Professional Documents
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Dow ell
INTRODUCTION
Coiled tubing (CT) has become a widely accepted and routinely prescribed tool for well service and work-over operations
in many areas of the world. What was originally developed in the early 1960’s as a means of entering live wells for the purpose
of removing sand bridges has evolved into a multi-faceted technology. The traditional CT well intervention, or workover
applications, still account for over three-quarters of CT work, however, the use of CT technology for completion and drilling
applications is rapidly becoming technically feasible and economically viable.
This extension of CT technology from well-intervention to drilling and completion applications has been achieved within a
relatively short time, largely due to the close cooperation of oil companies, CT service companies, and equipment
manufacturers in developing innovative tools and techniques, and in improving the performance and reliability of the CT
equipment.
Since 1981, ARCO has been directly involved with the development of several innovative CT applications intended to
resolve specific wellbore, reservoir or production related issues. This involvement has helped to expand the knowledge and
capabilities of existing CT well-intervention techniques, and helped push the frontiers of new CT applications, such as CT
completions and CT drilling. In each case, the resulting benefits reinforce an ARCO belief that CT technology can, when
intelligently applied with a clear purpose, play a major part in the future progress of our oil and gas production industry.
The intent of this manual is to provide the reader with an overview of CT service development and a basic understanding
of a technology that is continuing to expand and evolve into a critical part of the oilfield. Within this introduction section
reference has been made to key elements, companies, and circumstances that have played a key role in the development
of CT equipment and services. In this, every effort has been made to provide information that is current and accurate.
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INTRODUCTION Dow ell
Basics of Coiled Tubing contra-rotating chains, a design that is still used by the
majority of CT units today. The stripper was a simple,
Perhaps the major driving force behind the origination of CT annular-type sealing device that could be hydraulically
as a basic concept was an understandable desire to activated to seal around the tubing at relatively low well-
perform remedial work on a live well. In order to do this, head pressures.
three key elements would have been required:
The tubing string used for this early model was fabricated
• A continuous conduit which can be inserted into the by butt-welding 50 ft sections of 1-3/8-in. OD pipe into a
wellbore (CT string). 15,000 ft string and spooling onto a reel with a 9 ft diameter
core.
• A means of running and retrieving the string into the
wellbore under pressure (injector head). Although this was the first operational CT unit, it was based
on concepts and ideas that had been previously developed
• A device capable of providing a dynamic seal around the for other purposes as early as 1944.
tubing string (stripper).
Prior to the Allied invasion of Europe in 1944, engineers
Coiled tubing technology is based on the use of a continu- developed and produced very long, continuous pipelines for
ous, flexible steel tube (the CT string) which is coiled on a transporting fuel from England to the European Continent to
reel for transport and storage. The surface end of the CT supply the Allied armies.
string is connected to a high-pressure swivel joint on the
reel hub to enable fluids to be pumped through the string - PLUTO was an acronym for “Pipe Lines Under The Ocean”,
continuously if so desired. and the effort involved the fabrication and laying of several
pipelines across the English Channel. A total of 23 lines
The CT string is run into and retrieved from the wellbore by were laid; 17 were made from lead pipe and 6 from steel
the injector head which combines several hydraulically pipe. The steel lines were fabricated by butt-welding 20 ft
operated functions to enable the coiled tubing unit (CTU) joints of 3-in. ID pipe into 4,000 ft. sections. These
operator a high degree of control over the position and intermediate lengths were then welded and spooling onto
movement of the CT string. floating drums that were 70 ft. wide and 40 ft. in diameter.
A stripper assembly mounted below the injector head The pipelines, approximately 70 miles in total length, were
provides a dynamic seal around the tubing string enabling laid by towing the drums across the channel while the
the tubing to be run and retrieved on live wells. Secondary pipeline unspooled.
and contingency pressure control functions are provided by
a blowout preventer (BOP) assembly mounted between the The successful fabrication and spooling of continuous
stripper and the wellhead. flexible pipeline, laid the foundation for further develop-
ments that eventually lead to downhole tubing strings used
The CTU is operated from the control cabin which is in modern CT.
designed as a single point control and monitoring station for
the primary functions of the CTU and associated equipment Steps leading to the 1962 Bowen unit included:
spread.
