Introduction

Hydropower
• Hydropower: Power that is derived from a moving
water.
• Hydraulic power can be captured wherever a flow of
water falls from a higher level to a lower level
• Associated energy
– Potential energy EP = mgH
– Kinetic energy: EK = 1/2mC2

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 How Hydropower Works!

• Hydrologic cycle
 How Hydropower Works! (ctd…)

• Water from the reservoir

flows due to gravity to
drive the turbine.
• Turbine is connected to a
generator.
• Power generated is
transmitted over power
lines.
• Hence two quantities are required: a Head H and Flow Rate of water
Q.
Energy and power
• Power is the energy converted per second, i.e. the rate of work being
done, measured in watts
P = ρgHQ
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• Hydroelectric power generation

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The water power system

Power transformation

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Major Components of a
Hydro System
• A hydro system is a series of
interconnected components:
water flows in one end,
and electricity comes out the
other.
• Major components of a hydro
system include a water
diversion, pipeline to create
pressure, turbine & generator,
tailrace for exiting water, and
transmission wires.

• 1

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Water Diversion (Intake)
• The intake is typically the highest point of your hydro system, where
water is diverted from the stream into the pipeline that feeds your
turbine.  In many cases a small dam is used to divert the water.  (In
most large hydro projects, the dam also creates the HEAD necessary
to drive the turbine.)
• A water diversion system serves two primary purposes.  The first is to
provide a deep enough pool of water to create a smooth, air-free
inlet to your pipeline.  (Air reduces horsepower and can cause
damage to your turbine.)  The second is to remove dirt and debris. 
Screens can help stop larger debris such as leaves and limbs, while an
area of “quiet water” will allow dirt and other sediment to settle to
the bottom before entering your pipeline.   This helps reduce abrasive
wear on your turbine.

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Pipeline (Penstock)
• This stainless steel intake system includes a self-cleaning screen.
• The pipeline, sometimes called the penstock, is responsible for not only
moving water to your turbine, but is also the enclosure that creates Head
pressure with increasing vertical drop.  In effect, the pipeline focuses all the
water power at the bottom of the pipe where your turbine will connect. In
contrast, an open stream dissipates the energy as it travels down the hill.
• Pipeline diameter, length, and routing all affect efficiency, and there are
guidelines for matching the size of your pipeline to the Design FLOW of
your system.  As you’ll see later, a small-diameter pipeline can considerably
reduce your available horsepower, even though it can carry all available
water. Larger diameter pipelines create less friction as the water travels
through. 
Powerhouse
• The powerhouse is simply a building that houses your
turbine, generator and controls.  Proper design significantly affects
system efficiency, however, especially with regard to how the water
enters and exits your turbine.  9
Turbine
• The turbine is the heart of the hydro system, where water power is
converted into the rotational force that drives the generator.  It is
arguably the most important component in the system, because its
efficiency determines how much electricity is generated. 
• There are many different types of turbines, and proper selection
requires considerable expertise.  A Pelton design, for example, works
best with high Head.  A Crossflow design works better with low Head but
high Flow.  Likewise, other turbine types such as Francis, Turgo and
Kaplan, each have optimum applications.
Turbines fall into one of two major types:
• Reaction turbines run fully immersed in water, and are typically used in
low-Head (pressure) systems with high Flow.  Examples
include Francis,Propeller and Kaplan.
• Impulse turbines operate in air, driven by one or more high-velocity jets
of water.  Impulse turbines are typically used with high-Head systems
and use nozzles to produce the high-velocity jets.  Examples
includePelton and Turgo. 10
Turbine types
• Reaction turbine:
- The turbine runner transfers both pressure and velocity energy to rotating
mechanical energy
- Pressure difference between runner inlet and outlet
Francis, Kaplan
• Impulse turbine:
- All the pressure energy is transformed to velocity energy when flowing through the
nozzle
- The turbine runner transforms the velocity energy to mechanical rotating energy
- There is no pressure difference between inlet and outlet of the runner
Pelton
Other names
• Axial turbine
– Main flow parallell to the turbine shaft
• Radial turbine
– Flow perpendicular to the turbine shaft
• Semi-axial
• Vertical shaft turbine
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• Horizontal shaft turbine
 Pelton-type impulse turbine with housing cover removed.
• A special case is the Crossflow turbine.  Although technically
classified as an Impulse turbine because it is not entirely immersed in
water, it is used in low-Head, high-Flow systems.  The water passes
through a large, rectangular opening to drive the turbine blades, in
contrast to the small, high-pressure jets used for Pelton and Turgo
turbines.

