attractive
and highly readable.

Daily progress report

A daily progress report includes your goals for the day, as well as your accomplishments the
previous day. It also explains challenges encountered in performing tasks and achieving
goals.

Another section under the daily progress report is ‘lessons learned’. These need to be directly
related to the day’s tasks and challenges, as well as to the previous day’s accomplishments.

Write a proposal to your manager suggesting strategies your organisation can use to
enhance productivity in the context of restrictions imposed by COVID 19.

State your purpose. Do this clearly and concisely so that the reader knows immediately why
you are writing.

Give some background information. Explain why you are proposing your suggestion so that
the reader has a better understanding of the problem.

State a solution to the problem. This is where you give specifics about your suggestion.

Show costs. Lay out any costs that will be involved.

Conclusion. Wrap it up by restating the problem and the proposed solution.

Explain any five factors that cause conflicts in organisations.

1. Competition for Scarce Resources 2. Time Pressure 3. Unreasonable Standards, Policies,

Rules or Procedures 4. Communications Breakdowns 5. Personality Clashes 6. Ambiguous or
Overlapping Jurisdictions 7. Unrealized Expectations

8. Competition for Resources 9. Task Interdependence 10. Status Problems 11. Individual
Traits 12. Inter-Relation-Dependence of Departments 13. Ambiguous Objectives and Goals
14. Individual Differences

ADVERTISEMENTS:

15. Absence of Time Management 16. Lack of Accurate Forecasting of Eventualities 17.
Employees Dissatisfaction 18. Poorly Defined Responsibilities, Authority and Role 19.
Undesirable Demands of Trade Union / Workers 20. Poorly Defined System of Payment 21.
Lack of Discipline and Rules and Regulation

22. Faulty Performance Appraisal and Reward System 23. Poor, Imbalanced Authority /
Power Distribution 24. Privacy Policy 25. Quality of Work Life – QWL 26. Conformity Issue
27. Job Enrichment 28. Undue Control.

Causes of Organizational Conflict – Competition for Scarce Resources, Time Pressure,

Communications Breakdowns, Personality Clashes and a Few Other Causes

Using a relevant diagram, explain the conflict development cycle.

T
 Tension development. Parties begin taking sides.

Role dilemma. People involved start asking questions: what is happening, who is right, what
should be done? ...

Injustice collecting. Each side seeks to gather support. ...

Confrontation. The parties meet head-on. ...

Adjustments. Confrontation may be lessened or avoided by one or both parties making

adjustments. ...

Explain any four conflict handling strategies you have studied.

What Are the Five Conflict Resolution Strategies?

Avoiding. Someone who uses a strategy of "avoiding" mostly tries to ignore or sidestep the
conflict, hoping it will resolve itself or dissipate.

Accommodating

Compromising

Competing

Collaborating
Analyse the value of the participatory approach to development. (for Section B)

Public participation increases the likelihood that actions taken or services provided by public
agencies more adequately reflect the needs of people and that the benefits of development are
more equitably shared. Equitable sharing of resources and benefits is also an issue of
sustainable development.

A good participatory approach improves motivation, increases learning and feelings of

ownership and enables community empowerment. By raising awareness about the water or
sanitation issues, it enables the users to make an 'informed choice' about what will become
their system. Mar 26, 2020

Explain strategies you would use to present technical information to a non-technical

audience. (Section B)

1. Use humour and humility to better explain technical information

Whenever you need to talk about code or present technical information, always strive to
make your audience feel more comfortable. To break the ice, jokingly acknowledge the fact
that you’re a “computer nerd” or “tech geek” and apologize in advance if you get too
technical.

2. be attentive to your audience throughout your presentation

As you present, pay close attention to your audience’s social and facial cues.

By reading the room, you can adjust your content accordingly. Whenever you share your
technical know-how with a non-technical audience, the goal is to be conversational. Even if
you’ve explained the technology to people hundreds of times and know the subject matter
inside and out, the person you’re currently talking to might be hearing about it for the first
time. Always present with passion and enthusiasm.