• In the late 1940’s, several concepts relating to the
Origin of Coiled Tubing injection of continuous tubing or cable into a live wellbore
were patented.
It is generally agreed that the first practical, fully functioning
CT unit was developed by the California Oil Company and • In the early 1950’s, several concepts relating to drilling
Bowen Tools in 1962 for the purpose of washing out sand with continuous, flexible strings were patented.
bridges in wells along the U.S. Gulf Coast.
• In the early 1960’s, a device was developed by Bowen
The injector head operated on the principle of two vertical, Tools for use in antenna-deployment aboard submerged
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Dowell INTRODUCTION
submarines. The antenna, a 5/8-in. brass tube, was Following the success of the Bowen Tool, California Oil
spooled onto a reel for storage and was capable of Company efforts, in 1964, Brown Oil Tools and Esso
reaching the surface from a submerged depth of 600 ft. collaborated to develop a system that utilized a slightly
This system used the same principle of the contra- different principle for the injector design. Instead of a set of
rotating chain drive that would be later adopted for CT contra-rotating chains to grip and drive the tubing, the
injectors. tubing was squeezed between a single chain and a grooved
drive wheel. The entire unit was mounted in a portable,
• In 1962, Bowen adapted the injector design used on the hydraulic mast that suspended the CT unit above the
antenna deployment for the prototype that was developed wellhead.
with the California Oil Company.
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A variation of this design exists today as alternative to the accommodate tubing up to 1-in CT. By the mid-1970’s, over
widely-used contra-chain systems. The Brown Oil Tool unit 200 of the original-design CT units were in service.
was designed for 3/4-in tubing and was successfully used
for wellbore cleanouts, on onshore and offshore wells. In the late 1970’s, the evolution of injector design was
influenced by several new equipment manufacturing com-
In both the Bowen and Brown Oil Tools developments, the panies (Uni-Flex Inc., Otis Engineering, and Hydra Rig
CT units were developed for specific clients and were one- Inc.). In general, these companies based their units on the
of-a-kind prototypes. However, the success of these proto- original Bowen Tools contra-chain design, however Uni-
types soon generated a commercial interest in CT as a Flex Inc., improved the design significantly. Although Uni-
service to be provided on a call-out basis for oil companies. Flex stopped production of its units around 1978, many of
its design concepts have been incorporated into the equip-
In 1967, NOWSCO first provided CT services to several ment of modern manufacturers.
clients who did not want to develop or purchase their own
units. Nowsco began by leasing a modified version of the At about the same time Uni-Flex ceased manufacturing CT
original Bowen Tools design (for 1/2-in. tubing) for nitrogen equipment, Brown Oil Tools also ceased manufacturing the
injection services. As a result of increased demand for CT drive-wheel model. However, a variation of this design was
services, NOWSCO ordered 12 similar units from Bowen re-introduced in 1985. This unit retains the drive-wheel
Tools. This marked the beginning of the CT service concept, but used rollers, instead of chain, to force the
industry. tubing against the drive wheel (providing traction).
Improvement and Evolution of Coiled Tubing Evolution Of The Continuous String Tubing
Throughout the remainder of the 1960’s and into the 1970’s, Throughout the period when injector heads were being
both Bowen Tools and Brown Oil Tools continued to improved, the tubing string was also undergoing some
improve, modify, and enhance their respective designs to significant development.
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Dowell INTRODUCTION
The Bowen Tools prototype of 1962 used 1-3/8-in. tubing, Early tubing manufacture used techniques developed dur-
however, the models produced commercially for NOWSCO ing the PLUTO project and involved butt-welding 50 ft.
used 1/2-in. tubing. By the early 1970’s, the tubing size was sections of milled tubing into a continuous length for
increased to accommodate 1-in. tubing. spooling onto a reel. This meant that there was a butt weld
every 50 ft throughout the tubing string.
