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Case Studies
The CIE IGCSE/GCSE Geography Exams

Overpopulation in Bangladesh

Lack of resources, poor infrastructure and

under-developed technology coupled with the
high population have been responsible for
decreasing the carrying capacity of the region.

Problems of overpopulation:

Overpopulation: street crowds in Dhaka by

Ahron de Leeuw

Overpopulation in Bangladesh resulted in

overcrowded areas with traffic congestion as
there are too many vehicles on the the roads,
especially in cities such as Dhaka. Vehicle
emissions, industrial discharge and burning of
fossil fuels have resulted in air pollution, while
the ground water has been polluted due to
arsenic. Furthermore, shortage of food lead to
overcultivation on the flood plains of the
Ganges river, causing lower yields and soil
exhaustion. Another major problem is the
widespread deforestation for firewood on the
slopes of the Himalayas.

The capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka, also suffers

from severe housing shortages due to mass
urbanisation.

Canada: Underpopulation

Canada is regarded as an underpopulated

country as the carrying capacity is much
higher than the current population. The 35
million people in Canada can not fully exploit
the available resources and technology.

Problems of underpopulation in

Canada:

Labour shortage: 32% of Canadian

employers are encountering difficulties in
hiring workers due to a lack of applicants
Services (eg. schools, hospitals and
transport) close down as there are not
enough customers.
Less innovation and development (lee brain
power)
Difficulties in defending the country

By Jef Wallace

Canada has tried to promote immigration to

maintain the fairly high standard of living, but in
the previous decades less people are migrating
to Canada, than during the 1950’s and 1960’s.

Solutions:

relaxing immigrant policies and visa

requirements to encourage migration
Pro-natal goverment support to increase
the birth rate eg. subsidies and parental
leave programmes
allow pensioners to continue working

China: One Family One Child

Policy

Anti-natal population policy

China is world’s most populous country with

more than 1.3 billion people in 2014.
Representing 20% of the world’s people, China
suffers from extreme overpopulation.

China became overpopulated since 1960

because of:

social/cultural desire to have a son

economical bonus: men could work in the
field
children considered to be social security
politics: stronger China against America
previously poor medical infrastructure- high
infant mortality rate
flood 1959-1962: 20 million died

In 1965 the birth rate had grown to 40 births

per 1000 until politicians realised the growing
problem and launched the One Family One
Child Policy in 1979.

Encouragements to Penalties
limit to one child

·     5-10% salary bonus ·     fines: US$

400-US$ 1400

·     free education and ·     10% salary

health care reduction

·     free contraceptions ·     no free

education

·     preferential ·     no free access

employment to health care

·     preferential housing ·     forced

abortion

  ·     not allowed to

buy a house

Positive consequences of the

policy:

better education and skilled workforce

average fertility reduced to 1.7
low urban poverty

Negative consequences of the

policy:

female foeticide
forced abortion
abnormal sex ratio/ imbalanced
more divorce: desire to have a boy
lack of working population to support old
dependents
girls abandoned, killed, in orphanage

Exceptions to the policy:

Han-Chinese allowed a second child

rural areas
ethnic minorities

Enforcement of One Child Policy in China

Germany: Pro-natal population

policy

In Germany, the fertility rate is well below

replacement level, having dropped to 1.38
births per woman in 2012. Birth rates have
been falling for many years, and the youth plus
the immigrants will be unable to support 
Germany’s ageing population.

For this reason, Germany has adopted several

measures that attempt to encourage families to
have more children:

paid maternity leave and parental leave

tax breaks to tax payers that have children
eliminating fees for kindergarden
free schooling
encouraging immigration

 Japan: Population distribution

in a densely populated country

With a population of around 130 million (2015),

and a population density of 336 people per
km² (2015),  Japan is one of the most densely
populated countries in the world.

Uneven population distribution

Sparsely populated rural areas: very few

people live on the mountainous slopes in the
centre of Honshu island and the south of
Shikoku island, because of:

Lack of flat land for cultivation

Thin, infertile and acidic soils
Extreme climate: long cold winters with
heavy snow
Remoteness and isolation: transport and
communication are difficult
Few jobs available (only in forestry/ primary
sector)

Population density in Japan (by Zuanzuanfuwa,

CC BY-SA 3.0)

Densely populated rural areas: many people

live on the flat valleys and gentle slopes of
Honshu and Kyushu islands because they:

provide fertile land for cultivation and thus,

have attracted many farmers
attract commuters who work in the cities
through the high standard of living and
services such as out-of-town shopping
malls and sports facilities.

Densely populated urban areas: many

people live in towns and cities along the coast,
especially on Honshu island, in the conurbation
of Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka; because of:

flat land with mild winters

good service provision like universities and
technologically advanced hospitals and
health facilities
good transport facilities such as the Port of
Tokyo to facilitate the import of raw
materials and the export of manufactured
goods

Canada: A Sparsely populated

country

With a population of around 35 million (2015),

and a population density of 3.87 people per
km² in 2013, Canada is considered a sparsely
populated country.

Canada is sparsely populated due to the

following reasons:

many mountainous areas eg. Canadian

Rockies close to the west coast
permafrost in the Northern areas (high
latidtudes) so land is too cold for
agriculture
snow and ice make transport difficult,
especially in less developed areas (ie. the
inner provinces of Canada)

Canada: Population distribution

The population of Canada is clustered in the

Southern areas; because, the cold Arctic
climate makes cultivation impossible and it is
rather unpleasant to live in those cold areas.
Also, more people live in Eastern areas, since
the West has mountainous areas such as the
Canadian Rockies that are too steep to farm on
easily and challenging for construction and
transport.

Russia: Population decline

Russia has a population growth rate of -0.3%.

This has been caused by factors like:

high death rate of 13 deaths per 1000,

particularly due to alcohol-related deaths
low fertility rate of 1.6 children per woman
high rates of abortion
low levels of immigration

Problems of population decline:

underuse of health facilities, resulting in

rising costs
education cannot be sustained in all areas
(particularly sparsely populated)
resources not fully exploited, leading to
lower GDP
lack of workers may result in economic
recession

Solutions:

pro-natal population policies, eg. financial

support for parents who choose to have a
second child
robotisation/development of tertiary sector
to prevent lack of workers

Uganda: High population growth

rate

Uganda has a population growth rate of more

than 3% due to its high birth rate of 44 births
per 1000 people per year. This has been
caused by factors such as:

low socio-economic status of women

low educational levels, especially among
females
early marriage
low use of contraception due to limited
access and poverty
political statements encouraging more
babies as some areas in Uganda have a low
population density

Problems of high population growth:

Health sector faces human and

infrastructural shortages
Primary education could not be sustained in
all areas
Insufficient employment opportunities,
especially for poorly educated
Threatens agricultural modernisation as
population pressure increases
deforestation, soil erosion and land
degration
Pressure on resources, especially in urban
areas

Solutions to reduce population growth:

Widespread availability of contraception

Universal access to education, jobs and
health care and female emancipation
Promotion of scientific and technical
development (tertiary sector)
Promotion of new modes of production
(modernisation and commercialisation of
agriculture)
Growth with equity/sustainable
development

For more information visit: Population growth

rate in Uganda

Uganda: Youthful population

In 2014, 48.7% of Uganda’s population were

young dependents under the age of 15.

