1. Define Mobile Computing What are the applications of mc?

Mobile computing refers to the use of portable computing devices, such as smartphones

and tablets, to access and process data while on-the-go.

Applications of mobile computing include:

1. Communication: Mobile devices allow users to stay connected with others through
phone calls, text messages, and social media apps.
2. Entertainment: Mobile devices can be used for gaming, music streaming, and video
watching.
3. Productivity: Mobile devices can be used for email, document editing, and other
business-related tasks.
4. Navigation: Mobile devices can be used for GPS navigation and maps.
5. Shopping: Mobile devices can be used for online shopping and payment
transactions.
6. Education: Mobile devices can be used for e-learning and educational apps.
7. Health: Mobile devices can be used for health tracking and medical apps.
8. Photography: Mobile devices have high-quality cameras for photography and
videography.
9. Social networking: Mobile devices can be used for social networking and staying
connected with friends and family.
10. Transportation: Mobile devices can be used for ride-sharing apps and public
transportation schedules.
2. What are the generations of telecommunication explain in detail.

The generations of telecommunications refer to the different stages of development in

mobile networks, with each generation bringing new improvements and capabilities.

1G: First-generation (1G) networks were analog and mainly supported voice calls. These

networks were introduced in the 1980s and were characterized by low call quality and limited

coverage.

2G: Second-generation (2G) networks were digital and allowed for better call quality,

messaging, and basic data services like internet browsing. 2G was introduced in the 1990s

and is still in use today in some parts of the world.

3G: Third-generation (3G) networks introduced high-speed data transfer and enabled mobile

internet access, video calling, and advanced multimedia services. 3G was introduced in the

early 2000s and is still widely used today.

4G: Fourth-generation (4G) networks brought even faster data transfer speeds, better call

quality, and the ability to handle high-bandwidth services like video streaming and online

gaming. 4G was introduced in the late 2000s and is still widely used today.

5G: Fifth-generation (5G) networks are the latest generation and offer even faster speeds,

lower latency, and higher capacity than previous generations. 5G networks are designed to

support new technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), autonomous vehicles, and virtual

reality. 5G is being rolled out gradually around the world.

What is a cellular system?

● A cellular system is a telecommunications network that enables mobile

devices to communicate over radio waves.
● The system consists of a network of cell sites or base stations, each covering
a specific geographic area called a cell.
● The cells are spaced apart to avoid interference and use different frequency
bands or channels for communication.
● When a mobile device moves from one cell to another, it automatically
switches to the cell with the strongest signal, ensuring uninterrupted
communication.
● The cellular system uses various techniques like frequency reuse, handover,
and power control to efficiently manage the use of radio spectrum and ensure
high-quality communication.
● Cellular systems are used in mobile telephony, data communication, and other
wireless services.
● They have become an essential part of modern communication, enabling
people to stay connected wherever they go.
● Cellular systems have evolved through different generations, from analog
voice-only networks to digital networks that support high-speed data and
advanced multimedia services.
● The latest generation of cellular systems, 5G, offers even faster speeds, lower
latency, and higher capacity than previous generations, enabling new
technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT) and autonomous vehicles.
Explain Electromagnetic spectrum with diagram?

The electromagnetic spectrum refers to the range of all possible frequencies of

electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that

travel through space at the speed of light. The different types of electromagnetic
radiation have different wavelengths and frequencies, which determine their
properties and how they interact with matter.

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies, while gamma
rays have the shortest wavelengths and highest frequencies.

1. Radio Waves
o The rapid travel of charged particles across conducting wires causes these waves.
o Radio, television, and telecom signals are transmitted through them.

2. Microwaves
o Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation that has a frequency of a few
gigahertz (GHz).
o Klystrons, magnetrons, and Gunn diodes are unique vacuum tubes that produce
Them.

3. Infrared Rays
o Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules and are thus referred to
as heatwaves.
o Infrared rays are near the low-frequency or long-wavelength end of the visible
light spectrum.

5. Ultraviolet Rays
o Although the sun is the primary source of ultraviolet radiation on Earth, the ozone
layer absorbs the majority of UV energy before it reaches the atmosphere.
o UV radiation has a wavelength of 400nm–1nm.

