Computer Network

Applications of Network
Some of the applications of network are discussed below:

1. Sharing of Information In a network, the users can share information,

data and text easily to other users. Different users can share the same
database, having different levels of access control.
2. Sharing of Peripherals The computers, in a network, can share common
peripherals, e.g. one highly speed common printer can be used for all
computers in a network.
3. Communication In a network environment, communication between
different users or computers is possible. By which we can send
messages, documents (text), data files, graphics, videos, images or an
e-mail to different users over the network.
4. Accessing Remote Database We can access the remote database and
retrieve information according to our requirement in a network. We can
book tickets for airlines and trains or even book a room in a hotel at any
destination by a network.

Communication Media
Communication media of a network refer to the connecting media, through which
different computers in a network are interconnected together. The communication
media can also be referred to as communication channels. The communication
media can be grouped into two categories:

Wired Technologies (Guided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected through a wire or cable, then
such a medium is categorised under wired technologies. Among wired technologies,
ethernet cable, coaxial cable, optical fibre, etc., are included.

1. Ethernet Cable It is also known as twisted pair cable. There are two identical
wires wrapped together and twisted around each other.
Advantages of Ethernet Cable

● It is simple and physically flexible.

● It is inexpensive and easy to install and maintain.

Disadvantages of Ethernet Cable

● Using ethernet cable, signals cannot be transported over long distances

without using repeaters.
● It is not suitable for broadband applications as it has low bandwidth
capabilities.

2. Coaxial Cable It consists of a solid core wire surrounded by foil shields, each
separated by some insulator. The inner solid core wire carries the signal through the
network and the shield is used to provide earthing or ground. Coaxial cable is
commonly used in transporting multi-channel television signals in cities.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

● The data transmission quality in coaxial cable is better than twisted pair
cable, yet it is affordable.
● Co-axial cables can be used successfully in shared cable networks.
● It can be used effectively for broadband transmission.

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

● Coaxial cable is more costly than twisted pair cable.

● The coaxial cable is not compatible with twisted pair cable. So, both of
these cables cannot be used together in a network.

It consists of thin strands of extruded glass silica or plastic, slightly thicker than
human hair, which are capable of carrying light signals from a source at one end to
another end. At the source, there is a Light Emitting Diode (LED) or a Laser Diode,
which modulates the data into a light beam using frequency modulation techniques.
At the receiving end, the data are demodulated into computer readable form.
An optical fibre cable contains following three parts:

● Core It is the innermost part, which is made up of glass or plastic

through which the light signals travel.
● Cladding The cladding covers the core and reflects the light beam back
into the core.
● Protective Coating The protective coating is outside the cladding for the
protection of the optical fibre.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

● It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e. noise in any form

cannot harm the data because the information is travelling on a
modulated light beam.
● It is highly suitable for rigid industrial environments.
● Optical fibre cables can be used for broadband transmission, where
several channels (i.e. frequency bands of) are handled in parallel and
there is possibility of mixing up data transmission channels with other
channels.

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

● Connecting either two fibres together or a light source to a fibre is a

difficult process.
● Because of noise immunity, optical fibres are virtually impossible to tap.
In order to intercept the signal, the fibre must be cut and a detector must
be inserted which is not possible.
● Optical fibre cables are more difficult to solder (joint of one or more
cable).

Wireless Technologies (Unguided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected and transmitted through

waves, which travel through air, water or vacuum, then such a medium is
categorised under wireless technologies. Among wireless technologies are
bluetooth, infrared, microwave, radio link, satellite, etc., are included.
1. Bluetooth It is a wireless technology, which is used for exchanging data over
short distances from fixed and mobile devices. Such types of networks are
categorised under personal area networks. Bluetooth was developed by telecom
vendor Ericsson in 1994. Today, bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group, which has more than 14000 member companies in areas of
computing, telecommunication, electronics and networking. This occurs mostly on
your cell phone but also occurs in other technology such as music players.

Advantages of Bluetooth

1. It allows you to stay cord or cable free. So, you do not have to worry
about finding the correct place to connect that extra long cord.
2. Even though you are able to exchange data across your cell phones,
you still have the ability to keep your information private.
3. As it is already, but most likely it will be more dominant. You can use
bluetooth on laptops, cell phones, music players, headsets, printers and
many more other products.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth

1. You are using up more battery power, when you leave your bluetooth
enabled on your phone all day.
2. Throughout all devices, when using bluetooth Internet, the connection
can sometimes run very slow, so bluetooth Internet is not highly
suggested for that cases

2. Infrared In this type of transmission, infrared light signals are used. Infrared
signals are used in TV remotes, infrared wireless speakers, etc., as a mode of
transmission.

In infrared transmission, signals are transmitted through the air but these signals
cannot penetrate the walls.

Advantages of Infrared

● Low power requirements therefore ideal for laptops, telephones,

personal digital assistants.
● Low circuitry costs $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry.
 ● Simple circuitry no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be
incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product.

Disadvantages of Infrared

● Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc., can block

transmission.
● Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned
(i.e. able to see each other) to communicate.
● Short range: performance drops off with longer distances.

3. In this type of transmission, signals are transmitted in the same way as the radio
and television transmission. The requirement for microwave transmission is
transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. Under this mode of transmission parabolic
antennas are mounted on the towers. These antennas send the signals in the
atmospheric air. These signals are received by the receiver.

Advantages of Microwave

● Using a microwave, signals can be transmitted in the air without using

cables.
● Using a microwave, communication is possible even in difficult terrain or
over oceans.

Disadvantages of Microwave

● It is not a secured mode of communication.

● Microwave communication is affected by weather conditions such as
rain, thunderstorms, etc.

4. Radio Link When two terminals are connected by using radio frequencies, then
such type of communication is referred as radio wave transmission or radio link. Any
radio transmission set-up has two parts viz., the transmitter and the receiver. Both
the transmitter and the receiver use antennas to send and receive the radio signals.

Advantages of Radio Link

 ● It is a cheaper means of transmission than wired communication.
● It provides mobility and makes communication easy over difficult terrain.

Disadvantages of Radio Link

● It is not a secured mode of transmission.

● These signals are affected by the weather conditions like rain,
thunderstorms, etc.

5. Satellite In this type of communication, data is transmitted through satellite. Under

this arrangement, there is an earth station and a satellite placed in the stationary
orbit, which is about 22300 miles above the earth’s surface. In satellite
communication, the earth station transmits data towards the satellite and the satellite
accepts these signals, amplifies them and then retransmits them towards the earth.
These signals are captured by the receiver.

Advantages of Satellite

● In satellite communication, a large area could be covered.

● This mode of transmission is very useful in multimedia transmission.

Disadvantages of Satellite

● Satellite communication is very costly. So, it is not suitable for personal

or low budget communication.
● There is atmospheric loss of transmitted signals.

Types of Network

On the basis of coverage or geographical spread, a network can be divided into

following types:

1. Local Area Network (LAN) When the network of computers is confined to a small
or localised area such as school, office or building, it is known as Local Area
Network (LAN). Computers or users in a local area network can share data,
information, software and common hardware devices such as printers, modems,
hard disks, etc.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A metropolitan area network is the network

which is spread over a city. The functions of a MAN are similar to LAN. Like a LAN,
computers in a MAN are also capable of sharing data, information, software and
hardware. The difference is only on the basis of geographical area coverage.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN) The network of computers which is spread across the
countries probably over the entire world is known as a Wide Area Network (WAN).

● A WAN can be a group of several LANs interconnected together.

● The largest WAN is the Internet.
● The functions of WAN are also similar to a LAN or MAN.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN) The PAN refers to a computer network, which is
used for communication among computer devices spread over a few metres. PAN
may be wired (i.e. with the use of computer buses such as USB) or wireless using
wireless network technologies such as bluetooth, wireless USB, Z-wave and ZigBee.
Bluetooth personal area network(PAN) is also called a piconet. It can be composed
of upto eight devices in a master slave relationship. The first bluetooth device is
master and other devices are acting as slaves. Normally, its range is upto 10 m.

Network Topologies
The network topology refers to the arrangement or pattern of computers (i.e. nodes
or workstations), which are interconnected in a network.