Causes:

high fertility rate (many children per

woman) and high birth rate
high infant mortality rate encourages more
births so some will survive
children considered social and economic
asset
high death rate increases the percentage of
young dependents

Benefits:

few old dependents that have to be

supported
possibly a large workforce in future

Problems

Overpopulation if growth is not regulated,

resulting in overcrowding, construction of
shanty towns, lower standard of life,
increased pollution, depletion of resources
and food shortages (which encourage
deforestation resulting in soil exhaustion
and lower yields), as wells as future
unemployment
Stress on tax payers to support young
dependents and finance development of
necessary infrastructure

United Kingdom: Ageing

population

The percentage of elderly dependents (+65

years) has increased by 3% from 15% in 1980
to 18% in 2014.

Benefits:

Elderly people can share skills and

knowledge to train the younger generation
Elderly people promote the development of
grey economies (such as health care,
specialised facilities, other facilities desired
by elderly, etc.)
Elderly continue to pass on traditions and
culture.

Problems:

An increase in the percentage of elderly

dependents is a strain on the working
population as higher taxation is required to
support the pensions of the elderly and to
fund services such as health care and
specialised homes. Government-funded
pensions may have to shrink to cover
everybody, leaving many people with less to
spend (and some in poverty). In contrast,
services for younger people, such as
schools, are underused. These services may
then have to close (eg. Woodly School in North
Yorkshire which shut in 2012 due to a lack of
students). As a result, some people may be left
unemployed. Also, there are not enough
economically active people, causing a lack of
workforce and making it harder to defend the
country.

HIV/AIDS: Botswana

Botswana is a landlocked country, north of

South Africa. UNAIDS estimates that 400,000
people in Botwana live with HIV (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus).
HIV/AIDS is transferred through bodily fluids. In
Botswana, this occurs mainly during sexual
intercourse or from mother to child during
pregnancy. AIDS can also spread via
contaminated blood transfusions or
contaminated needle use (usually in drug
users).

As a LEDC country Botswana is particularly

vulnerable to HIV because of:

poor sex education (people are unaware of

the consequences of unprotected sex)
low availability of contraception: many
people have unprotected sex
low status of women: women can not
disapprove of unprotected sex, as they are
perceived as child bearers
low availabilty of medical treatment and
testing: many people are unaware that they
are infected so the disease spreads easily
poverty: few people can afford anti-
retroviral drugs to control the severity of
the symptoms

Consequences of HIV/AIDS:

High death rate and lower life expectancy,

especially in economically active population
Falling birth rate due to abstinence (fear of
becoming infected), so people have less
children
Decreased labour pool reduces agricultural
and industrial output, causing food
shortages and poverty, thus preventing
economic growth

Solutions:

AIDS education programme: used mass

media to reach 500,000 students and teach
them about HIV/AIDS
Offering free condoms to population
Improvements in HIV testing and anti-
retroviral drugs in government clinics

For more information visit:

https://www.patana.ac.th/Secondary/Geograph
y/IB/Population/AIDs%20Botswanna.htm

Syria to Germany: International

Refugee Migration

Video unavailable
This video is unavailable

Approximately 13 million Syrians are escaping

the war between the Assad regime and non-
state armed forces, 800,000 of which have
come to Germany so far.

Many are fleeing from barrel bombings and

shootings that have destroyed their houses
and killed family members. Also, the refugees
are attempting to avoid political persecution, as
the goverment has arrested and tortured
civilians who they think could be working
against them. Others are emigrating to prevent
being abused by radically religious groups
such as IS, who have trained child soldiers and
organised kidnappings and extrajudicial
executions.

Many seek asylum in Germany, because the

country provides economic stability as the
current unemployment rate is low, and many
sectors will be looking for suitable workers as
Germany’s population continues to age.
Besides, Germany is perceived as a country
that protects and promotes human rights,
offering food, shelter and language courses to
refugees.

Rural Settlement (LEDC):

Korodegaga village

Korodegaga village – near Addis Ababa in

Ethiopia – consists of nine small hamlets with
1400 people in total.

The area was first settled in th 20th century

because of:

water supply from two rivers

flat, fertile soil for cultivation
extensive forests for building and firewood

Services provided include: a grain mill,

mosques and schools. Villagers walk to the
neighbouring towns of Dera and Bofa to access
a local market and shops.

Braunschweig: Settlement size

and service provision

Braunschweig is a district in Lower Saxony,

Germany, with a population of around 250,000
inhabitants. The majority ofinhabitants live in
the city of Braunschweig, which has the best
provision of services (more than 20 schools, 5
hospitals, and a dense network of public
transport, which includes, busses, trains and
trams). In contrast, the village of Querum,
which is also part of the district of
Braunschweig, has a population of around
6000 inhabitants only has one doctor’s
surgery, and one primary school, as it does not
have the threshold population to support
higher-order services.

Rural settlement (MEDC):

Hötzum, Lower Saxony, Germany

Hötzum has a population of around 900

people. Its function is mainly residential, with
most people working in the nearby cities of
Braunschweig and Wolfenbüttel.

Map  by: OpenStreetMap und Mitwirkende

Source: OpenStreetMap Licence: CC BY-SA
2.0 Mapicons by: Nicolas Mollet Source:
Maps Icons Collection Licence: CC BY SA
3.0
 
The area was first known to be settled by
farmers in the 11th century and by the 18th
century, the village had 4 arable farms, a
shepherd and 6 horsefarms.

The area was initially settled because of:

water supply from the Hötzumerbach and

the Feuergraben
flat, fertile land for arable and pastoral
farming
extensive forests which provided many
logfelling opportunities

Currently there are very few services available

(only a church, a community hall, a sports field
and a volunteer fire brigade), but villagers can
access the neighbouring village of Sickte for
basic services and the cities of Wolfenbüttel
and Braunschweig for all other needs.

Urban settlement: New York

Currently, New York is the largest city in the

US, with a population of around 8 million
people.

Site and situation:

at a sheltered, natural harbour formed by

Hudson river, which provided safe, deep
anchorage and an extensive waterfront for
the development of docks
Hudson river allowed for transport and
communication
rocky ridge on Island of Manhatten allowed
for easy defence

CBD’s:

Downtown Manhatten: Wall Street (finance

district of New York)
Midtown Manhatten: tourist district,
including Fifth Avenue (shopping),
Broadway (theatre), hotels, Empire State
Building, Chrysler and United Nations
Buildings

Urban problems:

Urban sprawl (middle class moves to the

outer areas and lower-income families move
into the inner city): due to population
growth, relocation of businesses to suburbs
for cheaper land and better accessibility
Poverty and unemployment: around 1
million citizens receive welfare support due
to unemployment and poor education
caused by a decline in the clothing and
harbour induestries in the 1980’s
Urban decay and housing problems
Racial conflicts due to a large number of
immigrants that become trapped in poverty
Air pollution as there are too many cars
that release toxic exhaust fumes
Traffic congestion as there are too many
vehicles on the road and due to bottlenecks
linking various New York Islands
Water pollution from oil spills

Solution schemes:

Reduction in air pollution by fitting

catalytic converters to the exhausts of
diesel city busses and developing a
biodiesel plant in Brooklyn to distribute
biodiesel to filling stations in the city.
Reducing energy consumption by using
more efficient street light and traffic lights,
using renewable energy sources (wind,
underwater turbines) to power homes and
public buildings
Waste management plan using barges
and trains to export 90% of the city’s waste

Employment structure:

Netherlands

Employment in the Netherlands is shifting more

and more towards a service-based economy,
while the proportion of people working in the
primary and secondary sectors is at an all-time
low.