6. X-Rays
o This electromagnetic radiation is found outside of the ultraviolet (UV) region of
the electromagnetic spectrum and is extremely valuable in the medical field.
o The wavelength range of X-ray radiation is 1nm–10 –3 nm.
Diagram:
What are the types of antenna?

1. Omni Directional Antenna: Omni directional antennas can provide commensurable

power signals in all directions, covering all 360 degrees, at an equal radial distance. An Omni
directional antenna has the simplest design and it is also called a rod antenna. The Omni
directional type of antenna is used principally in households with preferably a more
sophisticated shape but covering the same directions since large office spaces and companies
can work better with different radiation shapes.
The Omni directional antenna’s general range is given in dBi; the higher the dBi number, the
greater the range. Since more compact models are available, household uses comprise mobile
applications. Some Omni directional antennas involve TV antennas, dipole antennas, quad
antennas, GPS antennas, radio antennas, and many more.

Design of  Omni Directional Antenna

2. Semi Directional Antenna: Semi-directional antennas radiate the signal to a single,
particular direction for communication from one point to another. They can connect both the
indoor and outdoor communication for both small area and large distance coverage, such as
in Hallways/Corridors, Wireless ISPs, PTP & PTMP Bridging, since in all these mentioned
spaces a specific directional coverage is required.
Semi Directional antennas can also be used to radiate 360-degree coverage by arranging
multiple of them into an array. Mainly there are 3 types of semi-directional antennas based on
their design and structure.

1. Patch: These antennas are assembled on a  thus can be structured into any shape as
required, on a custom basis, they are used for PCBs most regularly.
 2. Yagi:  In Yagi antennas, the components even of the size of a fraction of the
wavelength of the antenna are fitted for wireless wavelengths, they are used in TV
dishes and where the single-frequency application is needed.
3. Panel: Panel antennas have a wider beam than Yagi antennas thus a larger coverage,
and the antenna only performs a single task of either sending or just receiving the
signal.

 
3. Highly Directional Antenna:
Highly directional antennas are also used for directing signals from one point to another but
they have a narrow beam with a high focus which is why they can reach much larger
distances and thus are called Highly Directional antennas, and are used in outdoor areas, for
example from one building to another like in a huge office, university area. Highly
Directional antennas are of two types :

1. Parabolic Dish: They have short side lobes, acute radiation angles, and a high
front-back ratio, parabolic antennas have been the most efficient kind of directional
antenna.
2. Grid Antenna: Since directional antennas direct signals for large distances outside,
the grid antennas have a grid-like structure so as to let air pass through them so that the
signal is not directed elsewhere during a windy day.
What is a signal explain characteristics of signal?

In mobile computing, a signal refers to the transmission of data or information

between two devices, such as a mobile device and a cellular network tower. The
strength and quality of the signal can have a significant impact on the performance
of the device, including its ability to make calls, access the internet, and transfer
data.

Some of the characteristics of signals in mobile computing include:

1. Signal Strength: The signal strength refers to the power of the signal being
transmitted between the device and the network tower. A strong signal
indicates a good connection, while a weak signal can result in dropped calls,
slow data transfer speeds, and poor overall performance.
2. Signal Quality: The signal quality refers to the clarity and reliability of the
signal being transmitted. A high-quality signal will have minimal interference
or noise, while a low-quality signal may be distorted or interrupted, resulting in
poor call quality or slow data transfer speeds.
3. Latency: Latency refers to the delay between when data is sent and received.
A high latency can cause delays and lag in applications that require real-time
data transfer, such as online gaming or video conferencing.
4. Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted
over a connection within a given period. A higher bandwidth means more data
can be transmitted at once, resulting in faster transfer speeds.
5. Interference: Interference can occur when signals from multiple devices or
sources overlap, causing distortions in the signal. Interference can lead to
poor signal quality, dropped calls, and slow data transfer speeds.
What is Multiplexing?Explain in detail

Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple

signals coming from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single
communication/physical line.