The Brown Oil Tools prototype of 1964 used 3/4-in. tubing,
but was modified by 1967 to handle 1-in. tubing. By the late 1960’s, techniques had been developed to allow
tubing strings to be milled in much longer lengths. This
In summary, the early commercial period of CT services, decrease in the number of welds throughout the string was
during the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, was dominated by accompanied by an improvement of the steel properties.
tubing sizes up to 1-in. and relatively short string lengths. The resulting improvement in string reliability significantly
The tubing diameter and length was limited by the mechani- benefited CT services (Figure 3).
cal properties of the tubing material and the manufacturing
techniques of that era. In 1969, the quality of the tubing was further improved when
Southwestern Pipe Inc. began manufacturing CT using
Early CT operations were plagued by string failures due to improved material and techniques. Another company,
the inconsistent quality of the tubing strings. A major part Quality Tubing Inc., started manufacturing tubing in 1976
of the problem related to the many butt-welds in the tubing using a process similar to Southwestern Pipe. At that time
string, necessitated by manufacturing limitations. Quality manufactured exclusively for a single CT service
company. However, by 1982, Quality Tubing provided CT
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INTRODUCTION Dow ell
Injector head
Layer1 HighExhaus t LowOi l Lo
ssof
H igh
Tem per
Ca
ool
tu
rate
n Temperatur e Pressure Coo
l an
t
Pr O
i ur
le
Cper
Tm
e oola
attnure es
s
Eng
i ne
Tcho
a me t er
Per mistrsive
sta
St rat
Engi
Kilne Em Ki
relge
lncy Ai
Pr s
r e
esur
Strippper
Quad BOP
Fluid handling
and pumping
equipment
Nitrogen handling
and pumping
equipment
Electric power to
the toolstring
Electronic data
Tool string
from the
toolstring
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Dowell INTRODUCTION
strings to the general CT industry, and with Southwestern Coiled Tubing Today
Pipe, dominated this market. The techniques used, at that
time, allowed for the manufacture of 1-1/4-in. CT in continu- As the complexity of CT equipment and services has
ously milled lengths of 1,500 ft. increased it has become more difficult to briefly summa-
rize the advantages of applying CT technology. Speed and
During the 1980’s, CT materials and strings improved economy were early drivers or incentives for the use of CT
significantly and still remain a key feature. The relatively small unit size
and short rig-up times compare favorably with those of
• 1980 - Introduction by Southwestern Pipe of 70 ksi yield conventional workover units . However, many other techni-
steel for milling tubing cal advantages can now be applied, depending on the
specific wellbore, reservoir and location conditions.
• 1983 - Introduction by Quality Tubing of continuously-
milled tubing lengths of 3,000 ft. Commonly cited advantages over conventional workover
methods, e.g., a workover rig, include:
• 1987 - Development by Quality Tubing of “bias-welding”
the sheets of steel prior to milling to provide a stronger, • Safe and efficient live well intervention
milled tubing.
• Capability for rapid mobilization, rig-up and well site
Over this period of development, the maximum practical preparation
CT size was increased, first to 1-1/2-in. and subsequently
to 1-3/4-in. By 1990, the first 2-in. tubing was being • Ability to circulate while RIH/POH
produced, followed shortly by 2-3/8-in., 2-7/8-in., and 3-1/
2-in. • Reduced trip time (RIH, POOH) and production downtime
Today, 2-3/8-in. tubing is generally considered the largest • Lower environmental impact and risk
practical size CT well service work. The larger sizes are
more commonly used in CT completion applications, • Reduced crew/personnel requirements
where cycling, and the resulting fatigue is not a major issue.
• Lower cost with greater flexibility
CT Drilling
Similarly, it is becoming more difficult to summarize the
Although a more detailed history of coiled tubing drilling is growing list of applications for which CT can be considered.
given in the Coiled Tubing Drilling Manual, reference should Early applications were designed around the fluid circulat-
be made to influence given to the general evolution and ing/placement capabilities of the CT string, while more
development of CT technology. recent applications can rely on several unique features of
the CT string and associated equipment.
The initial concept of using a continuous drill string dates
from the late 1940’s. However, it was not until 1964 that the The majority of current CT applications are enabled by one
concepts were actually employed. In similar, but indepen- or more of the following unique features.
dent efforts, the French Petroleum Institute and the Cullen
Research Institute developed working prototypes of con- • Live well operations - CT pressure control equipment
tinuous drilling systems. In 1976, the Canadian company enables the functions listed below to be safely applied
FlexTube Services Ltd., developed and commercial oper- under live well conditions.
ated a continuous drilling system for several years.