While just under 7% of the workforce was

employed in agriculture in 1970, this number
has dipped to just under 2% in 2020, as
machines and new technology have replaced
the need for manual labour. Employment in
industrial manufacturing and production has
also fallen, in this case from over 35% to
around 15% of the workforce. This comes as
the country outsourced much of its
manufacturing to China and East-Asia, and
focussed more on highly specialist and
complex services. Today, the country is home
to several world-leading universities including
TU Delft and the University of Amsterdam, and
boasts many SaaS start-ups and software
companies in urban areas like Amsterdam and
Rotterdam. The growth of the tertiary sector
may also be explained by favourable tax
policies that encourage large service-
dominated businesses to relocate to the
Netherlands, along with a progressively more
skilled workforce, as the number of university
graduates has increased substantially between
1950 and 2020.

Squatter settlement in Rio de

Janiero

Rio de Janiero is the second largest city in

Brazil and has a population of 6 million people,
of which nearly 17% – 1 million people- are
favela-dwellers, living in the slums (called
favelas) due to the extremely uneven
distribution of wealth.

By chensiyuan CC BY-SA 4.0

There are many problems for the shanty town

inhabitants:

Landslides: As the flat land in Rio de Janiero

is inhabited by wealthier communties, most
favelas are constructed on the mountainous
slopes, where landslides are a common
occurence (particularly due to excessive
deforestation for firewood)
Housing is made from scrap material which
is vulnerable to flooding
No clean water supply can lead to diseases
such as typhoid, cholera or TB
Sanitation is undeveloped or non-existent,
eg. in Rocinha sewage flows down a large
channel in the middle of houses. This allows
disease to spread and may attract
mosquitoes which are responsible for
sicknesses such as malaria
No proper electricity supply leads to
dangerous tapping of electricity from the
city’s power net
Illegal activities and high crime rates due to
many drug dealers, gangs and murderers

Slum upgrading strategies include :

Increasing property rights (providing favela

residents with titles to their home)
Improving access to electricity and clean
drinking water
Local trash collection scheme: a bag of
trash can be exchanged for a gallon of milk
To reduce likelidehood of crime and
improve education: toyguns can be
exchanged for  comic books

Change in land use and resulting

conflict: Stuttgart

In the German city of Stuttgart, the rail network

is being redesigned as part of the urban
development project Stuttgart 21. The
construction of new rail tracks means that
some of the surrounding land which was
previously used for housing and agriculture is
now being used for transportation purposes.
This has caused significant conflict between
proponents and opponents of the projects.
Those in favour of the project argue that it aids
urban development, as the new transport
network with a high-speed railway track
improves economic and social mobility.
Meanwhile, those opposing the project argue
that it damages the environment by
contaminating groundwater, destroys historical
monuments and devalues private property in
the vicinity of the new railway line. Additionally,
they point that the project blocks other
transport network extensions in the state of
Baden-Württemberg. Because of these
different perspectives, Stuttgart 21 is so
controversial that it has sparked regular,
sometimes even violent, protests in the city.

Volcano: Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland,

2010

Image from:
http://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?
vn=372020
Eyjafjallajökull is a stratovolcano in Iceland,
located approximately 125 km SE of the capital
Reykjavik. It is found along the Mid-Atlantic
ridge, where new earth crust is created.

Lava eruptions in March 2010 were followed by

an explosive eruption on April 14th 2010.The
lava flows damaged many homes and roads
and services were disrupted due to evacuation
measures.

Flooding was caused as glacial ice melted and

torrents of water were flowing down the slopes
of the land. Also, ash covered large plots of
agricultural land, damaging the crops.

The massive ash cloud blocked air traffic in

large parts of Europe for several days, leaving
tourists and business people stranded at their
destinations.

Immediate responses included an emergency

evacuation of more than 800 people. Longterm
responses are the reconstruction of damages
houses and roads and research on the effect of
ash on air planes.

Earthquake: Haiti, 2010

On the 12th of January 2010 a 7.0 magnitude

earthquake struck Haiti, the epicentre of the
quake being merely 15 km SW of the capital
city, Port-au-Prince.

Stress building up along the conservative

margin between the North American Plate and
the Carribean plate was released by slippage
along the fault running parallel to the plate
boundary south of Port-au-Prince. The major
earthquake was followed by several
aftershocks up to a magnitude of 5.0 on the
Richter scale.

The earthquake resulted in approximately

230,000 deaths (massive loss of life),
destruction of 180,000 homes and around
5,000 schools. It left 19 million cubic metres of
debris in Port-au-Prince and many services
were badly disrupted or destroyed. A major
secondary effect was widespread chlora due to
polluted drinking water.

Haiti suffered so much because of the

widespread poverty that left more than 80% of
the population in poorly constructed, high
density concrete buildings. Lack of stable
goverment and medical infrastructure limited
search and rescue efforts. Furthermore, the
earthquake had a shallow focus, resulting in
severe ground shaking, and the epicentre was
located close to the densely populated capital.

Short-term responses to the earthquake

included search and rescue efforts, as well as
the the import of food, water and shelter from
the USA and Dominican Republic. Longterm
responses included reparation of three-quaters
of the damaged buildings. Besides, migration
was common as people moved away to stay
with their families. Also, people received cash
or food in exchange for public reconstruction
work and the World Bank pledged $US100m to
support the reconstruction and recovery.

Tropical storm: Katrina, 2005

Hurricane Katrina was one of the deadliest

hurricanes ever to hit the United States.

How did Katrina form?

Katrina was created from the interaction of the

remains of a tropical depression SE of the
Bahamas with a storm wave. The storm drifted
towards Florida and intensified as it passed
over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico.
Katrina intensified before making landfall in
Florida and was a Hurricane 3 upon reaching
the Mississippi Delta.
Impacts

Levees failed to resist the force of the

waves, causing 80% of New Orleans to
become flooded
More than 1000 people lost their lives
Half a million houses were damaged in the
Gulf Coast region
Services in New Orleans were badly
disrupted: no electricity, gas and sewage
system for 6 months after the event

Responses

$ 10.5 billion of immediate financial aid for

the victims
In the first two weeks after the storm, the
Red Cross had brought 74,000 volunteers
who provided shelter to 160,000 evacuees
International aid from over 50 countries
Rebuilding levees destroyed by Katrina

Tsunami in the Indian Ocean,

2004

On December 26th 2004, a tsunami occured in

the Indian Ocean.

The tsunami was the direct consequence of a

9.0 magnitude earthquake that was caused by
tension along the subduction zone of the Indo-
Australian and Eurasian plates. This rupture
triggered massive waves that reached an
altitude of up to 30m.

The tsunami resulted in 250,000 deaths, with

170,000 fatalities in Indonesia alone. 13
countries were affected by the powerful waves,
and an estimated total of 2 million people have
been displaced, as their houses have been
destroyed.

