Sustainable Energy

Biomass Energy

Prof. Ing. Francesco Corvaro

Email: f.corvaro@univpm.it

Introduction
• Biomass energy refers to energy extracted from recently grown
biological matter. It is renewable (as compared with fossil fuels)
because, as it is used, new material can be grown to replace it.

• Biofuels are the oldest source of energy used by humans; the

use of wood for heating and cooking dates back to prehistoric
times.

• Because of their renewability, biofuels are also a source of

energy that has generated substantial interest in recent years.

• On a global scale, biofuels are currently the largest contributor

to renewable energy.

Introduction
• However, to be utilized in a renewable manner and remain carbon
neutral, new biomaterial must be grown to replace material that has
been used in order to sequester the carbon that has been produced.

• Biofuels may be materials, such as wood, that are utilized directly in

the form in which they are found in nature.

• They may also be materials that are produced by processing naturally

grown materials into a form of fuel that is more readily utilized (e.g., the
production of ethanol from plant matter).

• Also, biofuels include societal waste products (e.g., municipal waste),

which are either burned directly or processed to produce a more
convenient form of fuel. In this chapter, biofuels are placed in four basic
categories: wood, bioalcohols, biodiesel, and municipal waste.
 Wood
• Wood has long been used as a source of energy, and until the
late 1800s, was the major source of energy worldwide, after
which it was replaced (for some time at least) by coal.

• Over the years, wood has also been an important source of

material for industry and building (and continues in this role). In
North America, more than 70% of wood that is harvested is used
for industry (largely the paper industry) and building construction.

• Less than 30% is used as a source of energy. In Bangladesh,

98% of the harvested wood is used for energy. Today one-third of
world’s population (mostly in developing countries) relies on
wood as a major source of energy. This discussion is con ned to
the use of wood as a source of energy.

Wood
• Wood that is used for the production of energy is used in
one of three forms:

• 1. Firewood: Wood that is used directly.

• 2. Charcoal: Primarily carbon that is produced by heating

wood.

• 3. Black liquor: A combustible oil-like substance that is a

by-product of the pulp and paper industry.

Wood
• The combustion of wood is basically the oxidation of carbon
or hydrocarbons and is, from a chemical standpoint, very
much like the combustion of a fossil fuel.

• The energy content of wood is typically about 14 MJ/kg

(6000 Btu/lb) compared with about 31 MJ/kg (13,300 Btu/lb)
for bituminous coal.

• The main di erence between burning wood and burning coal

is that trees (or other living organic matter) sequester carbon
dioxide so that the CO2 released by the combustion of wood
can be eliminated from the environment if the trees that are
burned are replaced by an equal number of new trees.
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 Wood
• In this way, wood can be used as a renewable resource
that does not have a net contribution to the greenhouse
gas in the environment.

• In this case, it is referred to as being carbon neutral.

• Unfortunately, much of the wood used for both energy

production and industrial purposes is not used in a
renewable way, and the resulting deforestation means
that the greenhouse gases released into the environment
by the burning, decomposition, or decay of wood are not
sequestered by the growth of new trees.

Wood
• Much of the wood that is used as a source of energy is used
on a residential basis, rather than for generating electric
power for the grid.

• Di culties with the wide-spread use of wood for commercial

energy production stem largely from problems with
processing and transportation costs.

• A 1500-MWe wood- red generating station operates in

Sweden, and there is a 500-MWe facility in Austria. A 3.96-
GWe coal- red generating station in the United Kingdom has
recently been partially converted to a wood-burning facility
using fuel imported from the United States and Canada.

Wood
• A number of smaller wood- red generating stations exist worldwide,
including a few in North America. Even so, wood, primarily as a heating
fuel, remains a major contributor to renewable energy, as illustrated by
a breakdown of renewable energy in the United States in 2015.

• Although the use of wood in a renewable way is carbon neutral, the

burning of this resource is not without other environmental
consequences.