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Turbine Efficiency
• Each turbine type can be designed to meet vastly different
requirements, and minor differences in specifications can significantly
impact power transfer efficiency.  
• The turbine system is designed around Net Head and Design Flow. 
Net Head is the pressure available to the turbine when water is
flowing, and Design Flow is the maximum amount of Flow the hydro
system is designed to accommodate. These criteria not only influence
which type of turbine to use, but are critical to the design of the
entire turbine system. 
• Minor differences in specifications can significantly impact power
transfer efficiency. The diameter of the runner (the rotating portion),
front and back curvatures of its buckets or blades, casting materials,
nozzle (if used), turbine housing, and quality of components all have
a major effect on efficiency and reliability. 

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• The turbine runs most efficiently when it turns exactly fast enough to
consume all the energy of the water.  In turn, the water must enter the
turbine at a specific velocity (typically measured in meters per
second)to maximize efficiency at this RPM. This velocity is determined
by Head pressure. 
Optimizing Water Velocity
• Since power is a combination of HEAD and FLOW, it’s easy to see how a
larger orifice that moves more water (Flow) at the same velocity could
generate more electricity.  Conversely, as Flow drops off in the dry
season, the orifice must be made smaller to maintain the same
optimum velocity for efficient power transfer.  
• Keep in mind that turbine speed is not wholly dependent on water
velocity; the turbine will turn at a constant speed because it is directly
coupled to the generator, where a Governor is maintaining stable RPM
by controlling the load.  But as the disparity between actual and
optimum water velocity grows, less of the energy from the water is
transferred to the turbine.  The correct orifice ensures the system is
operating at its most efficient level 14
• Impulse turbines (such as a Pelton) are often equipped with a variety
of fixed-orifice nozzles that can be used to accommodate changes in
Flow.  A disadvantage of a fixed nozzle is that the turbine must be
shut down to make changes.  A popular option is the adjustable
needle nozzle, which allows on-the-fly changes with an infinite
number of settings. 
• If you know your Head and Flow, your turbine supplier should be able
to make specific recommendations for a turbine system and provide a
close estimation of efficiency.

This needle nozzle provides infinitely variable adjustments to accommodate changes in Flow.
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The Drive System and Generator
Drive System
• The drive system couples the turbine to the generator.  At one end, it
allows the turbine to spin at its optimum RPM.  At the other, it drives
the generator at the RPM that produces correct voltage and
frequency.
• The most efficient and reliable drive system is a direct, 1:1 coupling
between the turbine and generator.  This is possible for many sites,
but not for all Head and Flow combinations.  In many situations it is
necessary to adjust the transfer ratio so that both turbine and
generator run at their optimum, but different, speeds.

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• These types of drive systems can use either gears, or pulley and belts,
all of which introduce additional efficiency losses into the system. 
Belt systems tend to be more popular because of their lower cost.
 Your turbine manufacturer can provide valuable guidance about
matching turbine and generator RPM, and suggest options if a direct,
1:1 coupling is not possible.
Generator
• The generator converts the rotational power from the turbine shaft
into electrical power.  Efficiency is important at this stage too, but
most modern, well-built generators deliver good efficiency.
• There can be big differences in the type of power generated,
however.  DC (Direct Current) generators can be used with very small
systems, but typically are augmented with batteries and inverters for
converting the power into the AC (Alternating Current) power
required by most appliances.

