Instituto Formaciòn Docente

Semipresencial
Didactics 1 – Assignment: Book Report

TASK – BASED
LANGUAGE TEACHING

Submitted by: Claudia Cariboni

Submitted to: Teacher: Lourdes Achard
Date of submission: 27 August 2016
Content

 Introduction
 What is TBLT? What is a task?
 The relationship between curriculum, syllabus, methodology, exercise and
task.
 Empirical basis for TBLT
 Grading, sequencing and integrating tasks
 Assessment, practical tools and techniques
 Conclusion
 Appendix A: Task components
 Appendix B: Types of Tasks
 Appendix C: Types of Strategies
 Appendix D: A Framework for TBLT
 Appendix E: Task instructional sequences
 Appendix F: Principles underpinning TBLT
 Appendix G: Phases in TBLT.
 Appendix H: Key concepts in assessment
 Appendix I: Techniques for collecting assessment data
 Appendix J: Checklist for evaluating tasks and a guideline to creating tasks
Introduction

This report examines the book “Task-based Language Teaching” by David Nunan in
which he covers the extent of the TBLT, how it has been included in many policies and
ministries around the world and an example is our own programs in Uruguay
“Reformulation 2006” that have TBLT as an important part of them. He found out that
there were many interpretations and orientations to the concept. That is why in this book
he tries to give teachers a more clear idea of what TBL is and how to make it work.
Nunan achieves this by outlining new updated principles and ideas for designing tasks,
a model of TBLT that articulated the relationship between tasks and other curricular
elements, the empirical basis for TBLT, the place of a form in TBLT and how to assess
it.

This book consists of eight chapters on different aspects of TBLT and his purpose is
achieved by referring to different authors and their ideas to then specify his own
approach.

What is TBLT? What is a task?

As TBLT is an approach that gives learners the opportunity to engage in an active way
in communication to achieve a goal, it helps the learners develop their learning of the
language by providing a task so they use the language to solve it. Therefore Nunan
introduces the concept of Task outlining that it is a very important element in many
aspects not only in the syllabus design, classroom teaching and learner assessment but
also that influencing educational policies on ESL and EFL.

Task is defined by remarking its importance in relation to Communicative Language

Teaching and set within a broader curriculum framework. Being the components of task
the goals, input, procedures, the types of task, the teacher and learner roles and the
settings. (Appendix A: Task components). When referring to the types of tasks Nunan
describes and illustrates the Bangalore project, the typology proposed by Pattison (1987)
and Richards (2001:162), (Appendix B: Types of Tasks) and all these typologies are
based on an analysis of communicative language use, but according to Nunan (1999)
they can also be classified according to the strategies they are based on. He proposes
five strategy types: cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective and creative. (Appendix
C: Types of Strategies) Pedagogically TBLT has reinforced some principles and
practices. Like for example that meaning is primary where learners use authentic texts
so that they can focus on language and the learning process. The learners are not
restricted in their use of language forms so the learners should make a connection
between the classroom language learning to real-world activities. In addition, there is an
enrichment of the learner’s own personal experiences which contributes to the learning
and an emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.

The relationship between curriculum, syllabus, methodology, exercise and task.

Curriculum is a very broad and complex concept, which includes certain key points. That
is why Nunan begins referring to Tyler’s syllabus model, the methodology and the
assessment and evaluation. Then he introduces Stenhouse`s perspective who was the
one that influenced him.It is more complete since it covers the process, action and
product but also sees the teacher as a very important part of the curriculum development.
In his own model, Nunan makes a distinction between curriculum as plan, as action and
as outcome. In the plan, he includes; processes, products, plan, syllabuses, resources
and the assessment instruments. While in the curriculum as action he refers to what
happens in the class and how it is delivered such as learner issues and levels and finally
in the outcome, he includes the evaluation and assessment referring to what the learners
have really learned because of the processes.

The syllabus design is concerned with the selecting, sequencing and justifying of the
content of the curriculum. Now with TBL there has to be an analysis of a list of target
tasks that the learners will need to be able to carry out in the real–world outside the
classroom. Nunan says that any approach to language pedagogy will need to concern
itself with three essential elements: language data, information and opportunities for
practice. Meaning by language data samples of spoken and written language and the
importance of authentic data into the classroom but specifying that both authentic and
non-authentic data provide learners with different aspects of the language. Information
referring to the need of experiential information about the target culture, linguistic
information about target language systems and the process information about how to
learn the language. The learner can obtain the information either deductively or
inductively. Finally practice which is about providing practice opportunities to learners
and here Nunan makes the distinction between tasks (communicative act without a
restrictive focus on a grammatical structure), exercises (with a restrictive focus on a
single language element and has a linguistic outcome) and activities (a restrictive focus
on language items and has a communicative outcome.