• Wood contains much less sulfur than coal, so SOx emissions are not a
concern. However, burning wood produces substantial quantities of
NOx and particulate matter. Because wood use is not generally a large-
scale commercial operation, control of emissions is more di cult. Also,
the combustion of wood releases benzo(a)pyrene, a known carcinogen.
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 Ethanol production
• Light hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane are gaseous at
room temperature, and hydrated light hydrocarbons are typically
liquid at room temperature. Some of these are alcohols, such as
methanol, ethanol, and the like, which are represented by the
formula CnH2n+1OH. The properties of the light alcohols are
shown in Table.

Ethanol production
• These alcohols may be produced as a by-product of the distillation
of petroleum or by the fermentation of sugar containing biological
materials.

• Bioalcohols can be used as a source of energy and, because they

are liquids at room temperature, provide a convenient replacement
for petroleum-based transportation fuels such as gasoline.

• This discussion focuses on ethanol because this has been shown

to be the most practical in terms of ease of production and
suitability for direct replacement of gasoline in internal combustion
engines.

• Methanol has found some use as a fuel for fuel cells.

Ethanol production
• Currently about 95% of all ethanol is bioethanol; the
remainder is produced from petroleum. Ethanol is the alcohol
found in alcoholic beverages and is also used in various
industrial processes.

• The majority of ethanol produced at present is used for the

production of energy. Energy from bioalcohol is a
manifestation of solar energy.

• Light from the sun produces glucose (C6H12O6) by means of

photosynthesis using water and CO2. The process is

• 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

 Ethanol production
• Living organisms can modify glucose to form fructose (same
chemical formula as glucose but di erent structure), bond glucose
together in strings to form starch or cellulose, or bond glucose to
fructose to form sucrose (normal table sugar).

• The fermentation of simple glucose produces ethanol, along with

CO2 and heat, according to the process

• C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + heat.

• The combustion of ethanol produces CO2 and water along with

heat:

• C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat.

Ethanol production
• The photosynthesis process is inherently ine cient (perhaps
about 2%), mean-ing that the production of electricity by
burning ethanol in a heat engine has an overall e ciency
that is considerably lower than that achieved by
photovoltaics.

• However, as the technologies involved in these two

approaches are quite di erent, a more detailed analysis of
biofuel use is needed.

• The steps in the commercial production of ethanol from

organic matter are: fermentation, distillation and
dehydration.

Fermentation
• Traditional fermentation processes convert simple sugars
(including glucose, fructose, sucrose, and starches) to
ethanol according to equation.

• More complex processes are required to break down

cellulose prior to fermentation. Some plant material (e.g.,
sugarcane) contains a signi cant proportion of simple sugar,
whereas others, such as corn, contain much less.

• For example, the current production of ethanol from corn

utilizes only about 50% of the dry corn kernel [although the
remainder of the plant may be used for other purposes (e.g.,
livestock feed, etc.)].
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 Distillation
• The distillation of the fermentation product is normally
required to remove water from the ethanol.

• Traditional distillation techniques yield an azeotropic mixture

of ethanol with about 4% water.

• Although this mixture can, in principle, be used directly to

produce energy by combustion, the presence of water
makes it immiscible with gasoline, limiting its use for fuels
that are a gasoline-ethanol mixture.

• It is therefore generally necessary to use dehydration

methods to remove the remaining water.

Dehydration
• Traditional dehydration techniques mix, say, benzene with the azeotropic
ethanol-water mixture produced by distillation.

• The water preferentially mixes with the benzene, and the ethanol can be
separated.

• While this technique allows for the extraction of high-purity dehydrated

ethanol, the waste material contains benzene, a known carcinogen.

• To eliminate the health and environmental hazards associated with

carcinogenic materials, new benzene-free techniques have been developed
that use molecular sieves to absorb water and allow the ethanol to be
extracted.

• These techniques are now in common use and can take the place of both
the distillation and dehydration processes.

Use of ethanol
• Ethanol can be used in its pure form as a fuel in an
internal combustion engine, or it may be blended with
gasoline in various proportions.