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• AC generators are normally used in all but the smallest systems. 
Common household units generate 120VAC (volts AC) and 240VAC,
which can be used directly for appliances, heaters, lights, etc.  AC
voltage is also easily changed using transformers, which makes it
relatively simple to drive other types of devices or transmit over long
distances.   Depending on your power requirements, you can choose
either single-phase or three-phase AC generators in a variety of
voltages.
• One critical aspect of AC power is frequency, typically measured as
cycles per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).  Most household appliances and
motors run on either 50Hz or 60Hz (depending on where you are in
the world), as do the major grids that interconnect large power
generating stations.  Frequency is determined by the rotational speed
of the generator shaft; faster rotation generates a higher frequency. 

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System Control
Governors and Controls
• Governors and other controls help ensure that
the generator constantly spins at its correct speed.  The most
common types of governors for small hydro systems accomplish this
by managing the load on the generator.
Emergency System Shutdown
• An emergency shutdown system is an option that protects the
system from overspeed, which may damage the generator.  For
example, if a tree falls over a power line, it may cause either a
dead short (an extremely high load on the generator) or an
open line (zero load) which would cause generator runaway.  (A
dead short may also cause runaway if it trips a breaker.)  Any of
these conditions are both dangerous and expensive, so an
emergency shutdown system is a wise investment. 
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The Four Things You Need to Know During Planning Your Own Hydro
System
• Before you can begin planning your systems or estimating how much
power you'll produce, you'll need to make four essential
measurements:
1. Head (the vertical distance between your intake and turbine)
2. Flow (how much water comes down the stream)
3. Pipeline (Penstock) length
4. Transmission Line length

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 Sizes of Hydropower Plants
• Large plants : capacity >30 MW
• Small Plants : capacity b/w 100 kW to 30 MW
• Micro Plants : capacity up to 100 kW

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Large Scale Hydropower plant

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Small Scale Hydropower Plant

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Micro Hydropower Plant

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 Micro Hydropower Systems
• Many creeks and rivers are permanent, i.e., they never dry up,
and these are the most suitable for micro-hydro power
production
• Micro hydro turbine could be a waterwheel
• Newer turbines : Pelton wheel (most common)
• Others : Turgo, Crossflow and various axial flow turbines

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World Hydropower Resources

Potential
• THEORETICAL- The maximum potential that exists.
• TECHNICAL- It takes into account the cost involved in
exploiting a source (including the environmental and
engineering restrictions)
• ECONOMIC- Calculated after detailed environmental,
geological, and other economic constraints.

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Global Technical Potential
• This technical potential corresponds to a derived estimate of installed capacity of
3,721 GW.

• Figure 5.2 | Regional hydropower technical potential in terms of annual generation and installed capacity, and
percentage of undeveloped technical potential in 2009. Source: IJHD (2010).

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• Table. Regional hydropower technical potential in terms of annual generation
and installed capacity (GW); and current generation, installed capacity, average
capacity factors in percent and resulting undeveloped potential as of 2009. Source:
IJHD (2010).

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• The Chinese Government attaches top priority to the development
and utilization of hydropower as well as other renewable energy
sources.
• After many years of efforts, China has an installed hydropower
capacity of 249 GW, ranked first in the world. Among which, small
hydropower is significant, with 45,000 stations nationwide and 65
GW installed capacity and an annual output of, accounting for 27 per
cent and 25 per cent of the nation’s hydropower installed capacity
and electricity output respectively.
• In particular, several national programmes have been implemented in
recent years, such as the Small Hydropower Replacing Fuel Wood
Program, New Rural Hydropower Electrification Program and the
Capacity Expansion and Efficiency Improvement of Rural Hydropower
Program.
• The theoretical potential of hydropower in Ethiopia is estimated to be
30,000–45,000 MW (160,000 GWh/year), with the estimated
economically feasible hydropower potential ranging between 15,000
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and 30,000 MW.
Overview of small hydropower worldwide
• Currently, small hydropower plants with a capacity of 10 MW, exist in
148 countries or territories worldwide.
• The findings of WSHPDR 2013 show that small hydropower potential
globally is approximated at almost 173 GW.
• More than half of the world's known hydropower potential is located
in Asia, around one third can be found in Europe and the Americas. It
is possible in the future that more small hydropower potential might
be identified both on the African and American continents.
• The installed small hydropower capacity (up to 10 MW) is estimated
to be 75 GW in 2011/2012.

