SECTION 4 – LOGIC GATES

Title: Logic Gates

Aim: To Investigate Logic Circuits (AND)

Hypothesis: The observations may be accurate when compared to the truth table.

Materials:
- Solderless Breadboard
- Connecting Wires
- Two Single Pole Switches
- Three 1.5V battery
- Four Cell holder
- One AND Gate I.C. and Socket (7408- quad two input AND gates)
- Four mini alligator clips
- Two 1kΩ carbon-composite ¼ W resistor
- Two light emitting diodes (led 1.5V, 5mA or more)

Procedure
(1) The I.C. socket was inserted in the solderless breadboard before the AND gate I.C. was inserted into the
socket.
(2) The pins for the power supply and the ground for the I.C. were identified.
(3) The pins for the inputs and output of the AND gate on the I.C. were identified.
(4) The AND gate was tested using the circuit in Figure A and the truth table was verified for the gate.
(5) With the use of Figure B, and verified by a truth table, the AND gate was tested after its functions were
replaced by two mechanical switches.
Observation

Input A Input B Output C (LED)

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Table 1.1 – Showing Observations

Treatment of Results
 Observations
Input A Input B
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
Output C (LED) Input A
0 0
0 0
0 1
1 1
Truth Table
Input B Output C (LED)
0 0
1 0
0 0
1 1

Table 1.2 – Observation Verification Using Truth Table

Discussion

A logic gate is a device that serves as a foundation for digital circuits. A logic gate that performs the logical
multiplication operation. It accepts one or more binary input signals and outputs a single binary signal. Because
the output takes the logic 1 state if and only if all of the inputs assume the logic 1 state, the LED will only light
up when both inputs are high or both switches A and B are closed. This theory is proven to be true in the
experiment as shown in both Tables 1.1 and 1.2, in which the LED had only been lit when both input A and B
are at a logic 1 state. An integrated circuit (I.C.) is an encapsulated electronic circuit that comprises transistors,
diodes, capacitors, and resistors. The pins were identified by starting with the pin at the bottom of the notch and
counting upwards to pin seven before crossing to the opposite side, which counts pins 8 to fourteen. The AND
gate functions similarly to two series switches, but the OR gate (which conducts logical adds of binary input
signals to generate a single binary output signal) functions similarly to two parallel switches. Because it
comprises transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors on a single chip, the operational amplifier is classified as
an I.C. circuit.

Precautions

- All connections were done according to the circuit diagrams.

- It was ensured that the wires were fitted tightly into their accurate positions.
- It was ensured that the readings were carefully recorded.
- The power supply was disconnected after the completion of the experiment.

Source of Error

- Wires were not fitted tightly or they were not fitted in their accurate positions.
- Readings were inaccurately recorded.
- The connections were not done according to the circuit diagrams.
Limitations

- Operating voltage is limited.

- Delay in signal timing due to the delay in charging internal capacitances, which also results in the delay
in voltage rise/fall.

Conclusion

Based on the accomplishment of the aim, to investigate logic circuits (AND), it is concluded that both inputs
must be high or both switches must be on to result in the lighting of the LED.
 APPENDIX

AND gate circuit with I.C. and socket:

LED unlit LED lit

AND gate circuit with two mechanical switches:

LED unlit LED lit

 SECTION 3 – ELECTRICAL POWER AND MACHINES

Title: Voltage Rectifier

Aim: To Investigate Voltage Rectifiers

Hypothesis: AC voltage will convert into DC voltage after the circuit is constructed.

Materials:

- Solderless Breadboard
- Four Diodes
- One 330 Microfarads Capacitor
- Two Mini Alligator Clips
- 3A Transformer, 120V:12V step-down
- Connecting Wires
- Drop Cord
- Multimeter

Procedure

(1) The drop cord was plugged into a power outlet while the positive and negative wires of the 120V part
of the transformer were connected tightly to the other end of the drop cord.
(2) The two wires on the 12V side of the transformer were connected to the multimeter in order to test
its AC voltage.
(3) The apparatus setup was then done according to Figure C.
(4) The DC voltage of the entire circuit was then tested from two wires connected to the capacitor.

Observations

 The transformer AC voltage was tested to be 12V.

 The DC voltage of the entire circuit was tested to be 15.81V.
 SECTION 3 – ELECTRICAL POWER AND MACHINES

Treatment of Results

Discussion

A rectifier is a device that uses one or more P-N junction diodes to convert an oscillating two-directional
alternating current (AC) to a single-directional direct current (DC). Rectification occurs when a diode acts as a
one-way valve, allowing current to flow in just one direction. Uncontrolled rectifiers are the sort of rectifier
employed in this experiment. The voltage of this class of rectifiers cannot be adjusted, and it is further
subdivided into half-wave rectifiers and full-wave rectifiers. A half-wave rectifier transforms only the positive
half cycle of alternating current into direct current, whereas a full-wave rectifier translates both the positive and
negative half cycles of alternating current. Bridge rectifiers are uncontrolled full-wave rectifiers that effectively
convert AC to DC by using four diodes in a bridge circuit design. In the experiment, a bridge rectifier was built
to function in the same way; each diode allows current to pass to the positive side of the load when the AC line
is in a positive state, and the negative side of the load is connected to the opposite node in the 4-diode chain,
allowing current to pass on either end when in the correct phasing. With a bridge rectifier, the DC still oscillates
from zero to a peak value, but it doesn’t cut out half the time.

Precautions

- All connections were done according to the circuit diagrams.

- It was ensured that the wires were fitted tightly into their accurate positions.
- It was ensured that the readings were carefully recorded.
- The power supply was disconnected after the completion of the experiment.
Source of Error

- Wires were not fitted tightly or they were not fitted in their accurate positions.
- Readings were inaccurately recorded.
- The connections were not done according to the circuit diagram.

Limitations

The outage voltage is two diode drops lower than the input voltage. This only occurs in a very low-voltage
power supply.

Conclusion

Based on the accomplishment of the aim, to investigate voltage rectifiers, it was concluded that the AC current
was converted to DC current using the process of rectification.
 APPENDIX

Multimeter set at AC voltage tested 12 V accurately using transformer:

Bridge Rectifier Circuit:

Multimeter set at DC Voltage tested 15.81V: