MTV 410: Practical 1

Steady state Conduction

Authors:
RH Hamadziripi
P Ifekoya
PC Mbedzi
TS Ngwenya
JD O’Callaghan
M Tumaini

3/30/2021

Technical Report for “MTV 410 – Heat and mass transfer”

 Declaration

MTV 410: Practical 1

Steady state Conduction

Module code / Modulekode: Module: MTV 410

Practical number: 1 Date of submission: 30/03/21
Praktikum nommer: Datum van inhandiging:
Declaration: Verklaring:
1. I understand what plagiarism is and am aware of the 1. Ek begryp wat plagiaat is en is bewus van die Universiteits-
University’s policy in this regard. beleid in hierdie verband.
2. I declare that this practical report is my own, original work. 2. Ek verklaar dat hierdie praktikumverslag my eie, oorspronk-
3. I did not refer to work of current or previous students, like werk is.
memoranda, solution manuals or any other material containing 3. Ek het nie gebruik gemaak van huidige of vorige studente se
complete or partial solutions to this assignment. werk, memoranda, antwoord-bundels of enige ander materiaal
4. Where other people’s work has been used (either from a wat volledige of gedeeltelike oplossings van hierdie werkstuk
printed source, Internet, or any other source), this has been bevat nie.
properly acknowledged and referenced. 4. In gevalle waar iemand anders se werk gebruik is (hetsy uit ’n
5. I have not allowed anyone to copy my work or those of my gedrukte bron, die Internet, of enige ander bron), is dit
fellow group members. behoorlik erken en die korrekte verwysings is gebruik.
5. Ek het niemand toegelaat om my werk, of die werk van my
mede-groeplede, te kopieer nie.
Student details / Studentebesonderhede
Student number Initials and surname Signature Contribution
Studentenommer Voorletters en van
18011960 RH Hamadziripi 16.67%

18016333 P Ifekoya 16.67%

18297006 PC Mbedzi 16.67%

18078304 TS Ngwenya 16.67%

ii
18228187 JD O’Callaghan 16.67%

18160094 M Tumaini 16.67%

ECSA OUTCOME 4: INVESTIGATIONS, EXPERIMENTS AND DATA ANALYSIS

awarded
Mark
mark
Max

Yes

No
Did the student group:
1 Plan and conduct their investigation/experiment in an appropriate and 10 √ ×
scientific manner?
2 Perform the necessary analyses and interpretations and/or derived valid 50 √ ×
information from the data?
3 Draw conclusions based on the evidence or data obtained? 20 √ ×
4 Communicate the purpose, process and outcomes/conclusions in a technical 20 √ ×
report in a coherent manner?
Total for outcome 4 (minimum of 50% to pass) 100
Is the student group capable of applying research methods, planning and conducting √ ×
investigations and experiments using appropriate equipment – if the answer is “NO”
a mark of less than 50% must be awarded

Marked by
Signature
Date

iii
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Overview ..................................................................................................................................... 1

2 Experimental Setup ............................................................................................................................. 3

3 Results ................................................................................................................................................. 6

3.1 Brass ............................................................................................................................................ 6

3.2 Aluminium ................................................................................................................................. 11

4 Discussion of Results ......................................................................................................................... 18

5 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 20

6 References......................................................................................................................................... 21

Appendix A .................................................................................................................................................. A

Nomenclature ......................................................................................................................................... A

Roman letters ...................................................................................................................................... A

Subscripts ............................................................................................................................................ A

Appendix B: Group Admin........................................................................................................................... B

Contribution ............................................................................................................................................ B

Meeting log ............................................................................................................................................. B

i
List of figures
Figure 1: Linear Heat Conduction System ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2: Heat Transfer Service Unit ........................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Relationship between temperature and position for all the 3 voltage ....................................... 9
Figure 4: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 12V ................ 10
Figure 5: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 15V ................ 10
Figure 6: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 17V ................ 10