Types of Multiplexing 
There are three types of Multiplexing :

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing where the bandwidth of

a single physical medium is divided into a number of smaller, independent frequency
channels.
2. Time Division Multiplexing:

Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of

sharing a portion of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time is shared. Each
connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with the same frequency (bandwidth) at
different times.

There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

2. Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing:

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is used on fiber optics to increase the capacity of a single
fiber. It is an analog multiplexing technique. Optical signals from the different sources are
combined to form a wider band of light with the help of multiplexers. At the receiving end,
the demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their respective destinations. 
What is Spread Spectrum?Explain fhss and dsss

The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited spectrum
efficiency and multipath propagation. The use of spread spectrum communication has
simplified these problems. In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are
combined to fit into larger bandwidth. 

Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to share the
medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming from a malicious
intruder. To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add redundancy means it uses extended
bandwidth to accommodate signals in a protective envelope so that more secure transmission
is possible. The spread code is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a
pattern. The original bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code
as shown in the figure.

Spread Spectrum
Principles of Spread Spectrum process:

1. To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each station

should be much larger than needed. 
2. The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source.

Conditions of Spread Spectrum are:

1. The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW is much

larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band scheme.
2. A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code is to
be used to dispread the signal at the receiver.

Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum are:

1. Higher channel capacity.

2. Ability to resist multipath propagation.
3. They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person.
4. They are resistant to jamming.
 5. The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath propagation.
6. The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities.

Two types of techniques for Spread Spectrum are:

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are modulated
by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal. At one moment
signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent moments, it modulates other
carrier frequencies. The general block diagram of FHSS is shown in the below figure.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different technique. Here,
each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code called chips, and the bit rate of the
chip is called as chip-rate. The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the original signal. The
below Figure shows the DSSS block diagram.
GSM
GSM in Wireless Communication

GSM  stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of
850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and
TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works. 

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM:

1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM are:

1. Supports international roaming

2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems. 

1. BSS: BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling
between a mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC. 
2. NSS: NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone
present in network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
3. OSS: OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the
network operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose
of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related
maintenance services.
Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand
the functionality of different components.

1. MS: MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for
communication with a mobile network.  Mobile Station (MS) =  Mobile Equipment(ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and
that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises
transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving. 

2. BTS: BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication
between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS. 

3. BSC: BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider
the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have
BTS.

4. MSC: MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication
switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding
all functions are performed at the MSC level.  MSC is having further components as follows:

● VLR: VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains
the exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of
MSC. If you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into
the database of VLR.
● HLR: HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing
pertinent data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network..
● OMC: OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain
the performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.
● AUC: AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.
● EIR: EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the
record of all allowed or banned in the network.
 ● PSTN: PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with
MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total
three interfaces are there:

1. Air Interface: Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS

and BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of
ISDN.
2. Abis Interface: It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
3. A interface: It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
A mobile originating call refers to a phone call initiated from a mobile device, such as
a smartphone or tablet. Here's how it works:

1. User initiates call: The user opens the phone app on their mobile device and
enters the phone number they want to call.
2. Device connects to the network: The mobile device connects to the nearest
cellular network tower, which then routes the call to the destination network.
3. Network authenticates user: The destination network authenticates the user's
identity and checks whether they have sufficient account balance or credit to
make the call.
4. Call routed to destination: Once the user's identity and account are
authenticated, the call is routed to the destination phone number.
5. Call established: If the destination phone is available, the call is established,
and the users can start speaking to each other.
6. Call ends: The call ends when either party hangs up or the call is terminated
due to network issues or a lack of account balance.
explain various type of handsoff in gsm network

Types of Handoff:

Hard Handoff:
When there is an actual break in the connectivity while switching from one Base Station to
another Base Station. There is no burden on the Base Station and MSC because the switching
takes place so quickly that it can hardly be noticed by the users. The connection quality is not
that good. Hard Handoff adopted the ‘break before make’ policy.