Nunan differentiates between real-world or target tasks and pedagogical tasks. To which
he simply says that target task refers to the language use in the world outside the
classroom and pedagogical task would be the one occurring in the classroom. He
subdivides pedagogical tasks into those with a rehearsal rationale and those with
pedagogical rationale. Being rehearsal task the one learners rehearse in class but they
will carry the communicative act outside the class, and activation task involves
communicative interaction, which are designed to activate the acquisition process.

After analysing the tasks, the next step in designing a TBL program according to Nunan
would be to sequence and integrate the tasks with enabling exercises designed to
develop the knowledge and skills that the learner will need. The exercises will only have
language related to outcomes differently from tasks that also have non-language related
outcomes. In other words, the steps would be selecting and sequencing real-world tasks,
the need of creating pedagogical tasks (rehearsal or activation tasks), identifying
enabling skills as creating communicative activities and language exercises and
sequencing and integrating pedagogical tasks, communicative activities and language
exercises. (Appendix D: A Framework for TBLT).

Nunan proposes a six-step procedure to develop instructional sequences around tasks

(Appendix E: Task instructional sequences) and he summarizes the key principles
underpinning TBLT in seven principles (Appendix F: Principles underpinning TBLT).

Empirical basis for TBLT

Nunan focuses on Krashen (1981, 1982) and his hypothesis of language acquisition and
he covers the importance of the issue of task difficulty and complexity by exploring the
different factors making one task more difficult than another. He revised the negotiation
of meaning and suggested that density of negotiation is an important element in the
search for relationship between task types, cognitive complexity and second language
acquisition.

A key issue is whether the tasks should be focused (a particular structure is required in
order to complete the task) or unfocused (learners can use any linguistic resource at
their disposal to complete the task). Nunan embraces a weak interpretation of TBLT,
which means that a focus on form has a place in TBLT. He believes that a focus on form
should come on step 4 of the instructional sequence because in the prior steps learners
see, hear and use the target language from a communicative perspective and it will make
it easier for them to establish links between linguistic forms and the communicative
functions they realise.

Grading, sequencing and integrating tasks

Nunan refers to the principles of grading, sequencing and integrating tasks, which is very
difficult because learners do not learn one aspect of a language perfectly one at a time
but they acquire a partial mastery of numerous items simultaneously. He considers the
factors in relation to the key components of input, procedures and the learner so he
presents the standard way of dividing any sequence into three phases. (Appendix G:
Phases in TBLT). The terms continuity, dependency, and chaining all refer to the same
thing: the interdependence of tasks, task components, and supporting enabling skills
within an instructional sequence. Nunan also looked at some proposals for sequencing
and integrating tasks: topic/theme-based, content-based, and project-based instruction.

Assessment, practical tools and techniques

The author looks at aspects and key concepts of assessment that are applicable to TBLT
(Appendix H: Key concepts in assessment) and practical tools and techniques for
assessment which include performance scales, production tasks, observation
schedules, journals and portfolios. Then he proposes several techniques for collecting
assessment data (Appendix I: Techniques for collecting assessment data).

Nunan considers that teachers should identify what works and what does not work
through a direct study of their classroom so they can be active creators of their own
materials, activities and assessment procedures. For which he proposes a checklist
(Appendix J: Checklist for evaluating tasks and a guideline to creating tasks).

Conclusion

The book has made me reconsider task-based because it can be used in a CLT but also
as Nunan specifies it can be focused on form which in my opinion is more effective when
a better control on the structure use to complete the task by learners is needed. I think
that the weak interpretation of TBL advocated by Nunan is more efficient than the
stronger interpretation because form is important and should go in my opinion in
connection with the meaning and CLT. It can be applicable to learners all ages no matter
the background knowledge because the tasks can be graded and sequenced. Moreover
since the teacher can create his/her own tasks according to the needs and the study of
the class helped by the checklist. Another thing is that learners will have a more varied
exposure to language and most important is that they feel free to use the vocabulary and
grammar they know to complete the task so in my opinion it will encourage them to take
risks and be more ambitious in language learning. Also I valued that it allows and guides
teachers no matter the teaching program to create their own tasks, and not only that it
made me realise the importance and advantage of tasks since they give a purpose to
the activity that exceeds the practice of the language. The checklist is useful to help
evaluating and creating tasks for the class and the starting point for the designing of the
task should be the goals, and objectives set in the syllabus or curriculum guidelines in
which our teaching programs are based.
I realised that any curriculum content can be taught through tasks, the key point is that
the teacher usually will have to create their own worksheets or strategies. In addition,
learners are changing so TBLT helps the teacher address the learners of today. That is
a very important characteristic about TBLT because learners nowadays need to be able
to use the language in every day’s life.
APPENDIX A: TASK COMPONENTS

