Computer Network

Physical & Data Link

 Learning Outcomes

Students are able to describe basic structures of network.

 Outline

• Signals
• Signal Impairment
• Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
• Multiplexing
• Media
• Data-Link Layer
• Media Access Protocols
• Link-layer Addressing
Signals
 Analog and Digital Signals

• The signals can be analog or digital.

• Analog signal takes many values.
• Digital signal takes a limited number of values.

Pic 2.1. Comparison of analog and digital signals

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Analog Signals

• An analog signal can take one of two forms: periodic or aperiodic (nonperiodic).
• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.
• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler
signals.

• The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.
• A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: period, peak amplitude, and
phase.
• The frequency is not an independent parameter: It is the inverse of the period.

Pic 2.2. A sine wavey

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Analog Signals (cont)

• The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity. For
electrical signals, peak amplitude is normally measured in volts.
• The period (T) refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete
one cycle. The frequency (f), measured in hertz (Hz), refers to the number of
periods in 1 s. Note that period and frequency are just one characteristic defined in
two ways. Period and frequency are inverses of each other, in other words.

• The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. phase is
measured in degrees or radians (360° is 2π rad).
• The term wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a
transmission medium. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in
one period. If we represent wavelength by λ, propagation speed by c, and
frequency by f, we get
 Analog Signals (cont)

• A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.

Showing a sine wave by using what is called a time- domain plot. The relationship
between amplitude and frequency, we can use a frequency-domain plot.

• In the frequency domain, a sine wave is represented by one spike. The position of
the spike shows the frequency; its height shows the peak amplitude.

Pic 2.3. The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Analog Signals (cont)

• Simple sine waves have many applications in daily life, such as sending energy from
one place to another. A composite signal is made up of many simple sine waves.
• The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its bandwidth. The
bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal. For example, if a composite signal
contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 – 1000, or
4000.
 Digital Signals

• A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than
1 bit for each level.
• Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not
appropriate characteristics of digital signals. term—bit rate (instead of frequency)
—is used to describe digital signals.
• The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 s, expressed in bits per second (bps).
The bit rate can be represented as kbps (kilo bits per second, where kilo means one
thousand) or Mbps (mega bits per second, where mega means one million).

Pic 2.4. Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other with
four signal levels
Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
Signal Impairment
 Signal Impairment

• Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment.
• This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
• Three causes of impairment are
– Attenuation,
– Distortion, and
– Noise.
 Attenuation and Amplification

• Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels

through a medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium
• To compensate for this loss, we need amplification.

• The decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two
different points.

Pic 2.5. Attenuation and amplification

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Distortion

• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.

• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made up of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and,
therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
• Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the
same as the period duration.
 Noise

• Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal

noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra
signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
• Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy and very short duration) that
comes from power lines, lightning, and so on.

• SNR is the ratio of two powers, it is often described in decibel units, SN R dB, as
 Data Rate Limits

• A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send

data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
– The bandwidth available
– The level of the signals we use
– The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
• Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate:
– by Nyquist for a noiseless channel,

– by Shannon for a noisy channel.

 Performance

• One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good

is it?
• One characteristic that measures network performance is Bandwidth.
– Two different contexts with two different measuring values:
• Bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second.
• Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies involved.
• The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
 Performance (cont)

• The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.

• Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter different delays and the
application using the data at the receiver site is time- sensitive (audio and video
data, for example)..

Pic 2.6. Bandwidth-delay product

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
Digital Transmission
 Digital Transmission

• In digital transmission, if data are digital, we need to use digital-to- digital

conversion techniques. If data are analog, we need to use analog- to-digital
conversion.
• Digital-to-Digital Conversion, The conversion involves three techniques:
– Line coding, is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.

– Block coding, Block coding is referred to as an mB/nB encoding technique.

Block coding normally involves three steps: division, substitution, and
combination.
– Scrambling. Pic 2.7. Line coding and decoding
Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Digital Transmission (cont)

• Analog-to-Digital Conversion, two techniques,

– Pulse code modulation (PCM)
• The most common technique used to change an analog signal to digital
data (digitization) is called pulse code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder
has three processes :
– The analog signal is sampled every T s.
– The sampled signal is quantized, which means every sample is
considered as a pulse.
– The quantized values (pulses) are encoded as streams of bits.

