Sustainable Energy

Hydroelectric Energy

Prof. Ing. Francesco Corvaro

Email: f.corvaro@univpm.it

Introduction
• Hydropower has been used for many centuries. Like wind power,
it was rst used as a source of mechanical power and was
typically used for grinding grain and for sawing wood.

• During the past century, hydropower has been primarily used as

a source of electricity.

• Hydroelectric power has been and continues to be the most

prevalent method of generating electricity that is generally
referred to as renewable and carbon-free.

• The degree to which this description of hydroelectric power is

accurate depends largely how this resource is utilized and
includes factors such as geography and climate.

Energy from Water

• The energy associated with water running downhill can be

harnessed in two ways:

• The potential energy of water con ned behind a dam can

be used to run turbines at the bottom of the dam, or

• the kinetic energy of owing water in a river can be used

to operate turbines.
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 Energy from Water
• The rst case is generally used for the construction of large hydro-
electric generating facilities. These typically have capacities of hundreds
of megawatts electrical but can be up to 10,000 MWe or more.

• They are referred to as high head hydroelectric facilities.

Energy from Water

• Facilities that use the kinetic energy of the water are

referred to as run-of-the-river systems, although many are
associated with small (i.e., low head) dams.

• They typically have a capacity of a few megawatts

electrical (up to about 10 MWe), although small versions
can be less than 100 kWe. Medium head systems are
intermediate between these two extremes, although, in
practice, the distinction between these designations is
not always well-de ned.

Energy from Water

• A high head hydroelectric dam blocks a river to create a reservoir.

• Water is allowed to ow through turbines at the bottom of the dam, and

the height of the water in the reservoir above the height of the turbines is
called the head.

• The potential energy of water near the surface falls through that distance
and is converted into kinetic energy as it ows through the turbines that
convert it into electrical energy. The potential energy of the water is

• E=mgh

• where m is the mass of the water, g is the gravitational acceleration (9.8

m/s2), and h is the head, or height, of the water above the turbine.
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 Energy from Water
• The power generated is determined by the rate at which energy is
generated:

• P=E/t=(m/t)gh

• If the rate at which water ows through the turbine (i.e., volume per unit
time) is

• , expressed in cubic meters per second (m3/s), then (m/t) = , where

is the water density. Thus

• P= gh

• For equation, the power is expressed in watt when the density is in kg/
m3, the ow rate is in m3/s, g is in m/s2, and the height is in m.

Energy from Water

• In a run-of-the-river system, water with a mass, m, owing in a river at a velocity,
v, will have kinetic energy

• E=0.5mv2

• This represents a power-generating capacity of

• P=0.5(m/t)v2 or P=0.5 v2

• For water ow through an opening with a cross-sectional area A, equation

reduces to the form given in equation for the power per unit area for moving air:

• P/A=0.5 v3

• Numerically, equations di er substantially because the density of water is

much greater than the density of air.

Turbine Design
• To produce electricity from the energy content of water, a
turbine is used to produce rotary mechanical energy, and this,
in turn, is used to produce electricity by means of a generator.

• There are two basic types of turbines for use with water:
reaction turbines and impulse turbines.

• In the rst case, the owing water is contained in an

enclosure around the turbine and experiences a pressure
drop as it passes through the turbine.

• In the second case, a free jet of water is incident on the

turbine and does not experience a pressure drop.
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 Turbine Design
• There are numerous designs of both of these types of
turbines. The most common are summarized in Table.

Turbine Design
• Perhaps the most obvious design for a water turbine is one that
resembles a wind turbine.

• The Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine and is the closest to this design.
It shows a close-up of the rotating hub and blades of the turbine (i.e., the
runner). The runner must be enclosed in a cylindrical tube, through which
the water ows, in order to prevent the water from being diverted around
the blades and thus reducing the turbine’s e ciency.

Turbine Design
• The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine and probably the most
commonly used type of turbine in the electric power industry; the
details of the runner are shown in Figure. In this type of turbine, the
water enters radially from the sides and is guided through the blades,
causing them to rotate, and then exits axially from the center of the
turbine.
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 Turbine Design
• Impulse turbines are suitable for high head applications
where the water at the base of the dam is at high pressure.

• The water is allowed to exit through a small opening,

forming a free jet of water at high velocity.

• This high-velocity water jet is incident on the runner of the

turbine.

• An impulse turbine runner has what look like buckets

along the outer edge that catch the high-velocity jet of
water, de ecting it and imparting momentum to the runner.

Turbine Design
• In the Pelton turbine, the buckets are U-shaped [Figure (a)]. Water is
ejected through a nozzle and is incident on the runner [Figure (b)].

• The Turgo impulse turbine is basically one-half of a Pelton turbine.

The water jet enters into the half-U-shaped bucket at an angle and
exits in a di erent direction thus transferring momentum to the
runner.

Turbine Design
• A summary of the operating ranges of the various types of turbines is shown in Figure.
Although the e ciency of turbines and the associated generators depends on the
speci c design and operating conditions, e ciencies of 85–90% for the conversion to
electricity of the kinetic or potential energy associated with water are common for
modern systems.
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 High Head Systems
• High head systems are de ned as those that impound
water behind a dam for the purpose of producing a
reservoir to create a head of water.

• Most high-capacity hydroelectric facilities are of this type.

• One of the best known examples of a high head system is

Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State. The dam is 1592
m in length and 168 m in height. The size of this structure
is indicated by the fact that the volume of concrete in the
dam is su cient to construct a road 2.5 m wide and 10
cm thick around the equator of the earth.

High Head Systems

• Typically, in a high head system there is an underwater
water intake in the dam. The water ows through a pipe
(the penstock) to the turbine near the bottom of the dam.

High Head Systems

• The general features of a typical high head hydroelectric dam
are shown in Figures.

• The portion of the dam on the right side of both photographs

is the spillway, which allows excess water to bypass the
turbines.

• On the left side of the photographs, the structure near the

bottom of the dam houses the turbine/generator assemblies.

• A vertical axis con guration is the most common

arrangement for turbines in high head installations, and
Francis turbines are in common use in these applications
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 High Head Systems

Low head and run-of-

the-river Systems
• Low head and run-of-the-river hydroelectric facilities do
not impound a signi cant quantity of water. While most of
these facilities have small capacities, some are much
larger.

Low head and run-of-

the-river Systems
• As shown in the gure, a dam may be constructed across the entire width of
a river in order to make use of the energy of the owing water without the
formation of a signi cant reservoir. Another approach, some-times taken, is a
diversion system, where part of the ow of a river is diverted into a penstock
and allowed to ow downhill through the penstock to the generating system.
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 Low head and run-of-
the-river Systems
• After passing through the generator turbines, the water is returned to
the river or, in some cases, output into a lake or the ocean. Kaplan
turbines are the most suitable for these low head applications. The
turbine and generator arrangement may be on a horizontal axis or on
a vertical axis, as is customary for high head applications.

Utilization of
hydroelectric power
• Of all the sources of energy that are generally considered to be
renewable, hydroelectricity is the only one that has seen widespread
use. A summary of the major producers of hydroelectric power by
country is shown in Table. The installed capacity is the maximum
power output from all hydroelectric facilities in each country.

Utilization of
hydroelectric power
• These facilities produce energy, on average, at a rate that
is less than their rated maximum capacity. In general, the
output is determined by rainfall, and, because of
variability in conditions, hydroelectric power is generally
used in conjunction with other energy sources in order to
provide a reliable and consistent energy supply.

• The capacity factor is the fraction of maximum capacity

that is actually produced on the average. Typical capacity
factors for hydroelectric facilities are between 0.3 and 0.6
(or 30–60%).
 Utilization of
hydroelectric power
• It is important, as well, to consider the longevity of hydroelectric resources.
Hydroelectricity is promoted as a renewable resource, but it may not be
reasonable to interpret this classi cation in the same way as for solar or
wind energy.

• Silt carried downstream accumulates behind dams and reduces their ability
to provide power. At some point, maintenance and operating costs
outweigh energy production, and a dam ceases to be economically viable.

• This is typically a more important factor for large-scale facilities than for
small dams and run-of-the-river systems. It is also a sensitive function of
the geography of the region.

• Overall, the longevity of some high head hydroelectric facilities may be

limited to somewhere in the range of 50 to 200 years, making them clearly
not inde nitely renewable.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• Although hydroelectric power is often considered an
environmentally friendly source of energy, it is important
to consider the details of its impact on the environment.

• Large-scale high head dams are the most concern,

whereas run-of-the-river facilities are not as invasive for
many reasons.

• The construction of a large dam is a major undertaking,

and the dam can produce a very sizable reservoir
upstream. For example, the reservoir associated with the
Three Gorges Dam in China extends 600 km upriver.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• The replacement of land, which in most cases supported
vegetation (e.g., trees, etc.), with a reservoir has important
implications.

• Trees sequester carbon and help to reduce greenhouse gases

(i.e., CO2). Vegetation that has been ooded decays and
produces greenhouse gases, notably CO2 and methane.

• Although other pollutants such as sulfur compounds, NOx, and

particulates are not produced by a hydroelectric facility, studies
have shown that in tropical regions the release of greenhouse
gases associated with reservoirs can be more than that
produced by a comparably sized fossil-fuel generating plant.
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 Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• In temperate regions, this is not the case, and emissions are
typically less than 10% of that from equivalent fossil-fuel
generation.

• Changes in habitat may have adverse e ects on wildlife and

particularly on wildlife diversity. Fish mobility is one of the most
obvious factors to be in uenced by dam construction. The
replacement of forests by an aquatic environment may have
both positive and negative e ects.

• The disruption of silt transport may have adverse consequences

for the agricultural industry downstream from the dam because
farmlands bene t from nutrients carried by a river.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• In addition to environmental e ects, hydroelectric dam
construction generally has social and cultural
consequences.

• People living in areas that are ooded by dam

construction need to be relocated.

• It is estimated that, to date, many tens of millions of

people have been a ected in this way. It is a matter not
only of relocating people but also, in most cases, of
dealing with cultural or historical sites and cemeteries.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• A recent example of social and cultural e ects of
hydroelectric power is the construction of the Three Gorges
Dam in China.

• The project required the relocation of 1.24 million residents.

• The relocation costs were approximately the same as the

actual construction costs for the hydroelectric facility.

• In addition, the project a ected approximately 1300

archeological sites. Although many were preserved and
relocated, other known, as well as yet undiscovered, sites
were destroyed.
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 Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• A nal point to consider in the implementation of
hydroelectric power is safety.

• A large dam can fail with serious consequences.

• Dams may be constructed for a number of reasons other

than for the production of hydroelectricity, such as water
storage, irrigation, ood control, etc., and many dams are
considered multipurpose.

• All have at least some risk of failure.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• The severity of such a failure is a function of many variables,
such as the volume of water impounded by the dam, the
population distribution living downstream, and the warning
time before failure.

• The most notable dam failure was the Banqiao Reservoir

Dam and 61 other associated dams in China in 1975 during
Typhoon Nina.

• The Banqiao Dam was constructed on the Ru River in the

1950s. Excessive rain associated with the typhoon
increased water ow and levels in the river and ultimately
caused a series of dam failures.

Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy
• The Banqaio Dam, at a height of 118 m, was the largest of
these.

• A design that did not include an adequate number of sluice

gates to release excess water was a factor in the failure of
the dam.

• Several other dams were intentionally destroyed in an

attempt to control water levels.

• The ooding caused by these failures caused 26,000 deaths,

and the resulting epidemics and famine in the region led to
an estimated additional 145,000 deaths.
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 Environmental Consequences
of hydroelectric energy

• Although such catastrophic events are rare, there have

been more than 30 dam failures in the past century that
have resulted in more than 100 fatalities.

• A well-known dam failure that resulted in 11 deaths was

the Teton Dam in Idaho.

• The dam had existed for less than a year before failure
resulted from poor design and unstable geological
conditions in the area.

Summary
• The basic physics of the potential and kinetic energy
associated with water were presented.

• The potential energy associated with water as a result of

the gravitational interaction is given as E = mgh, where m
is the mass, g is the gravitational acceleration, and h is
the height.

• The kinetic energy of moving water is analogous to that of

moving air, as discussed in the previous chapter, and is
related to the cube of the velocity.

Summary
• Di erent runner geometries are appropriate for di erent
applications on the basis of ow rate and pressure.

• Generally, Kaplan turbines are most suitable for low head

systems, whereas Francis turbines are most suitable for high
head systems.

• High head hydroelectric systems are typically constructed

using a dam to create a large reservoir.

• Generating capacity can exceed 20 GWe, compared with

about 1 GWe for a typical coal- red or nuclear generating
station.
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 Summary
• Low head and run-of-the-river systems typically do not incorporate a reservoir
to create a signi cant head but primarily utilize the kinetic energy associated
with the ow of the river.

• These systems typically have a much smaller capacity than high head
systems, often in the 10–100 MWe range.

• Hydroelectric power comprises about 16% of the world’s electricity

generation.

• It is a major source of energy and, together with nuclear power (which has a
similar share), contributes the majority of the world’s non–fossil fuel electricity.

• Although much of the practical hydroelectric capacity in North America and

Europe has already been developed, extensive new development continues in
many other regions of the world.

Summary
• Hydroelectric power has some very positive attributes. It is
low cost, and the facilities are relatively low maintenance.

• It comprises a signi cant enough resource that it can

make a major contribution to the world’s electrical needs.

• Thus far, the safety record of hydroelectric facilities has

been quite good, and the average overall risk is probably
lower than for most large-scale generating techniques.

• Small-scale hydroelectricity, speci cally run-of-the-river

facilities, has relatively low environmental impact.

Summary
• On the negative side, hydroelectric power, at least large-scale high
head installations, may not be as environmentally neutral as other
alternative energy technologies, particularly in warmer climates.

• Hydroelectric installations may contribute to greenhouse gas

emissions in addition to having adverse e ects on agriculture and
wildlife.

• The longevity of hydroelectric dams is related to geographical

conditions, and, in the long term, some hydroelectric resources
may have limited renewability.

• Finally, there is always a risk of catastrophic dam failure, which

carries the possibility of substantial human causalities.
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