Commonly used network topologies are as follows:

1. Bus Topology Bus topology is also referred to as linear topology. Under this
arrangement, all nodes in the network are connected by a single length of
transmission medium, which is normally a coaxial cable. Both ends of the cable are
terminated by terminators. Data transmission from any workstation can travel in both
directions.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. In bus topology, all nodes are connected through a single length of

cable, so very short cable length is used.
2. Extension of the network is very easy in bus topology. We can connect
new nodes along its length.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. When there is any problem in data communication with any node, the
whole network stops functioning.
2. In case of any fault in data transmission, fault isolation is very difficult.
We have to check the entire network to find the fault.

2. Ring Topology In ring or circular topology, the nodes are connected in a circular
way. In such an arrangement, each node is connected exactly with its two
neighbouring nodes. In other words, when the last node in a bus network is
connected with the first node and the entire network becomes circular, the network is
known as a network using ring topology.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Short cable length is required for connecting the nodes together.

2. The architecture of the network is simple and easy to maintain.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 1. In ring topology, each node is connected in a circular way with its two
neighbouring nodes, so when there is transmission problem anywhere in
the network, the entire network stops functioning.
2. Fault diagnosis is very difficult in a network formed using ring topology.

3. Star Topology In star topology, there is a direct and dedicated connection of

every . node of the network with the central node or server. In star topology, the
server is directly connected with each and every node in the network via a hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. The star topology is the most reliable as there is a direct connection of

every node in the network with the central node or server.
2. If there is any problem in connection with any node, other nodes in the
network are not affected.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Since every node is directly connected with the central node or the
server, a large quantity of the cable is required.
2. There is dependency on the central node. If there are some problems
with the central node, the entire network stops functioning.

4. Mesh Topology A network set-up where each computer and network device is
interconnected with one another to provide an alternative route in case the host is
down or busy.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Excellent for long distance networking.

2. Communication is also possible through the alternate route, if one path
is busy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 1. Long wire/cable length, hence increase in the cost of installation and
maintenance
2. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.

5. Tree Topology The tree topology is an extension and variation in bus topology.
Here, the shape of a network is like an inverted tree, where the central node is at the
root which is branching out as the network extends. Tree topology is suitable for the
applications which have a hierarchical flow of data and control. Since, it is a modified
form of bus topology, hence it is a hybrid topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The tree topology simulates hierarchical flow of data. So, it is suitable for
applications, where hierarchical flow of data and control is required.
 2. We can easily extend the network whenever required.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. There is a requirement of long cable length.

2. In tree topology, there is dependency on the root node.

Network Devices

Network devices are the components used to connect computers and other
electronic devices together, so that they can share files or resources like printers or
fax machines. The most common type of network devices used by the public to
set-up a Local Area Network (LAN) are hub, switch, repeater and if online access is
desired, a high-speed modem.

1. Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) Modem is a device that converts digital signal to

analog signal (modulator) at the sender’s site and converts back analog signal to
digital signal (demodulator) at the receiver’s end, in order to make communication
possible via telephone lines.

Functions of Modem The essential function of a modem is to create an easily

transmitted and decode signal. Modem divides the information into packets called
frames. They minimise the error that occurs while the transmission of signals.
Modems are of two types:

● Internal Modem It refers to the modem that is fixed within a computer,

e.g. dial-up and wireless.
● External Modem A modem that resides in a self-contained box
outside the computer system, e.g. USB modem, Cable modem.

2. Hub Hub is a device used to connect several computers together. It provides a

centralised connection to several computers with the central node or server.

It is a multi-slot device in which multi-port cards can be inserted to provide access to

computers in the network.
Functions of a Hub A hub is a device that interconnects a number of computers or
users. Whenever any data packet is received by any port in a workstation which may
be an e-mail, graphics or any document, is forwarded to all remaining ports. Thus,
the required data packet is transported to the desired user or device.

There are two types of hub:

● Active Hub It amplifies the signals and passes from one connected
device to another. These hubs are working as repeaters to boost up the
signals.
● Passive Hub It simply passes signals from one connected device to
another without making any changes.

3. Switch The switch is a hardware device used to divide or segment the network
into smaller subnets or LAN segments. The main purpose of segmenting a large
network into smaller segments is to prevent the traffic overloading in a network.