Soft Handoff:
In Soft Handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio signals are added or removed to
the Base Station. Soft Handoff adopted the ‘make before break’ policy. Soft Handoff is more
costly than Hard Handoff.
how subscriber authentication is done in gsm

Subscriber authentication is an important aspect of the security features of GSM

(Global System for Mobile Communications) networks. Here's how subscriber
authentication is done in GSM:

1. SIM Card: Every GSM subscriber has a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card,
which stores information such as the subscriber's phone number,
authentication keys, and other network-related data. When a mobile device
attempts to connect to the network, it sends a request to the network to
authenticate.
2. IMSI: The request sent by the mobile device includes the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI), which is a unique identifier assigned to every GSM
subscriber. The IMSI is stored on the SIM card and is used by the network to
identify the subscriber.
3. Authentication Request: The network responds to the request by sending an
authentication challenge to the mobile device. The challenge is a random
number generated by the network and sent to the mobile device.
4. Authentication Response: The mobile device uses a secret key stored on the
SIM card called the Ki (Authentication Key) to generate a response to the
challenge. The response is calculated using an algorithm known as the A3
algorithm, which uses the Ki and the challenge to create a 32-bit response.
5. Authentication Verification: The mobile device sends the response back to the
network, which verifies the response using the same algorithm used by the
mobile device. If the response is correct, the network authenticates the
subscriber and allows access to network services.
6. Security Context: Once the subscriber is authenticated, the network creates a
security context, which includes encryption keys that are used to encrypt and
decrypt data transmitted between the mobile device and the network. The
security context is updated periodically to maintain the security of the
network.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS is an expansion Global System for Mobile Communication. It is basically a

packet-oriented mobile data standard on the 2G and 3G cellular communication network’s
global system for mobile communication. GPRS was built up by European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) because of the prior CDPD, and I-mode
packet switched cell advances.

GPRS overrides the wired associations, as this framework has streamlined access to the
packet information’s network like the web. The packet radio standard is utilized by GPRS to
transport client information packets in a structured route between GSM versatile stations and
external packet information networks. These packets can be straightforwardly directed to the
packet changed systems from the GPRS portable stations.

Goals Of GPRS:

1. Consistent IP services
2. Leverage industry investment in IP
3. Open Architecture
4. Service innovation independent of infrastructure

Services Offered:

1. SMS messaging and broadcasting

2. Push-to-talk over cellular
3. Instant messaging and presence
4. Multimedia messaging service
5. Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint services

Protocols supported:

1. Internet Protocol (IP)

2. Point-To-Point Protocol (PPP)

Benefits Of GPRS:

● Mobility:
The capacity to keep up consistent voice and information interchanges while moving.
● Cost Efficient:
Communication via GPRS is cheaper than through the regular GSM network.
● Immediacy:
Allows customers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of location and
without a lengthy login session.
● Localization:
Enables customers to acquire data applicable to their present area.
● Easy Billing:
GPRS packet transmission offers an easier to use billing than that offered by circuit
switched administrations.
GPRS is an innovation that numerous GPS beacons are using to get up to the minute data
with tracking. When the GPS gadget records the information, it would then be able to be
transmitted through GPRS to another central location, for example, a PC or through an email.
It is the GPRS innovation that takes into consideration ongoing updates to GPS following
frameworks. It is this direct GPRS association that gives the client of the GPS system the
most reliable information available today.

GPRS architecture in wireless communication

GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service. It is the modified version of GSM
architecture service. In GSM architecture we can only transport the voice signal. But if signal
consists of the data then only GSM architecture cannot use. For that there are two more
software components are used, SGSN (Serving GPRS supporting Node)  and GGSN
(Gateway GPRS supporting Node).

Architecture:

GPRS Architecture

In GSM architecture there is one component called BSC. But in GPRS there is one
component is added to BSC called PCU. PCU stands for Packet Control Unit. If signal comes
to BSC and that signal contains data, then PCU routes to the SGSN. Interface is used between
BSC and PCU is FRI interface. After signal comes to SGSN, it delivers the data packet to the
GGSN. GGSN routes the data packet to the data network (PDN- Predefined Data Network).