• High pressure conduit - CT string provides a high pressure
The modern CT drilling era began in 1991 and has rapidly conduit for fluid circulation into, or out of the wellbore. In
progressed providing the major driving force behind the addition, hydraulically operated tools may be operated or
development of the 2-in. and 2 3/8-in. CT sizes. powered by fluid pumped through the string.
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INTRODUCTION Dow ell
Determine
treatment Acquire job design data
objectives (i) Reservoir
(ii) Wellbore
(iii) Wellsite/location
• Continuous circulation - fluids may be pumped continu- widely varying conditions, using a range equipment of
ously while the CT string is run and retrieved. differing capacity and capability. As a result, there is no
standard equipment configuration which is applicable to all
• Rigidity and strength - the rigidity and strength of the CT conditions. However, there are principal equipment compo-
string enables tools and devices (and the string itself) to nents used on each operation that are generally considered
be pushed and pulled through highly deviated and hori- to be common to all applications. The illustration in Figure
zontal wellbore sections. x identifies the principal equipment components typically
required to complete safe and efficient CT operations.
• Installed conductors and conduits - electrical conductors
or hydraulic conduits may be installed in the CT string, The variety of applications, equipment configurations and
and terminated at the CT reel. This enables additional operating conditions means there is no standard job plan-
control and power functions to be established between ning and design process. However, there are job design and
the BHA and surface facilities. planning elements which should be applied to each opera-
tion. The illustration in Figure 5 identifies the principal job
The ability to easily adapt equipment, tools and techniques design and execution elements that should typically be
for specific purposes is a significant advantage of CT considered for all CT operations.
technology. This flexibility combined with specific location
or local requirements, has resulted in regional "hot spots" The components and elements identified above provide the
of activity and development. In such areas, CT technology basis for the content and structure of this manual which is
is not only accepted but is supported by often pioneering compiled in four distinct sections and supported by supple-
work in equipment or technique development, e.g., zonal mentary information in appendices.
isolation and coiled tubing drilling (CTD) in Alaska.
• CT String
Modern coiled tubing equipment is now commonly used to
perform a variety of applications on wellsites or locations of • CT Equipment
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Operation PLUTO
1943 3.35 in. x 20 ft butt
welded into 4000 ft lengths
First downhole CT
1.315 in. x 50 ft butt 1962
-welded to length
First continuous
1964 CT (1/2 in. & 3/4 in.
x 2000 ft lengths)
1 in. CT 1970
Canadian string
1976 using 2.3/8 in.
X-42 pipe
Canadian string
using 2-3/8 in. 1977
aluminium tubing
70 ksi yield
material 1980
CT string
1983 manufactured
in 3000 ft lengths
Continuous string
using bias weld 1989
1990 2 in. CT
2-3/8 in.
& 2-7/8 in. CT
1990
3-1/2 in. CT
1992 pre-installed
gas lift strings
Hydraulic conduit
installed 1993
(control string)
CT sizes
1995 manufactured
in 80 ksi yield
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Operation
1944 PLUTO
Early live
cable injection 1948-51
Bowen system
1961 used on
submarine
Contra rotating
chain drive system
1962
Brown & Esso
1964 use 3/4 in. wheel
injector
Bowen 5M
& 8M CTU
1967-78
Hydra-Rig,
1975-76 Otis & Uniflex
CTU Introduced
Brown & Uniflex
cease to 1978
manufacture
Development
1985 of wheel
injector head
Combi BOP
Introduced 1988
Side door
1990 stripper
introduced
5000 &
10000 psi Quad 1991
BOPs
40,60 & 80K
1990-93 injector heads
introduced
Live well
deployment 1993
systems
Automatic stab
1994 BHA deployment
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Operation
1944 PLUTO
Wellbore fill
removal and fishing 1962
inside tubing
Test drilling
1964 with CT
Acidizing 1968
First commercial
1976 CT drilling
1500 ft gas wells
CT logging 1985
CT completion
1988 velocity string
Real-time
bottomhole 1990
monitoring
Resumption of
1991 commercial
CTD
CT completion
gas lift string 1992
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The basic functions required of CT equipment largely One of the most visible developments influencing the
remain as they did in the early days of CT services, e.g., design and operation of CT equipment is the introduction of
run-in, pull-out, maintain well security. However, the condi- software modeling, monitoring and recording equipment.
tions under which these are now to be achieved can be Sophisticated computer models can accurately predict the
considerably different. Modern CT strings are typically, forces exerted on the CT string for any given wellbore and
larger (OD), heavier and longer. They are run and retrieved treatment conditions. In addition, the behavior of treatment
from wells which are deeper, hotter and have higher and wellbore fluids can be modeled. This combined with the
wellhead pressure. In addition, the wellbore can be devi- ability to use powerful wellsite computers to monitor oper-
ated, horizontal or, in some cases, fearsome combinations ating parameters assists CTU operators to complete the
of both. operation while fully understanding the implications of their
actions.