Created by Cantus
Short term responses included search and
rescue efforts in the local communities, while
internationally, people sent donations to help
those in need.

An early warning system has been developed

to predict future tsunamis in the Indian Ocean.

Coastal problems and

opportunities: Wadden Sea

Islands

The Wadden Sea provides a large diversity of

fish species and other seafood animals, making
fishery an important industry for the local
communities. Besides, tourism is well
established in the area, with around 800,000
visitors annually on the Dutch island of Texel
alone.

By Aotearoa (Own work)  CC-BY-SA-3.0, via

Wikimedia Commons
However, the area is threatened by storm tides,
particularly in fall and winter, which may cause
floods that damage the unique ecosystem.
Furthermore, the continuous eastward shift of
the islands has eroded their westmost regions,
endangering settlements such as West-
Terschelling, which may submerge in future.

Coastal management strategies to protect the

islands include dune grass planting and dune
fencing. The newly planted grass traps and
hold sand thereby reducing coastal erosion
and encouraging the formation of new dunes.
This makes the islands less vulnerable against
erosion from storm surges.

Coral reef: Great Barrier Reef

The Great Barrier reef is located along the

Pacific shores, where water temperatures are
above 20°C. The reef grows in shallow areas
(not more than 60 m deep) in the Coral sea, off
the Australian coast, east of Cairns. It grows in
clear water that is free of sediment so sunlight
can pass through.

Threats:

The Great Barrier reef is threatened by global

warming, which increases coral bleaching.
Besides, declining water quality (due to
agricultural run-off from the rivers of North-
Eastern Australia and oil from ships in
discarded in the Coral Sea) pollutes the
ecosystem. Also, overfishing destroys food
chains and disbalances the symbiotic
relationships. Furthermore, tourists may
destroy parts of the reef when they go diving
or reef-walking.

Management strategies:

The Australian government has made the Great

Barrier reef a protected area by declaring it a
marine park. The GBRMPA (Great Barrier Reef
Marine Park Authority) is the ogranisation who
looks after the reef and protects it from human
threats while allowing sustainable development
to take place. The Marine Park Authority gives
out permits for fishing, diving and more and
has boats patrol the area to prevent illegal
activity. Tourists are educated about how their
trip affects the reef and they are not allowed in
certain sensitive areas. Also, fines of up to US$
1 million can be forced on companies that
pollute the fragile ecosystem.

Pollution in the North Sea

The North Sea is polluted by oil spillages from

tankers in the Thames estuary washing out
their tanks. As a result, oil clogs up the gills of
fish, casuing them to die. Spillages also pollute
the beaches along the British coast (eg. near
Essex), which reduces the number of tourists.
Besides pollution occurs through the disposal
of untreated sewage from large urban areas
such as Rotterdam, possibly possessing a
human health risk along the Dutch coast. Also,
pollutants from industrial waste in the Rhine
river may be washed into the sea.

By Halava CC BY-SA 3.0

A Spit: Spurn Head, Holderness

Coast, UK

Spurn head  is a sand and shingle ridge that

extends from the headland south of Easington.
It has been formed along the Holderness coast
under the influence of prevailing winds from
the North which result in wave refraction.
Subsequently, longshore drift transports the
coastal sediments, which deposit in the
sheltered mouth of the Humber estuary.

Spurn Head, Holderness Coast

Ynyslas Dunes, Wales, UK

The Ynyslas Dunes in Wales have been formed

by deposition, which occured as energy of
winds blowing from Cardigan Bay was reduced.
Westerly onshore winds picked up dry sand
from the wide beach at the estuary of the
Dovey (Dyfi) river. Obstructions on the beach
caused a sheltered area. Maram grass
colonised dunes and trapped further sand.

Formation of Ynyslas Dunes, Cardigan Bay

Bangladesh: Ganges-

Brahmaputra Delta

The Ganges Delta in Bangladesh is the most

populous river delta in the world. Around 30%
of its population work in agriculture, as rice
cultivation is well developed due to the fertile
soils. Also, fishing is very prominent, as the
distributaries are colonised by shrimps.
However, the Ganges Delta is threatened by
floods, especially from heavy rainfall during the
monsoon season and icewater runoff from the
slopes of the Himalaya.

Image of Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta from

NASA

Water supply: Colorado River

Basin

The Colorado river originates from the Rocky

Mountains, passing through 7 states before
reaching Mexico. It is estimated that 40 million
people rely on water from the 2,300 km long
stream for domestic, agricultural and industrial
purposes. Many dams and canals have been
built to control this extreme demand; therefore,
the Colorado river is one of the most controlled
rivers in the world.

By Shannon, CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0

In 1922, the Colorado River Compact was

introduced to divide the water supply between
the states of the Upper and Lower Basin of the
river, with each group being allocated 9.25
trillion litres of water each year. In 1944, a
treaty was introduced to guarantee 1.85 trillion
litres to Mexico.

Despite all these management agreements,

problems over the river’s resources have
arisen, because:

River was commited to deliver 20.35 trillion

litres per year, but only brought about 17.25
trillion litres anually
Evaporation from lakes has remove 2.5
trillion litres, and even less during periods of
drought
Demand for water has increased, due to
population growth and more irrigation for
farmland.

Environmental problems:

Alluvium becomes trapped behind dams

(eg. Hoover Dam), damaging the delta and
wetland ecosystem at the mouth of the
Colorado river
Salinity has increased in the lower basin,
altering the ecosystem
Reduction in the population of fish, shrimps
and sea mammals

Resource management strategies:

Reducing leakage from broken pipes

Use of grey water in domestic homes
Domestic conservation
Improving irrigation (using drip irrigation) or
growing crops with a lower demand for
water
Extraction water from ground water
supplies
Desalinisation of water from the Pacific
ocean

(Information from: Greenfieldgeography)

China: Three Gorges Dam

The Three Gorges Dam is located near Yichang

on the Yangtse River in China. It is
approximately 180 m high and 2.3 km wide and
has taken almost 17 years to construct.

The dam has protected 10 million people from

flooding and its 32 generators provide energy
for 60 million people (each generagtor
produces as much energy as a small nuclear
powerplant), enabling China to reduce its
dependency on coal. It also allows shipping
above the Three Gorges and has 6-folded the
water traffic capacity. Also, the dam has
created many jobs.

 Model of the Three Gorges Dam

However, the dam meant that 1 million people
had to be moved to accomodate the reservoir
and power stations. The Three Gorges Dam
also interferes with aquatic life, being a major
threat to the White Flag Dolphin, which is
already at risk from extinction. Furthermore,
the large masses of silt transported by the
Yangtse deposit behind the dam, which
reduces the storage capacity of the reservoir.
Besides, the dam lies on a fault line and could
be badly affected by an earthquake.

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Central European floods 2013

Cause:

Extreme flooding in Europe began after heavy

rainfall in May and early June 2013.
Precipitation at the northern rim of the Alps
exceeded 300mm over four days. This, along
with an already high soil moisture from the wet
spring weather, gave rise to severe flood
discharges in the Danube and Elbe rivers.
Many dykes failed due to the pressure from the
water masses, worsening the situation. Flash
flooding was recorded in Warsaw as a result of
a heavy thunderstorm.