3. Incorporate storytelling when sharing technical information

When you have a lot of data or information to share, resist feeding it to your audience with a
firehouse. Take time to allow them to wrap their head around your subject, avoiding the urge
to cram every detail on a slide and just reading it aloud

4. Use visual content to explain technical information and processes

Written content and verbal explanations are both essential ways to communicate ideas.

However, when your goal is to simplify technical information, working to visualize your
concepts can be a much more effective communication medium. Why? Visual content is
easier to learn and more frequently recalled than concepts learned by reading or just being
told.

5. Avoid technical jargon when possible

Although it may be second nature for you to throw out acronyms like GCP and DBMS,
certain terminology may confuse or disengage the less technically savvy members of your
audience. Take some time to make sure your audience understands the context of the
situation.

6. Focus on impact when explaining technical concepts

Remember, information that might be fascinating to you might not be fascinating (or
relevant) to your audience.

When discussing technology, it’s more helpful to highlight what makes it a worthwhile
investment rather than how it works. Let’s say, for example, that you were suggesting the
adoption of new patching, suppressing, and monitoring protocols for your network, you
should focus your discussion

Establish the merits of the diffusion approach to development. (Section B)

The diffusion of innovation theory provides five reasons why an individual might choose to
adopt a product.

Relative advantage: The new product is perceived as more useful than existing products.

Compatibility: The new product is perceived as compatible with their lifestyle. Successful
innovations are easy to adopt, they don’t require a huge change in how things are done or the
purchase of additional products to make them work.

Complexity: The more difficult it is to learn how to use a product the greater the barrier to
adoption.

Trial ability: Can the product be tried out before it is adopted? Allowing people to explore
your innovation before they purchase lowers the barrier to innovation.
Observability: Are there tangible results that can be measured by adopting the product? The
better the results from the innovation they lower the barrier to adoption.

Diffusion of Innovation Examples

Let’s take a look at using the model to work out how to improve the adoption of a product.

Improving the adoption of a product is different for every business and every product.
Because each and every situation is unique, you have to do what is right for you.

Let’s take a look at two examples; one for a new start up and one for a mature product.

Example 1: New Start-up + New Product

Imagine you run a start-up that is launching an innovative smart watch. You have done some
market testing with innovators, and are very confident in your product, and want to increase
sales and maximize adoption.

The adoption curve shows you need to begin to engage with early adopters. The idea is to
maximize adoption in this group and encourage them to tell others about the smart watch.

Early adopters tend to be social, have money, and have connections. A plan to get them using
the product might include:

Reaching out directly to influential influencers and asking them to try your product.

Clearly communicating how the smart watch has all the attributes of innovation.

Paying for early adopters to trial the product and asking for product reviews to be shared with
their audience.

Inviting innovators to a launch event.

Advertising on media channels that early adopters inhabit, such as blogs.

Now you have a plan you can engage with early adopters with the ultimate aim of reaching
the tipping point of adoption.

Example: Mature Company + Product Evolution

Imagine Microsoft wants to launch a new version of the Surface laptop.

This new version of the product will cost more to purchase than the existing version, but it
will also contain new features and improved performance.

Because of this Microsoft could choose to adopt a two-pronged approach.

Continue to push the existing Surface laptop to later adopters and laggards. This push could
be enhanced by offering a 30-day free trial and by reducing the price of the current model.

Soft launch the new model, offering them free to early adopters, with the aim of building up
huge demand amongst the remaining early adopters and early majority when the product is
finally released publically. When the soft launch is concluded, conduct a big launch at scale
accompanied by adverts across all media channels.

Advantages and Disadvantages

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages associated with the diffusion of
innovation theory.

Advantages

The theory is well established and is based on thousands of examples, so it can be considered
to be somewhat reliable.

The theory can inform product marketing. Each adopter group can be targeted with specific
communications that build trust and accelerate the adoption of a product.

Disadvantages

It can be challenging to determine the actual reasons for the adoption of an innovative
product because social systems are very complex.

The innovators and early adopters typically account for just 16% of the potential adoption
population. Relatively, this is a small cohort to rely upon to gain the exposure needed for a
product to take off.

The diffusion of innovations theory is a model that explains how, why, and at what rate new
ideas and technology spread.