A switch forwards the data packet in a specific way over the network. It means the
switch filters the data packet, when the same is passed to it and for the packet to the
desired LAN segment.

Functions of a Switch

The switch is responsible for forwarding a data packet to a specific route or segment.
For this purpose, the switch establishes a temporary connection between the source
and the destination, when the data packet is transported the connection is
terminated.

4. Repeater The repeater is a hardware device used in a network to amplify the

weak signals, when they are transported over long distances. When the signal is
transmitted over a line, then due to resistance and other causes it accumulates
noise. Due to this noise, the quality of signal degrades.

So, to improve the quality of signals, repeaters need to be installed.

Functions of a Repeater

It receives an incoming signal from one device and retransmits it, forwarding it on to
another.
There are two types of repeaters:

● Amplifier Repeaters It amplifies or boosts the incoming signals. So, it

amplifies both the signal and any concurrent noise.
● Signal Repeaters These repeaters remove or filter the noise from
incoming signals and retransmit the same, in the same way as it was
starting from the source.

5. Gateway The gateway is a network device which is used to connect dissimilar

networks. The gateway establishes an intelligent connection between a local network
and external networks, which are completely different in structure.

Infact, the gateway is a node that routes the traffic from a workstation to an outside
network. The gateway also acts as a proxy server and a firewall, which prevents
unauthorised access.

Functions of a Gateway The gateway is a node in a network which serves as a

proxy server and a firewall system. It is associated with a router and a switch. Its
main function as a proxy server is to hold the information from a website temporarily
so that the repeated access to the same website or web page could be directed to
the proxy server instead of the actual web server, thus helping in reducing the traffic
load. As a firewall system, it prevents unauthorised access to and from a private
network.

Network Protocols

Protocol refers to the set of rules and regulations applicable for a network. The
protocol defines standardised format for the data packet to be transmitted through
the network, techniques for detecting the errors whenever they arise and methods to
correct these errors and so on.

Some of the commonly used protocols are as follows:

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) HTTP is an application level protocol and it is

widely used for viewing information of a web page over the Internet. It is a generic,
stateless and object oriented protocol.

HTTP consists of a set of requests from the browser of a local computer to the web
server and a set of responses going back the other way.
Though HTTP is designed for the use in the web application, it has scope to be used
in future object oriented applications.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) FTP is designed to transfer files from one system to
another. Using FTP, different people located in different geographical locations can
cooperate and work on a common project. FTP is designed to promote sharing of
files and to encourage the indirect use of remote computers. Using FTP, any type of
file can be transferred from one computer to another. Though for transferring files,
we have to specify whether the file is in ASCII format or in binary format.

3. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) TCP/IP is a set of two

protocols, i.e. TCP and IP. The Internet Protocol (IP) tells how packets of information
are sent out over networks. IP has a packet addressing method that lets any
computer on the Internet forward a packet to another computer that is a step closer
to the packet’s recipient. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures the
reliability of data transmission across Internet connected networks. TCP checks
packets for errors and submits requests for retransmission if errors are found.

4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) The PPP is used with dial-up Internet connections
including ISDN. It is a layered protocol, which is used for transmitting the data over
usual telephone lines. It can provide connection authentication, transmission,
encryption and compression.

Remote Access Software

In remote access software firstly we have to know about the term “remote access”.
Remote access refers to the ability to access a computer or a network from a remote
distance. Remote access can be established via a line that runs between a computer
and Local Area Network. This type of line provides faster speeds but has the
drawback of being more expensive. Another suitable method for performing remote
access is establishing a Virtual Private Network, which usually uses the Internet to
connect remote sites and users together.

To establish a remote connection, both the local machine and remote

computer/server must have remote access software. Remote access software dial
indirectly to the network server.

Teamviewer is one example of Remote Access Software. It simplifies remote access

over the Internet and supports a wide range of devices. It is free for private uses.

Internet
The Internet has gained popularity and emerged as an important and efficient means
of communication. The Internet is a world wide network of networks.

Through the Internet, computers become able to exchange information with each
other and find diverse perspectives on issues from a global audience.

Basic Components for the Working of Internet

Here, we are discussing some basic yet essential components of a network which
are very much required for the proper functioning of the Internet.