• Fuel mixtures are designated by the percentage (by

volume) of ethanol where, for example, E10 represents a
mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline.

• The mixing of ethanol with gasoline as a transportation

fuel dates back to the 1920s. It became popular in the
1970s during the oil crisis when E10 fuel was commonly
marketed under the name of gasohol.
 Use of ethanol
• Normal gasoline internal combustion engines can use
ethanol-gasoline mixtures up to about E10, or in some
cases slightly higher, without any modi cation.

• In some countries, low-ethanol blends have been

mandated by government regulation (e.g., E10 in Sweden
and E5 in India).

• As of 2008, nine states in the United States have

mandated the use of E10.

Use of ethanol

• In other states, the addition of ethanol to gasoline is a

common practice, and ethanol in some amount is present
in more than 60% of the gasoline sold in the United
States.

• In some cases this is indicated on the gasoline pump.

Use of ethanol
• The use of higher percentages of ethanol in gasoline requires
minor modi cations to the engine design.

• Most modi cations are related to the increased reactivity of

polymers to ethanol-containing fuels and require the
replacement of some plastic components in the fuel delivery
system.

• Typical modi cations to an engine that will allow the use of E85
cost less than US$100. However, retro tting older engines can
be problematic because the ethanol dissolves accumulated
organic deposits in the fuel system (i.e., those that are relatively
insoluble in gasoline) and causes clogging in the engine.
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 Use of ethanol

• Many vehicles sold in North America (referred to as ex

fuel vehicles) come with the ability to utilize ethanol
mixtures up to E85.

• In considering fuels with higher ethanol content, it is

important to realize the lower energy content (per unit
volume) of ethanol compared with gasoline when
analyzing fuel consumption, fuel cost, and driving range.

Use of ethanol
• Ethanol has an energy content of 23.5 MJ/L (75,800 Btu/gal), whereas
gasoline has 34.8 MJ/L (117,000 Btu/gal), although increased engine
e ciency may partially o set these di erences.

• The utilization of ethanol-containing fuels in the gasoline engines of

recreational vehicles has been somewhat controversial, particularly for
marine engines.

• In addition to the potential clogging problems, the presence of ethanol

in fuel stored in a humid marine environment can promote the
condensation of moisture from the air, resulting in performance loss and
mechanical di culties.

• This problem is often exacerbated by the fact that boaters often replace
fuel less frequently in their boats than drivers do in their automobiles.

Use of ethanol
• In the United States, virtually all fuel ethanol production is
produced from corn.

• As previously explained, only a fraction of the corn plant can

be utilized in ethanol production using current technology.

• Cellulosic ethanol production (i.e., the use of plant cellulose

rather than just the fermentation of sugars) would provide a
substantial increase in opportunities for ethanol production
in the United States and elsewhere by allowing for greater
utilization of plants like corn and also allowing for the
utilization of other (low-sugar-containing) plant species such
as grasses.
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 Use of ethanol

• At present, this is not technologically viable but may be

developed at some point in the future.

• The utilization of sugarcane as a source material for

ethanol production has recently been initiated in some
states with warmer climates (i.e., Louisiana, Hawaii,
Texas, and Florida), but in most parts of the country,
sugarcane is not a viable crop.

Use of ethanol
• In Brazil, sugarcane is used almost exclusively for ethanol production.

• Brazil has seriously pursued the use of ethanol as a fuel for more than
40 years.

• While normal U.S. passenger vehicles typically tolerate up to 10%

ethanol in gasoline mixtures and ex fuel vehicles can use up to E85,
vehicles in Brazil are designed to operate on a much wider variety of
fuels.

• Most run on any mixture up to E100. In fact, ex fuel vehicles in Brazil

can utilize hydrated ethanol (that is the azeotrope consisting of about
96% ethanol with 4% water), thus eliminating the need for additional
dehydration after distillation.

Use of ethanol
• A nal point that needs to be considered is the impact of
fuel ethanol production on food production.

• The extensive use of farmland for the production of plant

matter for ethanol production would clearly impact the
ability to produce food crops.