Pic 2.8. Components of a PCM encoder

Source : Data Communications and Networking
with TCP/IP Protocol Suite. Forouzan, B. A.
 Digital Transmission (cont)

• Analog-to-Digital Conversion, two techniques,

– Delta modulation (DM):
• PCM is a very complex technique. Other techniques have been developed
to reduce its complexity. The simplest is delta modulation (DM).
• PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds
the change from the previous sample.

Pic 2.9. The process of delta modulation

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
Analog Transmission
 Analog Transmission

• Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal is traditionally called digital-to-

analog conversion.
• Converting a low-pass analog signal to a bandpass analog signal is traditionally
called analog-to-analog conversion.
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion

• Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of

an analog signal based on the information in digital data.
• Four mechanisms for modulating digital data into an analog signal:
– Amplitude shift keying (ASK),
– Frequency shift keying (FSK),
– Phase shift keying (PSK) and
– Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
 Analog-to-Analog Conversion

• The representation of analog information by an analog signal.

• Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
channel is available to
• us. An example is a radio.
• The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal, all in the same
range.
• Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:
– Amplitude modulation (AM),
– Frequency modulation (FM)
– Phase modulation (PM).
Multiplexing
 Multiplexing

• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of

multiple signals across a single data link.
• In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

Pic 2.10. Dividing a link into channels

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Multiplexing (cont)

• There are three basic multiplexing techniques:

– Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM),
– Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM),
– Time- division multiplexing (TDM).
• Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) and Wavelength-division multiplexing
(WDM) is techniques designed for analog signals.
• Time- division multiplexing (TDM) is techniques designed for digital signals.
Media
 Transmission Media

• Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly
controlled by the physical layer.
• A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry
information from a source to a destination.
• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable.
The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data to
signal.
• In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad
categories:
– Guided
• Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
– Unguided.
• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.
 Guided Media

Pic 2.11. Twisted-pair cable

Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.

Pic 2.12. Coaxial cable

Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.

Pic 2.13. Optical fiber

Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Unguided Media

• Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical

conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

Pic 2.14. Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
Data-Link Layer
Communication at The Data-
link Layer

Pic 2.15. Communication at the data-link layer

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Nodes and Links

• Communication at the application, transport, and network layers is end-to- end,

communication at the data-link layer is node-to-node.
• A data unit from one point on the Internet needs to pass through many networks
(LANs and WANs) to reach another point. Theses LANs and WANs are connected by
routers. It is customary to refer to the two end hosts and the routers as nodes and
the networks in between as links.

Pic 2.16. Nodes and Links

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Nodes and Links (cont)

Type of Link
• Point-to-point link, the link is dedicated to the two devices;
• Broadcast link, the link is shared between several pairs of devices.

The data-link layer have two sublayers:

• Data-link control (DLC) and
• Media access control (MAC).
 Data-link Control (DLC)

• Data-link control (DLC) deals with procedures for communication between two
adjacent nodes—node-to-node communication—no matter whether the link is
dedicated or broadcast. Its functions include :
– Framing, Framing in the data-link layer separates a message from one source
to a destination by adding a sender address and a destination address. The
destination address defines where the packet is to go; the sender address
helps the recipient acknowledge the receipt.
– Error control, is both error detection and error correction. Type of error
Single-bit error and burst error.
• DLC Protocols :
– High-Level Data-Link Control, a bit-oriented protocol for communication over
point-to-point and multipoint links.
– Point-to-Point Protocol, most common protocols for point-to-point access is
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).
 High-Level Data-Link Control
(HDLC)

• HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different
configurations:
– Normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced. A
primary station can send commands; a secondary station can only respond.
The NRM is used for both point-to-point and multipoint links.

Pic 2.17. Normal response mode

Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol
Suite. Forouzan, B. A.

– Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the configuration is balanced. he link is

point-to-point, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary
(acting as peers)
Pic 2.18. Asynchronous balanced
mode
Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol
Suite. Forouzan, B. A.
 High-Level Data-Link Control
(cont)

• HDLC defines three types of frames:

– Information frames (I-frames), used to transport user data and control
information relating to user data (piggybacking)
– Supervisory frames (S-frames), used only to transport control information.
– Unnumbered frames (U- frames). intended for managing the link itself.