The theory characterizes five different groups of adopters. A product spreads into a
marketplace via acceptance from one group to the next.
The theory can be used to help organizations speed up the rate of adoption by working
closely with the product’s current segment.

Explain any five elements of a technical report. (Section B)

Letter of Transmittal 2. Title Page 3. Abstract 4. Table of Contents 5. List of Illustrations 6.

Executive Summary 7. Glossary and List of Symbols 8. Appendix.

Element # 1. Letter of Transmittal:

The letter of transmittal introduces the purpose and content of the report to the principal
reader, usually (but not always) the person who requested the report. The letter is attached to
the report or simply placed on top of it. Some organizations prefer a memo format if the
report is intra-organizational.

Element # 2. Title Page:

The only difficulty in creating the title page is to think of a good title. The other blocks of
information – the date of submission, the names and positions of the writer (or organization)
and the principal reader (or organization) are simply identifying information

Element # 3. Abstract:

An abstract is a brief technical summary – usually no more than 200 words – of the report.
The abstract of a report is directed primarily to readers who are familiar with the technical
subject and need to know whether to read the full report.

Element # 4. Table of Contents:

This element is crucial to the report because it enables different readers to turn to specific
pages to find the information they want. No matter how well organized the report itself may
be, a table of contents that does not make the structure clear will be ineffective.

Element # 5. List of Illustrations:

A list of illustrations is a table of contents for the figures and tables of a report. If the report
contains figures, but not tables, the list is called a list of figures. If the report contains tables
but not figures, the list is called a list of tables. If the report contains both figures and tables,
figures are listed separately, before the list of tables, and the two lists together are called a list
of illustrations.
Element # 6. Executive Summary:

The executive summary (sometimes called the epitome, the executive overview, the
management summary, or the management overview) is a one page condensation of the
report. Its audience is made up of managers who rely on executive summaries to cope with
the tremendous amount of paper crossing their desk every day.

Element # 7. Glossary and List of Symbols:

A glossary is an alphabetical list of definitions. Such a list is particularly useful if you are
addressing a multiple audience that includes readers who will not be familiar with the
technical vocabulary used in your report.

Element # 8. Appendix:

An appendix is any section that follows the body of the report and the back matter (i.e.
bibliography, glossary, list of symbols). Appendixes provide a convenient way to convey
information that is too bulky to be presented in the body or that will be of interest to only a
small number of the report’s readers.

Discuss the view that communication is a critical skill in effective leadership. (Section C.)

Communication is a critical characteristic that a leader must possess to ensure business

success. Why? Without communication skills, a leader is unable to foster positive
engagement, enhance motivation and produce innovative ideas from their employees. When
leaders have the inability to communicate effectively, the result often leads to a negative
working environment.

Provide proper information and explain

The more information employees have, the more they increase their ability to comprehend the
work at hand as well as to allow your employees to contribute in a more effective and
efficient manner. If you want to challenge employees or produce innovative changes, it is not
sufficient to just state so. You need to reach out and provide information that exactly explains
what you want from them.

Be an effective listener
Leaders that don’t listen don’t actually learn anything. Great leaders are intrinsically aware
when to pipe it down, turn it up and at times turn it off. Leaders that don’t make listening to
an important aspect of their communication style, run the risk of creating unnecessary
problems and misunderstandings. It is a must to be able to effectively engage with your
employees. You want to be an approachable leader whereby employees are able to
interactively voice their concerns and ask questions. Learn to be attentive and patient with
your employees, so that the working environment runs in a smoother fashion. Being an
effective listener allows you to give better direction

Lead by example

Being a great leader is not enough to tell your employees how things should be done, but to
actually show them. If you want your employees to be organized, attentive, punctual, and
professional or provide awesome customer service, you should be able to display those same
qualities. Leading by example is displayed when sending the right message to your
employees through your own interaction and behaviour.

Be trustworthy and transparent

An employee’s relationship with their leader should be one that is built on trust and
transparency. When trust is instilled in the working environment, your employees are more
willing to embrace your direction and vision for the future. Being a transparent leader, with
no hidden intentions, allow your employees to feel comfortable and secure. Increased
employee morale permits higher levels of productivity and motivation to yield better results.