Many modern applications have very close depth toler-
ances and can require the application of highly controlled Significant developments in the evolution of modern CT
force downhole. Also, tools and downhole equipment pro- equipment are shown in Figure 7. Further explanation of this
viding data for real-time analysis are now routinely used. development process and factors effecting the selection
and operation of CT equipment are contained in Section 200
Each of the factors above have been addressed by equip- of this manual.
ment designers and manufacturers. The result is efficient
but complex CT equipment spreads which require operator
skill and competency far beyond that which has historically
been considered adequate for safe CTU operation.
Equipment
Personnel
Environment
Well Security
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3 CT APPLICATIONS The value of adequate and accurate job design data has
been realized, as have the benefits of comprehensive and
An important aspect of CT operations that is often over- documented operating procedures which typically also
looked is that CT simply provides a means of conveyance include a means of verifying that equipment and personnel
for fluids, tools or equipment required to complete the are prepared and capable of completing the operation as
desired treatment. Only by successfully combining such intended. With the increased demands being made of CTU
fluids and tools with well executed CT services can CT operators it is becoming increasingly important that person-
applications be successfully completed. Consequently, nel are fully trained, and verified as competent, for the tasks
most CT applications are undertaken through the collabo- to be undertaken. While this rationale has its roots in safety
rative effort of two or more service company "disciplines", and pressure control issues, the complexity of modern CT
departments or organizations. In such circumstances, operations and the implications of wellsite incidents often
good communication skills and team working are prerequi- demands that on-the-job-training is no longer a feasible
sites for a successful job. One obvious, but often over- option.
looked means of encouraging better team working is to
ensure the goals, i.e., the operation objectives, have been Significant developments in the evolution of modern CT
clearly defined. This enables personnel and organizations applications are shown in Figure 6. Further explanation of
to focus on a common objective rather than their individual this development process and factors effecting the design
contribution. and execution of modern CT applications are contained in
Section 300 of this manual.
The unique features offered by CT conveyance, e.g., safe
live well operations, continuous circulation and electrical 4 SAFETY AND CONTINGENCY
connection with the BHA, provide benefits that cannot be
achieved by any other well intervention method (e.g., work The equipment and techniques employed on almost all CT
over rig, snubbing, wireline). In the development of CT operations today have evolved from a process within which
applications, these features have been applied in two main safety is a major concern. In this context safety issues are
ways. Earlier efforts focused on adapting existing technol- generally categories in one of four areas:
ogy to use with CT, e.g., using CT to push logging tools
through deviated wellbores. However, more recent tech- • Well security/pressure control
nique developments combine two or more CT features and
incorporated them into application systems specifically • Personnel
designed for CT conveyance, e.g., underbalanced drilling
with wireline telemetry and control system or stimulation • Equipment
treatments performed with a real-time bottom hole pressure
and temperature sensor system. • Environment
The profile and configuration of oil and gas wellbores have No attempt is made at prioritizing the importance of these
changed significantly over the relatively short history of CT areas, rather that safety issues in each of these areas be
services. For example, highly deviated and horizontal adequately addressed during the planning and execution
wellbores are now common, completions are now specially phase of every operation.
configured with the intention of using CT for subsequent
intervention and many completion or intervention activities A vital part of any job planning process relates to contin-
require highly accurate depth correlation. Therefore, it is gency planning which is intended to minimize response
understandable that routine CT applications have changed time or operation downtime. Contingency plans provide a
accordingly. Such changes are evident not only in the reference source in the event reasonably foreseeable, but
equipment, tools and hardware but significant develop- unplanned conditions are encountered during an operation.
ments are also noticeable in the design methodology
applied in the preparation and execution of modern CT Note: Contingency plans should not be confused with
operations. emergency responses which are rapid and instinctive
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