Effects:

25 fatalities have been recorded due to the

2013 floods. Thousands of people were
evacuated in Germany, the Czech Republic and
Austria. The total devastation amounted to
12billion €, with crop losses acounting for
1billion € worth of damage.  River traffic was
blocked for several weeks and many railway
lines were closed due to flood damage and
landslides.

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By Honza Groh (Jagro) (Own work) CC BY-

SA 3.0
Responses:

Short-term responses included search and

rescue efforts and emergency evacuations.
Members of the Red Cross built shelter camps
for displaced residents. Military soldiers
established sand bag walls to control the Elbe
and Danube rivers and protect buildings in
areas such as Dresden and Passau. In some
rural regions, levees were destroyed to allow
the water to escape onto flood plains and
prevent uncontrolled damage downstream.

The governments of Germany, Austria and the

Czech Republik are investigating into longterm
measures to reduce the aftermath of future
floods. Suggestions include reducing
construction activities on flood plains and
creating spillways to divert part of the flow in
case of high discharge. Some dykes will be
raised and stabilised to protect particularly
vulnerable regions.

2011 East African Drought

Cause:

The 2011 drought in Ethiopia,Djibouti, Kenya

and Somalia was caused by the La Nina
phenomenon, an ocean current in the Pacific
which increased the intensity of westerly winds
in the Indian ocean, pulling moisture away from
East Africa and towards Australia and
Indonesia.

Effects:

Most crops failed and 60% of cattle

perished due to a lack of water
Severe food crisis: lots of people suffer
from starvation or malnourishment
Thousands fled to refugee camps in hope
of food aid from other countries, but many
people died of starvation or disease en
route

India: Thar Desert, Rajastan

Climate:

The Thar Desert is dry as hot air rises at the

equator and cools. The moistureholding
capacity decreases; it rains. As the air moves
away from the equator by advection, it cools
and sinks at the tropics (where the desert is
located). The sinking air warms up and its
moisture-holding capacity increases, so the
area is very dry. With the low humidity, there
are few clouds to reflect the sunlight and as
there is no evaporative cooling, most of the
sunlight warms the ground surface, creating
hot temperatures.

Vegetation:

Low precipitation and temperatures of up to

53°C result in scattered vegetation that has
adapted to the extreme conditions. For
instance, the Ber tree has a rapidly developing
taproot system to survive in drought
conditions. However, exept for a few trees, the
desert is home to thorny bushes and shrubs.
These have spiky leaves to reduce rates of
evapotranspiration. Xerophilious grass has a
small surface area to reduce water loss. Some
species als remain dormant during long dry
spells.

Threats:

The Thar Desert is threatened by excessive

irrigation which leads to salinization. Therefore
plants can not take up water from th soil, as the
soil has greater concentrations of solute than
the roots. Soil quality is also decreasing as
manure is used as an alternative fuel for
firewood rather than to sustain nutrient-rich,
fertile soils. Furthermore, population pressure
results in overcultivation and overgrazing,
especially around cities like Jodhpur and
Jaisalmer, damaging the natural vegetation.
The desert environment is also threatened by
tourist attractions such as dune bashing. The
toyotarisation disturbs animals, kills vegetation
and creates dust stroms. Also, tourists may
dump waste in the desert, poisoning flora and
fauna.

Tropical Rainforest in Borneo

Borneo has experienced the fastest tropical

rainforest clearance in the world. While 94 % of
the island’s land was covered by forest in 1950,
less than half of it remains today (44.5% in
2010).

The rainforest has been cleared for the

following reasons:

to boost Malaysia’s economy by exporting

timber for furniture and paper production
population pressure: Indonesia’s
transmigration programme caused people
to move from overcrowded islands as Java
to relatively sparsely populated areas as
Kalimantan
to build palm oil plantations
HEP: forest clearance to provide space for
a reservoir in Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo)
coal mining in Kalimantan

By T. R. Shankar Raman (Own work) CC BY-

SA 4.0
Effects of clearance:

atmospheric pollution – burning of forest

releases enermous masses of ash and
smoke
global warming due to the release of Co2
from burning forests and reduction in
carbon sink (as burnt trees do not absorb
CO2 by photosynthesis)
loss of biodiversity: loss of plant species
through deforestation
destruction of habitat: some species (eg.
orang-utans) are unprotected due to lower
forest cover
loss of soil fertiliy: soil degration due to
soil erosion and leaching

Management strategies:

Afforestation/reforestation and selective

logging
Promoting rainforests as destinations for
ecotourism, enabling the undisturbed
environment to create a source of income
for local people without it being damaged or
destroyed
World-wide initiatives including debt-for-
nature swaps: debt relief for retaining
rainforests

Tourism in Lanzarote

With more than 2 million visitors annually, 

tourism represents the major pillar of
Lanzarote’s economy

Main attractions: 
IMAG0811

Climate: average water temperature of

20°C, and average air temperature of 21°C,
very little rainfall and 8.5 hours of sunshine
each day
Numerous luxury and package hotels on
beaches eg. Playa Blanca
Jameos del Agua: an underground lagoon in
a lava tube
Timanfaya National Park
El Golfo: an emerald green lake situated at
the base of a crater on the west coast of
the island
Cueva de los Verdes
Cactus Garden by Cesar Manrique

Benefits:

Since the 1980’s , package holidays have

created a source of income to promote the
development of basic infrastructures, such
as the extension of the airport runway to
allow for international flights
Employment opportunities in tourist
industries eg. hotels, gastronomy,
transport, tour guides

Disadvantages:

Import leakage to fulfil tourist demands

such as food, because only few types of
vegetation can thrive on Lanzarote’s arid,
volcanic soils

 Ecotourism in Belize

With 245 000 tourists annually, in 2007, over

25% of all jobs were in tourism, which made up
over 18% of Belize’s GDP.

Primary and secondary attractions:

Mangrove swamps
Wetlands
Savannah
Mountain pine forests and tropical
rainforests
Coral reef
Archaeological sites eg. Mayan civilization
Wildlife reserves eg. Coxcomb Basin
Wildlife Sanctuary

How tourist demands are managed:

Belize Tourist board, Ministry of Tourism

and private sector
Community Baboon Sanctuary to preserve
forest habitat and howler monkeys:
sustainable farming to increase yield and
services for tourists

Problems/Threats:

Waste dumping and financial leakage due

to cruise tourism
Overfishing
Coral damage and eutrophication of
freshwater from fertilizer runoff

Aims:

conserve world heritage site of barrier reef

increase knowledge of country’s
ecosystems through training programmes
reduce concentration of tourists in specific
areas
support planning and development of a
buffer zone
stricter regulations on cruise ships to
reduce waste dumping
persuade cruise tourists to spend more
time on land

Maldives: Tourism as a

development strategy

The Maldives are located south-west of India in

the Indian ocean and consist of more than
1000 islands.

Tourism accounts for 28% of the Maldives’

GDP and more than 60% of its foreign
exchange receipts.