• Such food crops are essential both for direct human

consumption and for use as feedstock for animals,
although some use of waste material from ethanol
production from corn for livestock feed is possible.
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 Use of ethanol

• The extent of the con ict between ethanol production and

food production in the United States is emphasized by
the fact that, if all corn currently grown in the United
States were used for ethanol production, it would replace
only about 12% of the gasoline used.

• Thus, the large-scale use of ethanol will require

considerable new farming activity or a decrease in food
productivity or (most likely) both.

Use of ethanol
• A decrease in food production will lead to a decrease in food
supply and an increase in prices.

• Agricultural methods that are the most e ective at

maximizing ethanol production will likely lead to a decline in
soil fertility, the increased use of pesticides and fertilizers
(which require energy for their production), increased
deforestation (to make additional land available), and a
reduction in the availability of water for irrigation.

• Thus, in addition to the reallocation of existing farmland,

increased ethanol production can have adverse indirect
consequences on food production and the environment.

Use of ethanol
• Cellulosic ethanol production will increase the productivity
of ethanol from corn and open up the possibility of
producing ethanol from other crops.

• This could include the use of grasses that can be grown

on land that is less desirable for food production.

• Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a rapidly growing

grass that thrives in most parts of the United States and
in a wide variety of habitats.
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 Use of ethanol
• The cellulosic ethanol industry is in its very early stages of
development, and further technological advances, as well
as careful integration into the agricultural system, will be
needed to bene t fully from this approach.

• Overall, a comparison of the Brazilian and American

approaches to ethanol production emphasizes the
importance of climate, as well as the development of
e cient production technologies. It also makes it clear
that, from a climatic and geographical perspective,
ethanol production is not a viable energy alternative in all
parts of the world.

Biodiesel
• Biodiesel fuel is comprised of short chain alkyl esters and
is similar in most ways to traditional petroleum-derived
diesel fuel. It is made by the transesteri cation of
vegetable oils or animal fats.

• Biodiesel is distinguished from unprocessed vegetable oil

(often called straight vegetable oil, SVO), which is
sometimes used as a fuel.

• The latter may be nonfood-grade vegetable oil or waste

vegetable oil from the food industry.

Biodiesel
• Although SVO may be an attractive alternative to diesel
fuel, engines require signi cant modi cations to utilize this
fuel.

• Biodiesel, on the other hand, can readily replace

petroleum-derived diesel fuel, much as ethanol can be
used to replace gasoline.

• Minor engine modi cations, as for ethanol use, are

required because the natural rubber components often
used in diesel engines may degrade upon exposure to
biodiesel.
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 Biodiesel
• Also, engines that have previously run on petroleum
diesel typically have deposits left behind from the fuel,
and these are soluble in biodiesel fuel, possibly leading to
clogging of lters.

• In addition to use in vehicles, biodiesel is a direct

replacement for domestic or commercial heating fuel,
subject to the solubility issues described.

• It may also nd use as a fuel for trains or aircraft.

Biodiesel
• Biodiesel may be blended with petroleum diesel, and the
resulting fuels are designated by the percentage of biodiesel
(e.g., B5 for 5% biodiesel, 95% petroleum diesel-etc.), up to
B100 for 100% biodiesel.

• B99 is a common fuel in some parts of the world.

• The 1% petroleum diesel is added to biodiesel to retard mold

growth.

• The compatibility of biodiesel blends with unmodi ed diesel

engines is somewhat unclear, although blends up to B5 are
generally felt to be acceptable.

Biodiesel
• While waste vegetable oil and waste animal fat may seem
like an attractive source material from which to make
biodiesel, it is unlikely to be a major component in the
production of this fuel.

• The collection of waste oil may be inconvenient or

di cult, as well as being expensive.

• The major problem, however, is availability. In the United

States, approximately 1.8 x 1011 L (4.8 x 1010 gal) of diesel
fuel are used for transportation and heating annually.
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 Biodiesel
• Estimated primary production of vegetable oil is about 1.3 x
1010 L (3.4 x 109 gal) per year, and the production of animal
fat is about half that amount.

• Thus, waste from the food industry could account for, at

most, about 10% of the diesel needs in the United States.

• It is therefore necessary to utilize predominately source

material that is grown for the speci c purpose of producing
biodiesel.

• In the United States, most current biodiesel production uses

oil extracted from soy.

Biodiesel
• Supplying the U.S. needs for diesel fuel with biodiesel
produced from soy would require about 2 3 106 km2
(780,000 mi2) of farmland.

• This is the majority of all arable land available.

• Clearly this is not a viable situation; biodiesel would

replace food production (and ethanol production as well).

• Other sources of materials for biodiesel need to be found

if this energy source is going to make a signi cant
contribution to our energy needs.

Biodiesel
• Table shows the productivity for various plants that can
be used for biodiesel production.
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 Biodiesel
• Productivity from all common terrestrial oil-producing plants that are
compatible with a temperate climate is similar. Tropical plants (palm
and coconut) are somewhat more productive.

• However, algae is clearly the best choice for producing biodiesel by far.
An additional feature of algae is that it can be grown in marine
environments and in ponds on land that is not otherwise suitable for
farming.

• Total U.S. diesel needs could be satis ed by algae grown in an area of

about 100,000 km2 (36,000 mi2), or about the land area of the state of
Maine.

• Certainly future developments in biodiesel production must consider

algae as an important possibility.

Biodiesel
• European countries, Germany in particular, have been
very active in developing biodiesel.

• The question of the environmental impact of biodiesel use

is important.

• Compared with petroleum-derived diesel, biodiesel

produces less sulfur compounds, less hydrocarbon
emission, and fewer particulates. However, it produces
somewhat more NOx.

Biodiesel
• Clearly, the combustion of a hydrocarbon releases carbon
to the atmosphere in the form of CO2.

• Although carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere by the

growth of plant material (such as soy), a detailed and
reliable evaluation of the net carbon contribution from
biodiesel use is di cult at best.

• As with ethanol use, many factors must be considered,

including the carbon payback period for infrastructure
development, and this depends greatly on crop selection
and production methods.
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 Biogas
• The term biogas refers to a mixture of gases produced by the
decomposition of organic matter in an oxygen-free
environment.

• Biogas may be produced by the digestion of feedstock by

anaerobic organisms or by the fermentation of biodegradable
materials.

• Feedstock can be materials such as sewage, manure,

agricultural waste, or organic municipal waste.

• The use of municipal waste will be discussed in more detail

in the following section.

Biogas
• Biogas consists primarily of methane with a smaller amount
of carbon dioxide.

• It may also contain small concentrations of nitrogen,

hydrogen, hydrogen sul de, and oxygen.

• The gas may be treated to increase the methane content in

order to improve its quality for energy production.

• As biogas is similar in composition to natural gas, its

applications are also similar, and it has found use as a
heating fuel, a transportation fuel, and for the generation of
electricity.

Biogas
• A diagram of a typical biogas facility is illustrated in Figure.
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 Biogas
• This facility is based on the use of manure and agricultural
waste.

• The biogas feedstock is anaerobically digested, and the

resulting gas is treated to increase its methane content.

• The resulting fuel is used for transportation fuel and to

operate a motor/ generator for the production of
electricity.

• Excess exhaust heat from the motor is used for direct

heating purposes.

Biogas
• Figure shows a biogas generating station in Germany
where the digesters are seen on the right and the
generating facility is shown on the left in the image.

• India and China, as well as several European countries,

have been active in developing the use of biogas.

• At present, biogas use is the most extensive in Germany,

where agricultural waste and manure have commonly
been used as feedstock.

Municipal Solid Waste

• Humans produce considerable quantities of waste.

• This includes household waste, as well as commercial

and industrial waste.