Task of SGSN:

1. Packet Delivery
2. Mobility management
o apply/ sign off of terminals
o localization
3. LLC (Logical Link Control) management
4. Authentication
 5. billing

Task of GGSN: 

1. Mediator between GPRS between backbone and external data networks.

2. Saves current data for the SGSN address of the participant as well as their profile and
data for authentication and invoice.
What is UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System)?
UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the
GSM family of measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely
diverse radio interface based around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as
CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access. Although 3G UMTS employments a completely
distinctive radio get to standard, the center arrange is the same as that utilized for GPRS and
EDGE to carry partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data. 
UMTS Applications

● Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)

● Videoconferences.
● Fast Internet / Intranet.
● Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
● Remote Login
● Background Class applications
● Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
● FTP Access
● Mobile Entertainment (Games)

Features of UMTS

● UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal Broadcast

communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
● It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) discuss
interface.
● It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
● It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
● It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
● For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate is as tall as
7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection.
● It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA).
Difference between UMTS and GSM

Difference between UMTS and GSM:

S.No. UMTS GSM

1. UMTS is already 3G. GSM is 2G and 2.5G.
2. It is mainly CDMA-based. It is typically based on TDMA .
There channels are divided into
There channels are divided into traffic
logical, transport and physical based
3. channel and control channel based on
on where they are used along with their
functionality of use in the system.
functions.
4. Its frame duration is about 10ms, Its frame duration is about 4.615ms,
5. It is newer. It is a rather old technology.
It has various bands from Band-I to It has various bands, the major among
6. Band-VI, Each band specifies them are 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz
frequency and UARFCN. and 1900MHz.
It has various releases such as
It has various documents specified by
7. R99(WCDMA), R5 (HSDPA),
ETSI and 3GPP, 3GPP™TS 45-series.
R6(HSUPA) etc.
The modulation efficiency is 1.0 The modulation efficiency is 1.35
8.
b/s/Hz . b/s/Hz.
Explain UMTS Architecture

3G UMTS network constituents

Although for the 3G UMTS wireless communications system, there had been many changes
when compared to the previous generation, the same basic top level system overview was the
same.

However within the three top level constituents of this wireless communications system there
were many changes.

The top level network architecture for the 3G UMTS wireless communications system could be
divided into three main elements:

● User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment or UE is the name given to what was
previous termed the mobile, or cellphone. The new name was chosen because the
considerably greater functionality that the UE could have. It could also be anything
between a mobile phone used for talking to a data terminal attached to a computer
with no voice capability.
● Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS also known as the UMTS Radio
Access Network, UTRAN, was the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem
or BSS in GSM. It provided and manages the air interface for the overall network.
● Core Network: The core network provided all the central processing and
management for the system. It was the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching
Subsystem or NSS.

The core network was then the overall entity that interfaced to external networks including the
public phone network and other cellular telecommunications networks.

User Equipment, UE
The USER Equipment or UE was a major element of the overall 3G UMTS network architecture.
It formed the final interface with the user.
In view of the far greater number of applications and facilities that it could perform, the decision
was made to call it a user equipment rather than a mobile.

However it was essentially the handset (in the broadest terminology), although having access to
much higher speed data communications, it could be much more versatile, containing many
more applications.

It consists of a variety of different elements including RF circuitry, processing, antenna, battery,

etc.

There were a number of elements within the UE that can be described separately:

● UE RF circuitry: The RF areas handled all elements of the signal, both for the
receiver and for the transmitter. One of the major challenges for the RF power
amplifier was to reduce the power consumption.
The form of modulation used for W-CDMA required the use of an RF linear amplifier.
These inherently take more current than non linear amplifiers which could be used for
the form of modulation used on GSM.
Accordingly to maintain battery life, measures were introduced into many of the
designs to ensure the optimum efficiency.
● Baseband processing: The base-band signal processing consisted mainly of digital
circuitry. This was considerably more complicated than that used in phones for
previous generations.
Again this had been optimised to reduce the current consumption as far as possible.
● Battery: While current consumption has been minimised as far as possible within
the circuitry of the phone, there had been an increase in current drain on the battery.
With users expecting the same lifetime between charging batteries as experienced on
the previous generation phones, this had necessitated the use of new and improved
battery technology. Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries started to be more widely used to
address this issue.
These phones needed to remain small and relatively light while still retaining or even
improving the overall life between charges.
● Universal Subscriber Identity Module, USIM: The UE also contained a SIM card,
although in the case of UMTS it was termed a USIM (Universal Subscriber Identity
Module).
This was a more advanced version of the SIM card used in GSM and other systems,
but embodied the same types of information. It contained the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity number (IMSI) as well as the Mobile Station International ISDN
Number (MSISDN).
Other information that the USIM held included the preferred language to enable the
correct language information to be displayed, especially when roaming, and a list of
preferred and prohibited Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN).
The USIM also contained a short message storage area that allowed messages to
stay with the user even when the phone was changed. Similarly "phone book"
numbers and call information of the numbers of incoming and outgoing calls were
stored.

The UE could take a variety of forms, although the most common format was still a version of a
"mobile phone" although having many data capabilities. Other broadband dongles started to be
used as well - these could be used with laptops or even desktop computers on occasions.

3G UMTS Radio Network Subsystem

This was the section of the 3G UMTS / WCDMA network that interfaced to both the UE and the
core network - it handled the wireless communications elements of the network.
The overall radio access network, i.e. collectively all the Radio Network Subsystem was known
as the UTRAN or UMTS Radio Access Network.

3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture was a migration of that used for GSM with further
elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.

In view of the different ways in which data could be carried, the UMTS core network was split into
two different areas:

● Circuit switched elements: These elements were primarily based on the GSM
network entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel
for the duration of the call.
● Packet switched elements: These network entities were designed to carry packet
data. This enabled much higher network usage as the capacity could be shared and
data was carried as packets which were routed according to their destination.

Some network elements, particularly those that were associated with registration were shared by
both domains and operated in the same way that they did with GSM.

Circuit switched elements

The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture included the following
network entities:

● Mobile switching centre (MSC): This was essentially the same as that within GSM,
and it managed the circuit switched calls under way.
● Gateway MSC (GMSC): This was effectively the interface to the external networks.

Packet switched elements

The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture included the following
network entities:

● Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): As the name implies, this entity was first
developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the
UMTS network architecture. The SGSN provided a number of functions within the
UMTS network architecture.
○ Mobility management When a UE attached to the Packet Switched
domain of the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information
based on the mobile's current location.
○ Session management: The SGSN managed the data sessions providing
the required quality of service and it also managed what were termed the
PDP (Packet data Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data
was sent.
○ Interaction with other areas of the network: The SGSN was able to
manage its elements within the network only by communicating with other
areas of the network, e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
○ Billing: The SGSN was also responsible billing. It achieved this by
monitoring the flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call
Detail Records) were generated by the SGSN before being transferred to
the charging entities (Charging Gateway Function, CGF).
 ● Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): Like the SGSN, this entity was also first
introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) was
the central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handled
inter-working between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet
switched networks, and could be considered as a very sophisticated router. In
operation, when the GGSN received data addressed to a specific user, it checked if
the user was active and then forwarded the data to the SGSN serving the particular
UE.

Shared elements

The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture included the following network
entities:

● >Home location register (HLR): This database contained all the administrative
information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the
UMTS network was able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user
switched on their UE, it registered with the network and from this it was possible to
determine which Node B it communicated with so that incoming calls could be routed
appropriately.
Even when the UE was not active (but switched on) it re-registered periodically to
ensure that the network (HLR) was aware of its latest position with their current or last
known location on the network.Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR was the
entity that decided whether a given UE equipment could be allowed onto the network.
Each UE equipment had a number known as the International Mobile Equipment
Identity. This number, as mentioned above, was installed in the equipment and was
checked by the network during registration.
● Authentication centre (AuC) : The AuC was a protected database that contained
the secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

The 3G UMTS wireless communications system provided the first step in the transition from a
mobile voice network thatw as provided by the 1G and 2G services, and this meant that far more
data capability was needed. This was reflected in the network architecture.