Source: OCHA/ReliefWeb

Natural attractions:

sea-sun-sand combination
climate
coral

Man-made attractions:

luxury resorts and suites eg. Taj Exotica

Resort and Spa on South Male Atoll
Grand Friday Mosque in Male attracts
religious tourists

How tourist demands are managed:

Water provided by desalination of sea water

Energy produced by generators
Waste dumped in landfill sites or sea (this
problem is addressed by the compulsory
installation of incinerators, bottle crushers
and compactors in all resorts)

Problems/Threats:

Import leakage due to poor agricultural

potential and no economic minerals
External shocks: sea-level rise, tsunamis,
terrorism, etc.
Depletion of natural resources and climate
change

How tourism in damaging the natural

environment:

On the Maldives, tropical coconut palms are

destroyed for building hotels. Consequently,
the ecosystem is threatened as food chains are
destroyed or disrupted. For example, lizards
loose their natural habitat. Animals are also
scared away by traffic. Besides, a ferry from
Male every 10 minutes pollutes the seas,
threatening the corals. The reefs are also
destroyed as tourists take samples home and
leave litter on the beaches that may kill reef
fish. The atmosphere is polluted by the
incineration of waste.

Aims:

Encourage linkage between tourism and

other sectors as construction,
manufacturing and transport (multiplier
effect)
Encourage foreign investment in the
development of new resorts
Increase employment
Encourage solar and wind power

Global warming management:

Maldives

The Maldives are located in the Indian Ocean,

only 1,5 m above sea level on average, with
80% percent of the land below 1m.

By Giorgio Montersino on Flickr Licence: CC-

BY-SA-2.0

Global warming is a substantial threat to the

Maldives, as an increase in temperatures leads
to the melting of icebergs, causing sea level
rise that may submerge the island group.

The Maldivian Government has built a 3m high

sea wall that surrounds the island of Male, to
protect it from flooding and preserve its
beaches. The sea wall was funded by the
Japanese government.

Also, the Maldives plan to be a carbon neutral

country by 2019. In other words, they try to
avoid adding Co2 to the atmosphere, as
carbon dioxide is considered to be responsible
for global warming. This should be
accomplished by encouraging the
development of solar and wind energy.

Fuelwood in Mali:

In Mali, large amounts of fuelwood are used for

cooking and heating, especially in rural areas,
where electricity networks have not been
developed.

Image from: Flickr by M Poudyal on 6. April

2007
Problems:

For local people: The large-scale

deforestation that is required to  supply for
sufficient energy is problematic, as this energy
source is likely to run out if not enough trees
will be planted. Besides, deforestation requires
people to travel farther to collect enough
fuelwood. Deforestation also exposes the soil
(as trees cannot trap it) so soil erosion is likely
to occur. Furthermore, the burning of fuelwood
releases toxic gases which may be trapped in
the houses, causing breathing problems or
even carbon monoxide poisoning.

Environmental: The widespread deforestation

has reduced the humidity of the already dry
region, as less plants release water by
evapotranspiration.  Also, less roots are
anchored in the soil, so the soil is more likely to
be eroded. Furthermore, soil salinization is
increased, as the cut-down trees no longer
provide shade for the soil and the hot
temperatures-caused by the desert climate of
the Sahel- draw water out of the soil. As an
increased soil concentration is poisonous to a
large variety of plant species, the natural
vegetation will be less likely to grow, and crop
cultivation may be hampered.

Two other case studies on fuelwood:

http://geography-
student.blogspot.de/2012/06/fuelwood-issues-
with-usage-possiblities.html

Geothermal energy in Iceland:

Iceland is located along the Mid-Atlantic ridge,

a divergent boundary where heat from the core
of the Earth rises to the surface. The energy
produced from this heat equates to around
30% of Iceland’s electricity production.

Cold water is pumped down to the igneous

rock layers, where it is heated by contact with
the hot rocks. The hot water is then piped up
and the heat energy is converted to electricity.

Positive aspects:

emission-free
sustainable and potentially infinite
3/4 of the population live near geothermal
sources (in the south-west of Iceland, near
Reykjavik)

Negative aspects:

high cost
obstruction that consumes land
visual pollution
regional limitations
may release dangerous underground gases

(More information on:

http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/geogr
aphy/iceland-geothermal-energy-case-
study.html)

Solar power in India

India is particularly suitable for solar power due

its large mass of land and its tropical location.
Besides, solar power is considered a
successful means to address India’s
development problems.

Advantages of solar power:

safe and pollution-free

great potential in rural areas that are
isolated from the national electricity grids
eg. Dharnai village
can be used effectively for low power uses
as central heating

Disadvantages of solar power

ineffective in high latitude countries and

cloudy areas
high initial capital input
less effective for high output uses

Future plans:

establishing an airport that relies solely on

solar power in Cochin
developing 50 solar cities
creating world’s largest solar power station
in Madhya Pradesh

Wind energy in Germany

Around 9% of the energy produced in Germany

comes from wind turbines located both on
shore and off-shore (in the North Sea and
Baltic Sea).

Wind farms have been built in Germany

starting from the 1990s, when awareness of
Co2 as a contributing factor to global warming
increased.

Primarily, the government fostered the

production of onshore wind energy, as
technical challenges prevented off-shore
farms. The onshore farms were recognised as
a cheap form of renewable energy, which does
not contribute to air pollution, global warming
or acid rain. On the other hand, people did not
want to live near wind farms, as these were
considered a form of visual pollution.

This issue was resolved by the development of

off-shore farms, which are also more
productive as there is more wind out at sea.
However, the required network capacities for
transmitting the power generated in the North
Sea to the large industrial consumers in
southern Germany have not yet been
constructed.

Energy Supply in China

China sources most of its energy from non-

renewable sources, with coal-powered plants
accounting for roughly 65% of the country’s
energy supply in 2020, according to data from
the International Energy Association.
Renewable sources accounted for another
30% of the country’s energy mix. In China,
hydropower is the most-widespread source of
renewable energy, and the country boasts
many dams, including the Three Gorges Dam,
which is the largest dam in the world. Wind,
nuclear energy and solar power are also
becoming more important as the country aims
to transition to cleaner and more efficient
energy sources, following the president’s call
for an energy revolution.

Plantation: Rubber farming in

Malaysia

Plantations are large farms producing a single

cash crop (monoculture).

Inputs:

tropical climate (21-28°C,  around 2000mm

rainfall)
Chinese and Indian labour imported to
increase labour force
nevea tree
location: lower mountain slopes forming the
backbone of Malay peninsula; near railway
lines and main port

Process:

1. Planting in germination beds

2. Tapping 5-7 years after planting to collect
latex
3. Latex is coagulated using acid
4. Raw rubber washed and rolled to remove
acid ad moisture
5. Rubber is dried and smoked for stabilisation

Outputs:

Rubber

Extensive commercial farming:

Canadian prairies

Extensive farming in the Canadian Prairies

because of:
deep, fertile Chernozem soils
large expanse of flat land (nearly 2 million
square kilometres) to grow wide variety of
cereals such as wheat, oats etc. in the
provinces of Alberta, Manitoba and
Saskatchewan
able to use large machinery for harvesting
below zero temperatures in winter break up
soil to allow ease of ploughing
good railway link to Great Lakes allowing
export of cereal crops

Human inputs:

There is a very heavy reliance on machinery for

ploughing, planting, spraying the crop and
harvesting. A large proportion of expenditure
goes toward machinery, chemicals and other
equipment. Most of the work can be handled
by just a few workers using machines such as
combine harvesters and harrows. One or two
extra helpers may be hired during planting or
harvest time.