• Municipal solid waste refers to waste from all sources but

does not include chemically or biologically hazardous
waste or radioactive waste because these must be
disposed of by special means according to the hazards
they pose.
 Municipal Solid Waste
• It also does not include sewage and other nonsolid waste.

• Municipal solid waste does include durable goods such as

old appliances and furniture, as well as nondurable goods,
such as newspapers and food waste.

• The most appropriate method of disposing of municipal solid

waste depends on the nature of the waste.

• Methods include recycling (as is appropriate for metals,

glass, and plastics), composting (as is appropriate for
biodegradable materials), land lling, and waste-to-energy
incineration (as is appropriate for combustible materials).

Municipal Solid Waste

• The amount of waste produced per person has increased
over the years.

• Per capita, the United States has one of the highest rates of
waste production.

• Other similarly industrialized countries typically produce less

waste per capita; for example, values for Canada and New
Zealand are about half those shown for the United States.

• Over the years, the ways in which waste has been treated
have changed.

Municipal Solid Waste

• While energy recovery from waste has increased over the

years, land lling (disposal) is still the pre-dominant means
of waste disposal in the United States, followed by
recovery (recycling).

• Overall, waste management is an extensive and complex

problem; however, the use of waste for the production of
energy is relevant to this discussion.
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 Municipal Solid Waste
• The utilization of municipal solid waste to produce energy
can be approached in several ways.

• Noncombustible materials, such as glass and metal, can

rst be removed, and the remaining combustible material
can be burned directly to produce heat, which can then be
used to generate steam to run a turbine and generator.

• This is the most common approach in the United States.

Another simple approach is to collect gas from the
decomposition of organic material at land ll sites (mostly
methane) and burn it to produce heat and subsequently
electricity.

Municipal Solid Waste

• A more sophisticated approach is to shred the combustible
material to produce refuse-derived fuel (RDF). RDF material
can then be formed into pellets for combustion, or it can
be heated to produce gas (i.e., gasi cation).

• At low cooking temperatures, mostly methane is given o ,

whereas at higher temperatures the total gas production
increases, and the gas is largely hydrogen.

• Methane can be used for the thermal generation of

electricity, and hydrogen is suitable for combustion or fuel
cell utilization

Municipal Solid Waste

• Society produces substantial quantities of waste, and
there are bene ts to the proper disposal of this waste,
both from an energy standpoint and an environmental
standpoint.

• It is important, however, to realize that the possible

contribution of RDF to our overall energy needs is quite
small.

• The exact e ect of municipal solid waste energy

generation on carbon emissions is di cult to determine.
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 Municipal Solid Waste
• All combustion emits greenhouse gases, primarily CO2.

• However, the extent to which municipal solid waste combustion

contributes to the net carbon release depends on many factors,
principal among them being the content of the waste.

• Burning organic matter, such as scrap wood or paper, which

originates from plant material, is generally bene cial.

• Although the burning process produces CO2, placing the same

material in a land ll in which it decomposes will produce
substantial quantities of methane, which is a more e ective
greenhouse gas than CO2.

Municipal Solid Waste

• However, municipal solid waste also contains substantial
material (e.g., plastics) that is derived from petroleum
products.

• This is not renewable and, when burned, contributes to

greenhouse gases in the same way as the burning of
fossil fuels.

• Determining the best way in which to minimize the impact

of this component of municipal solid waste (that is,
combustion, recycling, or land ll) is a complex problem.

Municipal Solid Waste

• The question of pollution is also di cult to analyze.

• Most combustible components of municipal solid waste

are hydrocarbon-based materials, such as wood scraps
and paper, and these release pollution into the
atmosphere during burning.

• Typical pollutants include particulate matter, unburned

hydrocarbons, and nitrogen compounds.
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 Municipal Solid Waste
• However, some material may also contain toxic
components such as lead, mercury, and cadmium.

• It is important from an environmental standpoint to

remove these materials prior to combustion in order to
avoid their release into the atmosphere or into ground-
water supplies.

• The overall e ectiveness in producing energy from

municipal waste, compared to the bene ts of recycling
and/or composting, needs to be established.
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