IP Address

An IP address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. It is a

way to measure a user’s unique identity. The traditional IP Addresses (IPv4) uses a
32-bit numeric format and it defines both network and host address. But now-a-days
a new version of the IP protocol (IPv6) has been invented to offer a virtually limitless
number of unique addresses. An IP address can be static or dynamic. A static IP
address will never change and it is a permanent Internet address. A dynamic IP
address is a temporary address that is assigned to any computing device to access
the Internet. An example of IPv4 address is 216.3.128.12. Each number can be from
zero to 255.

MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

The MAC address refers to a unique physical address assigned to a Network

Interface Card (NIC). Every workstation or device which is connected with the
network has a unique node address. The MAC address is a 6 byte (48 bit) address.
Each byte in this address is separated by a colon. There are hexadecimal numbers
from 00 to FF (i.e. 0 – 255) in each byte, e.g. 05 : C2: 04 : 59 : 2F: BC is a MAC
address.

Domain Name

Domain name is a unique name or identification that helps to create the path to open
a particular website. All the domain names have IP addresses. IP addresses can be
remembered by the computer, but it is difficult to remember for a human being. If you
know the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a website, you can access it. The URL
is actually the domain name of the website, so the domain name is the unique name
of a website. Every time we enter a domain name it will be converted into an IP
address and the website will be opened, e.g. www.Mybook.com A domain name
contains three parts:

1. Host name as, www

2. Name describing the website purpose as, Mybook
3. Top level domain as .com, .net, .edu, etc.

Domain Name Resolution

Domain name resolution refers to the process of getting the corresponding IP

address from a domain name. In Fact the content of a website is stored on some
server anywhere in the world and to access the information or content the IP address
is required. When we enter the domain name in a browser by typing on the address
bar, the browser issues a command to the operating system to provide the
corresponding IP address.

Thereafter, the operating system searches the host file in which IP addresses of
some domains are stored. If the corresponding domain name was not found there,
then the request is forwarded to Domain Name Servers (DNS). The DNS maintains a
directory of all domain names and corresponding IP addresses registered on the
Internet. When the IP address is required, it is provided to the browser. The browser
can access the information from the respective website using the IP address.

Internet Applications

Applications which runs by the use of Internet are given below:

1. E-Mail

E-mail stands for Electronic Mail. It is a text message that may contain files, images
or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group of
individuals. Some early email systems required that the sender and the recipient
both be online at the same time, in common with instant messaging. Today’s email
systems are based on a store and forward model. E-mail servers accept, forward,
deliver and store messages. Neither the user nor their computers are required to be
online simultaneously; they need to connect an e-mail server, for as long as it takes
to send or receive messages. Interaction between e-mail server and clients are
governed by e-mail protocol. The two most common e-mail protocols are POP3 and
SMTP.
2. SMS

SMS stands for Short Message Service. Short text messages are transmitted to and
from a mobile phone, fax machine, etc. Messages must not be longer than 160
alpha-numeric characters and may also contain images or graphics. Once a
message is sent, it is received by a Short Message Service Centre (SMSC), which
must get to the appropriate mobile device. To do this, the SMSC sends a SMS
request to Home Location Register (HLR) to find the roaming customer. Once the
HLR receives the request, it will respond to the SMSC with the subscriber’s status

● Inactive or active.
● Where the subscriber is roaming.

If the response is ‘inactive’, then the SMSC will hold on to the message for a period
of time. When the subscriber accesses his device, the HLR sends a SMS notification
to the SMSC and the SMSC will attempt delivery. The system pages the device and
if it responds, the message gets delivered. The SMSC receives a verification, that
the message was received by the end user, then it is categorised as, send message
and will not attempt to send again.

3. Video Conferencing

By the name itself it is clear that it is the process of conferencing through video talk.
Basically, video conferencing is a type of conference, which takes place between two
or more participants by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data.
For such type of video conferencing each participant should have a video camera,
microphone and speakers in his computer set-up.

There are two types of video conferencing:

● Point to Point
● Multipoint.