from: http://www.geoforcxc.com/economic-
activities/wheat-farming-in-canada/

Intensive farming: Rice

cultivation in Ganges Valley

Inputs:

Rice seeds
Alluvial (silt) soils
Large labour force
Temperatures: >21°C
Monsoon rainfall and dry spells
Water buffaloes for ploughing

Processes:

Ploughing
Planting
Harvesting
Threshing
Weeding

Outputs:

Rice
Rice seeds
Bufallo manure for fertilising

Problems:

Weather conditions such as flooding or

drought may threaten rice yields
Monopoly of land: best farmland is owned
by few wealthy people, other land owners
struggle to cultivate rice in more difficult
conditions, especially as they do not have
the technology to increase soil fertility
Little use of machinery and modern
methods
Food shortages: Overpopulation results in
overcultivation on flood plains, leading to
soil exhaustion and lower yields

Information from:
http://geographyfieldwork.com/RiceFarm.htm

Pastoral farming in New Zealand

New Zealand is well known for its agricultural

output from sheep farming and dairy farming.

Sheep farming inputs:

Sheep were brought to New Zealand in the

1800s by British sailors. Initially, the sheep
had few natural enemies, so their numbers
increased rapidly.
The sheep are also well adapted to the mild
climate and the rich pasture, particularly on
the mountainous slopes of South Island.

Processes:

Feeding
Shearing to obtain wool
Milking

Sheep farming outputs:

Meat: beaf and veel

Wool
Milk
Sheep manure for fertilizing

Dairy farming inputs:

Cow breeds
Mild climate with high rates of precipitation
Alluvial and volcanic soils on the flat planes
of New Zealand
Special facilities including water troughs,
fencing, milking machines and cowshed

Labour

Dairy farming processes:

Grazing
Milking
Drenching
Calving

Dairy farming outputs:

Milk
Calves
Meat

Subsistence farming: Shifting

cultivation in Amazon Rainforest,

Brazil

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural practice in

which areas of land are cultivated temporarily
and abandoned as they become infertile. This
allows the land to revert to its natural
vegetation and is a sustainable farming
technique. Shifting cultivation is mainly
practised by indigineous tribes.

Subsistence farming in Lesotho

Lesotho is a landlocked country that borders

South Africa. It relies heavily on subsistence
farming, with an estimated 86% of the
country’s population growing their own crops
and maintaining livestock.

Subsistence farming is common in the

lowlands northwest of Maseru, where the
terrain is flat and thus suited for the cultivation
of crops. In mountainous areas, many farmers
also raise livestock to compensate for the
lower yields from cultivation on mountain
slopes.

Additionally,  subsistence farmers in vast parts

of Lesotho raise livestock, which can be sold
during drought years when crop yields are low.
This provides food security for the farmer’s
family.

Food shortages in South Sudan

In South Sudan, nearly 4 million people are

severely affected by food shortages.

Causes:

Drought: Long-term decline in rainfall in

southern Sudan (by 20% since 1970s)
High population growth (4% in 2013)
increases demand for food, so
unsustainable farming practices such as
overgrazing and overcultivation are used,
resulting in land degradation and soil
erosion
Reliance on food imports from neighbouring
countries: Uganda, Kenya and Sudan
Civil war between government and rebel
forces disrupts planting and harvesting and
insecurity along transport routes has
hampered the delivery of food and other
humanitarian supplies

Water supply in Puglia, Italy

Puglia is one of the most water-scarce regions

in Italy, and has very few fresh streams or
natural rivers. Its aquifers are vulnerable to
contamination by seawater, and so the area’s
inhabitants built a large aqueduct to tap into
the fresh drinking water from an underground
spring in the Campania region, located more
than 160 km away. 

Today, cities in the Puglia region (such as Bari)

still receive some of their water for domestic
use from this original aqueduct. However,
precipitation in the Campania region has
become less frequent in recent years, and so
less water is draining into the aquifer that feeds
the acqueduct.

Therefore, Puglia also gets around 250 million

cubic meters of water every year from the
neighboring region of Basilicata. The local
authorities have even considered piping water
in across the Adriatic Sea from Albania, to help
the region cope with supply shortages.

Soil erosion in Nepal

25% of Nepalese forest was removed between

1990 and 2005 and this trend continues at a
rate of 3% per year.

Causes of land degradation in Nepal:

Deforestation for fuelwood exposes soil to

heavy monsoon rainfalls as there will be
less vegetation to protect it, causing it to be
washed away by extreme surface runoff.
Besides, soil is not held together by tree
roots, so it can be eroded by icewater
runoff from melting glaciers.
Soil dries out in areas of low rainfall and
strong winds can then remove the loose
particles
Agricultural mismanagemnet: poor farming
practises such as overcultivation and
overgrazing (which deplete the soil’s
nutrients) damage the ground vegetation
and result in the compaction of topsoil
Soil pollution through excessive use of
persticides poisons bacteria and fungi and
thereby disrupts symbiotic relationships

Nepalese slopes, by Till Niermann CC BY-SA 3.0

Solutions:

Crop rotation prevents depletion of

nutrients and replenishes soil fertility
Contour ploughing rather than ploughing up
and down the slopes to prevent rapid run-
off, gully formation and loss of soil
Fuelwood conservation: replacing trees
where deforestation has taken place or is
going to occur
Environmental education: restrict tourist
visits and demand larger fee for use of
heating and cooking facilities;
environmental education in schools

Transport risks and benefits:

Expansion of Heathrow

Discussions about an expansion of Heathrow

Airport, Europe`s busiest airport by passenger
traffic, arose in 2006, and still, no final decision
has been made, as supporters and opposition
have been arguing about the benefits and
disadvantages for 10 years.

File:Heathrow T5.jpg

Heathrow Airport: By Warren Rohner (Flickr) CC

BY-Sa 2.0

Benefits of an expansion:

Enhancing economic growth in the UK:

Heathrow functions as a major transport
hub for both business travellers and
tourists, transporting around 70 million
passengers annually
Benefits for financial services industry in
London and other independent firms eg.
inflight catering, security services
Better connectivity to other international
cities, as more destinations can be
scheduled
Waiting times would be reduced as the
airport operates at a lower capacity
Construction provides up to 100,000 jobs

Disadvantages of an expansion:

Increase in emission of greenhouse gases

from additional flights
Community destruction: removal of 4000
houses to make space for a runway
Increased noise and air pollution in West
London due to an increase in flights: roaring
airplane engines and their exhaust fumes
Impact on wildlife

High technology industry:

Cambridge Science Park

Cambridge Science Park is a Europe’s largest

centre for commercial research and
development. It is located near Cambridge in
the United Kindom, as Cambridge University
provides a large supply of expert labour and
allows for the sharing of technology. Besides, a
large plot of land (152 acres/61.5 hectares) had
been available for a low cost, as the facility is
located outside of the urban area around
London. Nevertheless, good transport facilities
exist, including the M11 motorway link to
London for the export of finished products and
London Stansted International Airport which
allows for worldwide trade.