Nunan`s diagrammatic model:

Goals → ←Teacher role

Input → TASK ← Learner role
Procedures → ←Settings

The core task elements have six components:

1. Goals: can be communicative – sociocultural – learning: how to learn – Language

and cultural awareness.
2. Input: refers to the spoken, written and visual data that learners work with in the
course of completing a tsk. A teacher, a textbook or some other source can
provide it.
3. Procedures: specifies what learners will actually do with the input that forms the
point of departure for the learning task.
4. Task types: there are many different task types:
5. Teacher and learner roles: have to do with the part that learners and teachers
are expected to play in carrying out learning tasks and the social and
interpersonal relationships between the participants.
6. Settings: have to do with classroom arrangements specified or implied in the tsk
and whether the task is to be carried out totally or partly outside the classroom.
A distinction between mode whether the learner works individually or in group
and environment which has to do to where the learning actually takes place.

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX B: TYPES OF TASKS

A. Bangalore project: three principal task types are:

 Information gap
 Reasoning gap
 Opinion gap
B. Pattison (1987) seven types of tasks:
 Questions and answers
 Dialogues and roleplays
 Matching activities
 Communication strategies
 Pictures and picture stories
 Puzzles and problems
 Discussion and decisions
C. Richards (2001:162):
 Jigsaw tasks
 Information gap tasks
 Problem solving tasks
 Decision making tasks
 Opinion exchange tasks

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX C: TYPES OF STRATEGIES

1. Cognitive: classifying, predicting, inducing, taking notes, concept mapping,

discriminating, diagramming;
2. Interpersonal: co-operating, role playing;
3. Linguistic: conversational patterns, practicing, using context, summarizing, selective
listening, skimming;
4. Affective: personalizing, self-evaluating, reflecting;
5. Creative: brainstorming.

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX D: A FRAMEWORK FOR TBLT
Macrofunctions Microfunctions Real World – Target tasks

transform when the learners

comprehend, manipulate, produce
and interacts in the target language
within the classroom

Pedagogical Tasks Enabling Skills

Rehearsal Activation Language Communicative

Tasks Tasks exercises activities

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX E: TASKS INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCES

1. Schema building (Develop a number of schema-building exercises that will

serve to introduce the topic, set the context for the task, and introduce
some of the key vocabulary and expressions that the students will need in
order to complete the task)
2. Controlled practice (Provide students with controlled practice in using the
target language vocabulary, structures, and functions)
3. Authentic listening practice (Involve learners in intensive listening practice)
4. Focus on linguistic elements (Take part in a sequence of exercises in which
the focus is on one or more linguistic elements)
5. Provide freer practice (Engage in freer practice, where they move beyond
simple manipulation)
6. Introduce the pedagogical task (Introduction of the pedagogical task itself).

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX F: PRINCIPLES UNDERPINNING TBLT

 Principle 1: Scaffolding (Lessons and materials should provide supporting

frameworks within which the learning takes place. At the beginning of the learning
process, learners should not be expected to produce language that has not been
introduced either explicitly or implicitly)
 Principle 2: Task dependency (Within a lesson, one task should grow out of,
and build upon, the ones that have gone before)
 Principle 3: Recycling (Recycling language maximizes opportunities for
learning and activates the organic learning principle)
 Principle 4: Active learning (Learners learn best by actively using the language
they are learning)
 Principle 5: Integration (Learners should be taught in ways that make clear the
relationship between linguistic form, communicative function and semantic
meaning)
 Principle 6: Reproduction to creation (Learners should be encouraged to move
from reproductive to creative language use)
 Principle 7: Reflection (Learners should be given opportunities to reflect on
what they have learned and how well they are doing).