1. Point to Point Video Conferencing is a conferencing between two people

through video. It is like a video telephonic call. The difference between a simple
telephone call and point to point video conferencing is the virtual appearance of the
user. They are able to view each other on their computer window screen.
2. Multipoint Video Conferencing allows more than two participants to sit in a
virtual conference room and can communicate with others as if they are sitting just
next to each other.

4. Voice Mail

Voice mail is basically a voice message that stores messages electronically which
can be retrieved by the intended recipients according to their convenience. Voice
mail was developed by telephony to prevent missed calls and to facilitate call
screening. Now-a-days, voice mails are getting integrated with the Internet, which
allows users to receive incoming voice messages on their computers.

5. Chat

It can be defined as an informal conversation between two or more people. In terms

of computers, chat refers to the communication between two users through the
computer, textually. The text is entered by one participant through a keyboard and
that text is received by another on the other side and vice versa.

Wireless/Mobile Communication

By the name itself, it can be defined that it is a communication which does not use
any wires for the transmission of data. In this type of communication, waves are
used as the transmission medium, instead of wires. Mobile communication uses
electromagnetic waves for sharing and transferring of data. Some of the mobile
communication such as GSM, CDMA, WLL, 3G and 4G are discussed below:

1. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a digital cellular technology
that uses spread spectrum techniques. CDMA consistently provides better capacity
for voice and data communications than other commercial mobile technologies,
allowing more subscribers to connect at any given time and it is the common
platform on which 3G technologies are built. CDMA is a military technology first used
during world war II by english allies to foil german attempts at jamming transmission.

2. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

GSM is developed to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular
networks used by mobile phones. It is developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for the replacement of first
generation (1G) analog cellular networks and originally described a digital circuit
switched network optimised for full duplex voice telephony. Full duplex means
receiving and sending the data at a time. ‘GSM’ is a trademark owned by the GSM
Association.

3. WLL (Wireless Local Loop)

It is an ideal application which provides telephone service to a remote rural area.

This technology simply means that the subscriber is connected to the nearest
exchange through a radio link instead of through the copper wires. Sometimes it is
also known as Radio In The Loop (RITL) or Fixed-Radio Access (FRA). WLL has an
advantage over satellite broadband because of its lower transmission delay.

The system used in WLL is based on a full-duplex radio network whose capacity is
very high to access the data from the network. The cost of installing a WELL system
for subscriber access lines is now virtually the same as that of copper cable, though
it can vary depending on the subscriber line length and local conditions, e.g.
AFS-WALL system has already been commercialised and is scheduled to be
implemented for commercial service in several countries.

4. 3G (Third Generation)

3G stands for Third Generation and it is also called Tri-Band 3G. 3G

telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer
rate of at least 200 Kbps. This will allow 3G mobile devices to support services such
as video footage conferencing and full Internet access. Recent 3G releases, often
denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbps to
smart phones, modems, laptops, computers.

5. 4G (Fourth Generation)

4G stands for Fourth Generation, the stage of broadband mobile communications

that will supersede the third generation (3G). Carriers that use Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) instead of Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) are increasingly marketing their
services as being 4G, even when their data speeds are not as fast as the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) specifies.

According to the ITU, a 4G network requires a compatible device to exchange data

at the rate of 100 Mbps. A 3G network, on the other hand, can offer data speeds as
slow as 3.84 Mbps. From the consumer’s point of view, 4G is more a marketing term
than a technical specification but carriers feel justified in using the 4G label because
it lets the consumer know that they can expect significantly faster data speed.

Network Security

Network security refers to the provisions and policies adopted by the network
administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorised access, misuse, modification or
denial of the computer network and network accessible resources. For network
security, there is a provision of assigning an ID and a password or other
authenticating information that allows the user to access the information and
program within their authority. Network security covers a variety of networks; both
public and private. Network security is important because people, organisations,
corporates across the world are using the Internet to store the data, for
communicating and transmitting critical information. That is why network security
breaches are there.

Some of the major network security breaches are:

1. Denial of Service (DOS)

A denial of service attack refers to an attempt to make computer resources

unavailable to the intended users. Generally, it consists of the effort of a person or a
group of persons to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or
completely. It may be temporary or infinite. One of the common methods of denial of
service attack is to saturate the target machine with external communication
requests, in such a way that either the machine can not respond properly or respond
slowly that it would not send services effectively.