Manufacturing industry:

Pakistan’s Iron and Steel

Industry

Location:

flat, cheap land available at Pipri, near

Gharo Creek
near Port Qasim, which has a natural
harbour to import raw materials and export
steel
close to market: steel-using industries in
Karachi, such as tool making
energy source from Pipri thermal power
station and Karachi nuclear power station
availability of cheap labour from Karachi
along a railway: Karachi-Pipri-Kotri and
metalled roads
economic assistance from USSR: technical
expertise and capital
water required for making steel brought
from Lake Haleji

Inputs:

iron ore
coke
limestone
scrap iron

Processes:

heating of ore to separate iron

burning coke
rolling into sheets and cutting into lenghts

Outputs:

cast iron and pig iron

slag
gases: sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrous oxide, hydrogen sulfide

Problems:

noise pollution from machinery disturbs

wildlife
visual pollution due to large, ugly factory
buildings
air pollution from burning iron ore, which
releases carbon dioxide
water pollution from contaminated cooling
water, scrubber effluent and ships
supplying raw materials
depletion of freshwater supplies due to
excessive requirement of water in
production
risk of fire and explosions

MNC: MC Donald’s

MC Donald’s is a company at the forefront of

globalisation, with more than 35,000 outlets in
121 countries world wide. Founded in the
United States in 1940, the company began as a
barbecue restaurant operated by Richard and
Maurice McDonald. Mc Donald’s employes
nearly 2 million people to sell fast food.

Benefits:

Each new store that is build creates jobs

(eg. opening of Mc Donalds at
Kennedybrücke in Vienna created 30 new
jobs)
Mc Donalds is involved in youth sports,
local charities, and other inspiring events by
donating via its charities.

Disadvantages:

Salaries vary per country, and are generally

low
Sometimes considered to have poor
working conditions

Facebook: A Transnational

Corporation and its global links

Facebook is the biggest social network and

social media platform in the world, connecting
more than 2.8 billion people in the world.

Facebook has close links to businesses all of

over the world, as it not only owns the
messenger service Whatsapp and the social
media platform Instagram, but also offers
advertising space through its Facebook Ads
service, and allows retailers and people to sell
and trade goods in its market place.

In the past, Facebook has also come under fire

for data partnerships with other TNCs
including, but limited to, Amazon, Microsoft,
Yahoo and Spotify. However, amidst privacy
concerns, the company has had to reduce the
strength of its global links, and is instead
shifting towards a slightly more localised global
approach.

Nonetheless, Facebook continues to maintain

and develop strong global links through
mergers and acquisitions, its headquarter
location in Silicon Valley near other high-tech,
and software firms, and its relationships with
goverments and business networks all around
the world.

Nike: A multinational company

and its impact on less developed

countries

Nike is a global sportswear company

headquartered in Oregon in the United States.
The company employs around 75.000 people
around the world, with an additional 500.000
people working for companies to which Nike
subcontracts most of its manufacturing in
Eastern Asia.

Benefits for LEDCs:

Nike factories create new jobs in countries

like China, Vietnam, Thailand and Indonesia,
allowing poorer people to earn a wage. The
standard of living for many people
improves, increasing the ability to access
food and quality housing.
Nike has invested in and promoted the
development of transport infrastructure in
the areas near the factories. Better roads
make it easier for the population to get
around, and this has a positive ripple effect
on other economic activity.

Disadvantages:

Poor health and safety standards are a

major threat to people employed in the
factories.
Short-term contracts and payment below
the national living wage also have a
devastating impact on the local community.
For example, in one Cambodian factory that
produced apparel for Nike, several women
collapsed after working 10 hour days, six
days a week, and they reported feeling
hungry and exhausted.
Natural resources such as oil are being
overexploited, as they are required for
manufacturing. This has a negative impact
on the local environment.
Factories are often footloose. This means
Nike could relocate to another less
developed area if the local conditions or
government policies are deemed
unfavourable – with a devastating impact
 on employment and the local economy.

You can find out more about Nike and its

impact on LEDCs here.

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Rylie on July 3, 2022 at 10:04 am

Thanks so much i found this very

helpful.

! Like
 Reply

Seithati Kavuva Phuthego on May 30,

2022 at 6:27 pm

Thank you so much, this information

has been really helpful to me in my
Geography

! Like
 Reply

eisha on May 3, 2022 at 10:36 pm

what are your predictions on the may

june 2022 paper 1?

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:45

pm

Hi eisha,
You can find my prediction in
the comments section of this
page:
https://igcsegeography.wordpre
ss.com/revision-
materials/industrial-systems/
Best, Carina

! Like
 Reply

Jana on May 1, 2022 at 5:33 pm

Also, is it really okay if I got stuck in

the test and had to invent a place
specific reference. I’ve always
wondered how they correct the
papers given all those student
responses on different countries, tho

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:37

pm

Hi Jana, you’ll probably be fine

inventing something if you
really do get stuck, as long as it
is remotely reasonable. Just
keep in mind that examiners
can Google stuff, or may even
be from your country, so
whatever you do invent
probably shouldn’t be
contradicted by a quick online
search

! Like
 Reply

Jana on May 1, 2022 at 5:21 pm

Hi Carina! Love your website! Do you

have any tips or recommendations
on the May Jun 2022 series for
geography?

! Like
 Reply

Luke on May 1, 2022 at 11:03 am

Hi, this might be a dumb question

but would you recommend
memorising all these case studies, or
should we only need to know a
certain amount, and in certain areas
for the exams?

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:41

pm

Hi Luke,
I would recommend learning the
core concepts very well and at
least memorising a case study
for all frequently occuring
topics (e.g. 1 volcano, one
earthquake, one river with
certain features, one coastal
area, one country with
population change, urban vs.
rural settlement, etc.). I would
try to memorise especially
those case studies that you
can’t find an example for in your
local area,, as you probably
know your city and surrounding
area well enough to come up
with something reasonable on
at least some of the questions
in the exam.
Best, Carina

! Like
 Reply

k on April 30, 2022 at 12:11 pm

thanks so much for this, exams are in

less than a week and this i just what i
needed :)))

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:43

pm

Thanks, k!

! Like
 Reply

Ezad Danish on April 25, 2022 at 5:52

am

Paper 1 is almost a week away and I

had very little knowledge on any
case studies prior to just a few days
ago.
This compilation of case studies has
been a great help to me, so I’d just
like to say thanks!

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:46

pm

Thanks Ezad, I am glad you

found the case studies helpful!

! Like
 Reply

Grace on March 28, 2022 at 11:22 am

Dear Carina who compiles this – this

is a mother trying to help her 13
years old to review – this is
AMAZING resource!!!!!!!!!!!! THANK
YOU!

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on May 11, 2022 at 7:49

pm

Thanks Grace, it means a lot to

me!
Best, Carina

! Like
 Reply

salman on January 23, 2022 at 6:21 pm

Hello,
Are the case studies grouped, for
example, are all the ones about
tourism together?
Thank you very much

! Like
 Reply

Carina T. on March 20, 2022 at

9:49 am

Hi salman, the case studies are

loosely grouped, so you will find
all the case studies related to a
particular topic after each other.
Best,
Carina

! Like
 Reply

Festo Kisia on November 3, 2021 at 2:18

pm

This is a great resource. well done!

! Like
 Reply

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