Pic 2.19. HDLC frames

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Point-to-Point Protocol

• PPP have included several services to make it suitable for a point- to-point protocol.
– Services Provided by PPP,
• PPP defines the format of the frame to be exchanged between devices.
• PPP is designed to accept payloads from several network layers [not only
Internet Protocol (IP)]
• The new version of PPP, called Multilink PPP, provides connections over
multiple links.
– Services Not Provided by PPP
• PPP does not provide flow control.
• A sender can send several frames one after another with no concern
about overwhelming the receiver.
• A CRC field is used to detect errors. If the frame is corrupted, it is silently
discarded; the upper-layer protocol needs to take care of the problem
Point-to-Point Protocol (cont)

Pic 2.20. PPP frame format

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.

Pic 2.21. Transition phases

Source : Data Communications and
Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Point-to-Point Protocol (cont)

• Three sets of protocols are defined to make PPP powerful: the Link Control Protocol
(LCP), two Authentication Protocols (APs), and several Network Control Protocols
(NCPs).
• Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing, maintaining, configuring,
and terminating links
• Authentication Protocol (AP) plays a very important role in PPP because PPP is
designed for use over dial-up links where verification of user identity is necessary.
Authentication means validating the identity of a user who needs to access a set of
resources. PPP has created two protocols for authentication:
– Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
– Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP)
• PPP is a multiple-network-layer protocol. It can carry a network-layer data packet
from protocols defined by the Internet, OSI, Xerox, DECnet, AppleTalk, Novel, and
so on. To do this, PPP has defined a specific Network Control Protocol for each
network protocol. One NCP protocol is the Internet Protocol Control Protocol
(IPCP). This protocol configures the link used to carry IP data packets in the
Internet. IPCP is especially of interest to us.
Media Access Protocols
 Media Access Protocols

Pic 2.22. Taxonomy of multiple-access protocols

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
Link-layer Addressing
 Link-layer Addressing

Pic 2.23. IP addresses and link-layer addresses in a small internet

Source : Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol Suite.
Forouzan, B. A.
 Types of Addresses

• Link-layer protocols define three types of addresses:

– Unicast, Each host or each interface of a router is assigned a unicast address.
Unicasting means one-to-one communication. A frame with a unicast address
destination is destined only for one entity in the link.
– Multicast, Link-layer protocols define multicast addresses. Multicasting means
one-to- many communication. However, the jurisdiction is local (inside the
link).
– Broadcast, Broadcasting means one-to- all communication. A frame with a
destination broadcast address is sent to all entities in the link.
 Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP)

• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

– Any time a node has an IP datagram to send to another node in a link, it has
the IP address of the receiving node.
– The source host knows the IP address of the default router. Each router except
the last one in the path gets the IP address of the next router by using its
forwarding table. The last router knows the IP address of the destination host.
– The ARP protocol is one of the auxiliary protocols defined in the network layer.
 Summary

• Data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals to be transmitted. Analog signals can have an
infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
• Signals lose some of their energy when traveling through a transmission medium because of the
imperfection of the medium. This affects the data rate and the shape of the signal
• Transmission media lies below the physical layer. A guided medium provides a physical conduit from
one device to another. Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable are the most popular
types of guided media. Unguided media (free space) transport electromagnetic waves without the
use of a physical conductor.
• the data-link layer as two sublayers. The upper sublayer is responsible for data-link control, and the
lower sublayer is responsible for resolving access to the shared media. Data-link control (DLC) deals
with the design and procedures for communication between two adjacent nodes: node-to-node
communication.
• High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication over point-to-point
and multipoint links. However, the most common protocol for point-to-point access is the Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP), which is a byte-oriented protocol.
Thank You
 References

• Forouzan, B. A. (2021). Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP Protocol

Suite. 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN: 978-1-26-436335-3. chapter 2 and 3.
• http://www.myreadingroom.co.in/notes-and-studymaterial/68-dcn/716-transmission-
impairment.html
• https://eng.uok.ac.ir/abdollahpouri/Network/Lecture4_MAC.pdf
• https://www.propatel.com/guided-and-unguided-media-difference/
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=64FSgQdWHrE
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WxJKXGugfh8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7i-72hsmWTQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAjfUc7Tt24