2. Intrusion Problem

The intrusion problem refers to the malicious activities or policy violation performed
on a computer system. The main motive of intrusion is to store vital information and
essential data. Such types of activities are performed by people with a malicious
mentality.

1. Intrusion Detection System It is a device or software application that

monitors the network for malicious activities. The intrusion detection and
prevention system is primarily focused on identifying possible incidents,
logging information and reporting attempts.
2. Snooping refers to unauthorised opening of files or accessing data,
e-mail, etc. Snooping may include monitoring and tracing of keystrokes
pressed, capturing the passwords and login information, etc.
 3. Eavesdropping is identical to snooping. When there is intentional
interception of other data such as e-mail, login-id, credit card
information, password, etc., then it is said to be eavesdropping. In other
words, when someone listens or intercepts others' data secretly, then it
is said to be eavesdropping.

3. Authentication

It provides a way to identify a user. It is also known as the term of password

protection. The user is provided with a legal login-id and password by which he/she
is considered to be an authentic user and is allowed to see the password protected
data.

Network Security Concepts

Network security refers to the security of the network resources which are used and
guided by the Internet as they are very much unwanted viruses and many other
problems which can damage the active files over the network. Some of the network
security concepts are described below:

1. Cookies

It is also known as browser cookies or tracking cookies. Cookies are small, often
encrypted text files, located in browser directories. They are used by web developers
to help users navigate their websites efficiently and perform certain functions. Due to
their core role of enhancing usability or site processes, disabling cookies may
prevent users from using certain websites. Cookies are created when a user’s
browser loads a particular website. The website sends information to the browser
which then creates a text file. Computer cookies are created not just by the website
the user is browsing, but also by other websites that run ads, widgets and other
elements on the page being loaded. These cookies regulate how the ads appear or
how the widgets and other elements function on the page.

2. Firewall

A system based on software or hardware designed to prevent unauthorised access

to or from a private network. Firewalls may be a combination of hardware and
software. A firewall establishes a barrier between a trusted, secure internal network
(private network) and another network that is not assumed to be secure and’ trusted.
All messages entering or leaving the Intranet (internal network) pass through the
firewall, which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the
specified security criteria.

There are several types of firewall techniques:

1. Packet filter Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly
effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In
addition, it is susceptible to IP spoofing.
2. Application gateway Applies security mechanisms to specific
applications, such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but
can impose a performance degradation.
3. Circuit-level gateway Applies security mechanism when a TCP or UDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets
can flow between the hosts without further checking.
4. Proxy server Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

3. Cyber Law

Cyber law is a term that encapsulates legal issues related to the use of the Internet.
It is less a distinct field of law than intellectual property or contract law, as it is a
domain covering many areas of rules and regulations. Some leading topics include
Internet access and usage, privacy, freedom of expression and jurisdiction.

4. Hacker

A hacker is someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer system or

computer network. Hacking is the practice of modifying the features of a system, in
order to accomplish a goal outside of the creator’s original purpose. Hackers obtain
advanced knowledge of operating systems and programming languages. Hackers
are most commonly associated with malicious programming attacks on the Internet
and other networks.

5. Cracker

A cracker is also called black hat hacker. A cracker is an individual with extensive
computer knowledge whose purpose is to breach or bypass Internet security or gain
access to the software without paying royalties. The general view is that, while
hackers build things, crackers break things. Cracker is the name given to hackers
who break into computers for criminal gain. Crackers’ motivations can range from
profit, a cause they believe in, general maliciousness or just because they like the
challenge. They may steal credit card numbers, leave viruses, destroy files, etc.

6. Trojan

A Trojan, or Trojan Horse, is a non-self-replicating type of malware which appears to

perform a desirable function but instead facilitates unauthorised access to the user’s
computer system. Trojans do not attempt to inject themselves into other files like a
computer virus. It may steal information, or harm their host computer systems.
Trojans may use drive-by downloads or install via online games or Internet-driven
applications in order to reach target computers. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses do not
replicate themselves.

e.g. Beast, Sub7.Zeus, ZeroAccess Rootkit, etc.