Be fair and objective

Successful leaders shy away from favouritism. Your goal should provide a support system
that aims at achieving goals and objectives through teamwork. Situations do often arise where
employees are more confident than others or able to produce superior results. However, that
does not denote that they are bed-and-end-all of a business’s forefront to excellence. To be a
great leader, you should encourage all employees, in a fair and objective way, to work
together and bring about the best possible strategies to cultivate a successful business. It’s
about inspiring action and driving the same vision by all!

Be respectful
Positive working relationships are also built on respect. Work environments today are of a
diverse nature; differing genders, ages, cultures, and experiences. Each individual has
something unique to bring to the businesses operation. Be mindful of employee’s opinions by
respecting their input, whether good or not. Value and praise them for their contributions.
This, in turn, enhances employees to increase their desires to bring more creative and
innovative ideas to the table.

Establish the link between corporate success and communication. (Section C)

Make Small Changes and See a Big Difference

It takes time, effort and sometimes a little financial investment to develop a culture of
effective communication in a company. Many of these changes will not happen overnight.
However, there are some small steps you can take to improve communication in your
workplace that you can implement relatively easily — and that may make a real difference.

Improved Performance Management

Companies that foster a culture of communication and ongoing feedback will be rewarded
with more productive and motivated employees. Effective performance management requires
good communication between managers and employees, not just during the appraisal process
but on a day-to-day basis.

Better Management of Remote Workers

Remote working effective communication an increasing number of businesses are offering

flexible working arrangements, such as remote working. While this is fast becoming one of
the most attractive “perks” an employer can offer, remote workers may become isolated and
unproductive without effective communication and management.

Promotes Innovation

Brainstorming image 111000Businesses that rely on the ideas of one person rarely succeed.
Innovation comes from the collective efforts of people with varied skills, knowledge,
experience and personalities.

Explain any three persuasive communication appeals you have studied. (Section C)

Ethos, Pathos, Logos: The three pillars of persuasive communication

Ethos
Ethos, or the appeal to ethics, refers to the effort to convince your audience of your credibility
or character. Before you can convince an audience to accept anything you say, they have to
accept you. Whether you are creating a flier, giving a presentation, applying for a job, or
teaching a workshop, people won’t be persuaded by you unless they trust you. When it comes
to communication, trust can be built in a number of ways. It is up to you to understand how
you need to respond in each situation and adapt accordingly.

Pathos

Pathos, or the appeal to emotions, refers to the effort to persuade your audience by making an
appeal to their feelings. Your audience is more receptive to being persuaded by someone with
whom they can identify. Pathos can be used in a variety of ways (to promote positive and
negative feelings) as it is the Greek word for referring both to “suffering” and “experience”.
When you use pathos to persuade your audience, you need to make them feel an emotion in
order to act. Any emotion can cause people to act, (happiness, compassion, nostalgia, anger
etc.) even in a ‘small scale’.

Logos

Logos, or the appeal to logic, refers to the effort to convince your audience by using logic and
reason. Effective arguments should include testimonials, surveys and other supporting details
to back up your claims/positions. Logos means to document your point through storytelling,
logical arguments, facts, recorded evidence, historical data and literal analogies.

When using logos to persuade, you need to ensure that you have found facts, stories and
information that ‘matter’ to your audience and that you will present them in a way that makes
sense (to them).

Examine the value of persuasive communication to product marketing. (Section C)

What is persuasion marketing?

Persuasion marketing applies what we know about human psychology to develop techniques
to market products or services. In this case, it specifically applies to the promotions aspect of
the marketing mix, and builds on a customer’s impulsive behaviour to lead them to purchase.
In terms of Internet commerce, persuasion marketing includes how a web page is designed.
Again, applying human psychology to web design—focusing on the part of the decision-
making process that’s not consciously controlled—elements such as layout, copy, and
typography, combined with the right promotional messages, encourage website visitors to
follow pre-planned pathways on the website, and take specific actions, rather than giving
them free reign of choice in how they interact with the website. (See also Consumer
Psychology