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX G: PHASES IN TBLT

• similar function as a schema building tasks

• orients the learner to the task,generates interestand rehearses
Pre-Task essential language that will be required to complete the task.
phase

• learners complete the task and get a debriefing from the teacher.
• report the results of the task back to the class as a whole and may
Task proper receive corrective feedback from the teacher.
phase

• this phase acts as segue into the pre-task phase of the next task cycle
Follow -up
phase

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX H: KEY CONCEPTS IN ASSESSMENT

1. Evaluation versus Assessment. Evaluation is a broad, general set of procedures

involving the collection and interpretation of information for curricular decision-
making. This information will generally include data on what learners can and cannot
do in the language. Procedures for collecting this learner data are referred to as
assessment. Assessment is thus a subset of evaluation. Testing is one form of
assessment. Assessment subsumes testing and is subsumed by evaluation.
2. Indirect versus Direct Assessment. In direct assessment, learners are required to
reproduce, in the testing situation, the kinds of communicative behaviours they will
need to carry out in the real world. In indirect test, the test does not resemble
outside-class performance.
3. System-referenced versus Performance-referenced Tasks. A system-referenced
test item requires the candidate to demonstrate knowledge of the phonological,
lexical or grammatical systems of the language. It is designed to evaluate language
mastery as a psychological construct without specific reference to any particular use
of it. (Baker, 1990). A performance-based item requires the learners to demonstrate
an ability to use the language.
4. Assessing proficiency versus Achievement. The qualities being researched or tested
are abstract, invisible psychological qualities such as motivation, aptitude and
language proficiency the only way to gather information is through observation or
elicitation of some kind of performance on the part of the learner. Brindley (1989)
proficiency is meant to be independent of any particular course of study;
achievement refers to the mastery by the learner of specific curricular objectives.
5. Teaching versus Testing. Teaching task can be used for assessment purposes, and
vice versa. The key difference is how the task fits into an instructional cycle and
what is done with the learner output from the task.
6. Task-based Assessment. Norris, et al. (1998) argue that task-based testing is part
of a broader approach to assessment called performance assessment. There are
three essential characteristics of performance assessment: It must be based on
tasks; the task should be as authentic as possible; qualified judges must rate
success or failure in the outcome of the task. Norris, et al. develop a set of test
specifications for designing and grading tasks. They identify four factors to be taken
into consideration in grading tasks: code, cognitive complexity, communicative
demand, and overlapping variables.
7. Norm-referenced versus Criterion-referenced Assessment. In norm-referenced
testing, students are compared to each other. Norm-referenced testing procedures
are designed to disperse students’ score along a normal distribution. This form of
assessment is appropriate for assessing abstracted language ability traits. Criterion-
referenced tests compare students, not against each other, but on how well they do
on a given assessment task. Nunan argues that criterion-referenced testing is more
appropriate in TBLT, particularly in educational systems where there is a concern to
achieve a high degree of harmony between teaching and testing. Criterion—
referenced tests are designed to assess students’ mastery of course objectives.
Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
APPENDIX I: TECHNIQUES FOR COLLECTING ASSESSMENT DATA
1. Performance scales: Performance scales are particularly suitable for task-based
assessment. ACTFL provide descriptions for assessing learner performance at
different level. Descriptive scales are provided for global language assessment as
well as for specific language skill and strategies.
2. Production Tasks: Role-plays, Discussion task and Simulation: In selecting
language production tasks, it is important to be clear about the purpose, as well as
the kind of language wanted to be elicited. Role-play and simulation can both be
used to assess learner language; they were initially designed for classroom
instruction.
3. Observation schedules: Students view the videotapes and rank order them from
good to poor. They are led to articulate a set of criteria for good group discussion,
which it is used to evaluate their own performance.
4. Journals, Diaries, and Learning Logs: Journals, diaries, and learning logs can
encourage students/learners to become more reflective and self-directed; they can
help to bring together teaching and assessment in mutually beneficial ways.
Dialogue journals provide a useful record of achievement. With dialogue journals,
the teacher reads and responds individually to each student’s journal entries.
5. Portfolios: Kent and Toperoff (1998), student assessment through portfolios should
contain the following characteristics: The assessment should be a joint endeavour
between student and teachers; the portfolios should not consist of a random
collection of samples. Rather, items should be carefully selected and justified;
Samples of work should show growth and development over time. The criteria for
selecting and assessing content must be clear to students from the outset; Nunan
and Wong (2003) argue that portfolios should contain the following:
 A self-introduction; Samples of both spoken and written language
 Evidence of growth and development
 Evidence of reflective learning

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
APPENDIX J: CHECKLIST FOR EVALUATING TASKS
 Goals and rationale
 Input
 Procedures
 Roles and setting
 Implementation
 Grading
 Integration
 Assessment and evaluation

A GUIDELINE TO CREATING TASKS

 Set out the goals and objectives
 Select or create input for learners to work with
 Determine the role of teacher and student
 Design the activities
 Monitor the task.

Nunan, D. 2004. Task-Based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.