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• Fig. Global distribution of small hydropower resource potential up to a capacity of 10 MW
Eastern Africa
• Thirteen of the twenty countries in Eastern Africa use small hydropower to
supplement their existing electrification efforts. Eastern Africa has an estimated small
hydropower potential of 6,262 MW (up to 10MW), of which 209 MW has been
developed.
• Among these, countries with the highest potential are Kenya (3,000 MW), Ethiopia
(1,500 MW) and Mozambique (1,000 MW).

Fig. Small hydropower capacities in Ethiopia

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Source: Shanko
Benefits of hydroelectric power
– Renewable Energy
– Clean Energy Source
– Domestic Energy Source
– Generally Available As Needed
– Provides Recreational Opportunities
– Water Supply and Flood Control
• The water flowing along natural canals, conducted by low and high-
pressure pipes and moving the turbines involves the application of
fundamental engineering principles in fluid mechanics.
– In fundamentals of hydraulic engineering those principles are
reviewed
• The energy potential of the scheme is proportional to the product of
the flow and the head. To select the most appropriate hydraulic
equipment and estimate the sites potential a flow-duration curve is
most useful.

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• In Evaluating stream flow, various methods of measuring stream
flow and hydrological models are discussed
• In hydraulic structure the basic layouts are explained and the
hydraulic structures, such as weirs, canals, spillways, intakes and
penstocks, studied in detail.
• Electromechanical equipments deals with the electromechanical
equipment used to convert the potential energy of the mass of water to
electricity.
• An Environmental Impact Assessment may be required to obtain the
necessary consents to build the scheme and utilize the water
available.
• Analyses of those environmental impacts and mitigating measures
will be made.
• Economic evaluation reviews techniques and methodologies for an
economical evaluation of a scheme

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Environmental Impact and Mitigation
• Burdens and impacts identification
– Impacts of hydropower schemes are highly location and technology
specific. A high mountain diversion scheme situated in a highly sensitive
area is more likely to generate an impact than an integral low head
scheme in a valley.
Impacts during Construction

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35
• Impacts during Operation

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Economic Evaluation
• Time value of money
• Methods of economic evaluation
– Static method
• Payback method
• Return on investment method
– Dynamic method
• Net present value (NPV)
• Benefit-cost ratio
• Internal rate of return

Time value of money

• The ‘time value of money’ is the concept that a Birr received today
is worth more than a Birr received at some point in the future,
because the Euro received today can be invested to earn interest.
• Time value of money analysis generally involves the relationship
between a certain amount of money, a certain period and a certain
rate of compound interest. 37
Payback method
• The payback method determines the number of years required for the
invested capital to be offset by resulting benefits. The required number
of years is termed the payback, recovery, or break-even period. The
calculation is as follows:

Return on investment
• The return on investment (ROI) calculates average annual benefits, net
of yearly costs, such as depreciation, as a percentage of the original
book value of the investment. The calculation is as follows:-

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Net present value (NPV)
• NPV is a method of ranking investment proposals.
• The net present value is equal to the present value of future returns,
discounted at the marginal cost of capital, minus the present value of
the cost of the investment.
• The difference between revenues and expenses, both discounted at
a fixed, periodic interest rate, is the net present value (NPV) of the
investment
Benefit – cost ratio
• The benefit-cost method compares the present value of the plant
benefits and investment on a ratio basis. It compares the revenue flows
with the expenses flow. Projects with a ratio of less than 1 are generally
discarded.

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• Internal Rate of Return method
• The internal rate of return (IRR) method of analyzing a project allows
the consideration of the time value of money.
• Basically, it determines the interest rate that is equivalent to the Birr
returns expected from the project.
• Once the rate is known, it can be compared to the rates that could be
earned by investing the money in other projects or investments.
• If the internal rate of return is less than the cost of borrowing used to
fund your project, the project will clearly be a money-loser.

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