List of tables
Table 1: Heat flow calculations for 12V, 15V and 17 V .............................................................................. 6
Table 2: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the heated section................................... 6
Table 3: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the heated section ....................................... 7
Table 4: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the intermediate section ......................... 7
Table 5: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the intermediate section ............................. 7
Table 6: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the cooled section ................................... 7
Table 7: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the cooled section ........................................ 8
Table 8: The thermal conductivity of the brass in the three sections at the same heat flow .................... 8
Table 9: Average thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V .................................................................. 11
Table 10: A table indicating the values used to calculate the power for the first system ........................ 11
Table 11: Tabulated data for the calculation of the hot temperature for all systems ............................. 12
Table 12: Tabulated data for the calculation of the cold temperature for all systems ............................ 12
Table 13: Tabulated data for the calculation of the temperature difference for all systems .................. 13
Table 14: Tabulated data for the thermal conductivity in, intermediate section for all systems ............ 13
Table 15: Tabulated data for the total resistance to heat flow ................................................................ 14
Table 16: Tabulated data for the total resistance to heat flow ................................................................ 14
Table 17: Tabulated data for the overall heat transfer coefficient in the heated, intermediate, and cooled
sections for all systems. ............................................................................................................................ 14
Table 18: Tabulated data for the overall heat transfer coefficient in the heated, intermediate, and cooled
sections. .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 19: Tabulated data indicating the average thermal conductivity for each voltage ........................ 17

ii
1 Introduction
1.1 Background

Heat Conduction is the transfer of heat energy between the particles within a body or from one body to
another that are physically touching and possess different temperatures. This process occurs in the
absence of the flow of matter and is governed by Fourier’s Law.
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥

k– Thermal Conductivity
A – Surface Area
dT – Temperature difference
dx – thickness

According to Fourier's Law, the negative gradient of temperature and the rate of heat transfer are
proportional to the area at right angles to that gradient through which heat flows. The Fourier Law holds
true for all matter, regardless of state.

Material properties can be determined and quantified using the Fourier rate equation. The Thermal
Conductivity (k) in the rate equation tells us whether a material readily transfers energy by conduction.
A high value of (k) indicates that the material is a good heat conductor. If the other parameters of the
equation remain constant, the Fourier law can be used to calculate the temperature difference between
two points (Connor, 2019).

Steady State Conduction is the form of conduction that occurs when the temperature differences driving
the heat transfer are constant, so that the spatial distribution of temperature in conducting object does
not change any further. In steady state the amount of heat entering any region of an object is equal to
the amount of heat coming out (Connor, 2019).

1.2 Objectives

Investigate the application of the Fourier Rate Equation for simple 1D steady state heat conduction.
Introduction of typical steady state heat conduction calculations to determine the thermal conductivity
of a certain material from measured heat flow.

1.3 Overview

1
In this report, the transfer of heat in a one-dimensional steady state heat conduction experiment was
investigated for brass and aluminium specimens. The two specimens were tested using a linear heat
conduction system that consisted of three sections (Hot, Intermediate and Cold) at different voltages
(12, 15 and 17). Using the law of heat conduction governed by Fourier’s equation, the thermal
conductivities and required variables associated to these were calculated along the conduction system
using the different test specimens (intermediate sections).

2
2 Experimental Setup

The apparatus used for this experiment was the linear heat conduction system and the Heat Transfer
Service Unit.

The linear heat conduction unit consists of the following components:

• A 25mm diameter cylindrical brass bar that forms the heating section for the experiment,
surrounded by insulation material. This possesses a cartridge type electrical heating element.
• A 25mm diameter cylindrical brass bar that forms the cooling section for the experiment,
surrounded by insulation material. This possesses a water-cooling system that passes water
through galleries in the section.
• Intermediate section consisting of:
o A 25mm diameter cylindrical brass specimen of 30mm in length, surrounded by
insulation material.
o A 25mm diameter cylindrical aluminium specimen of 30mm in length, surrounded by
insulation material.
• Both the cooling and heating sections are fitted with three thermocouples each:
o T1, T2 and T3 are placed on the heating section.
o T6, T7 and T8 are placed on the cooling section.
• Both the intermediate sections are fitted with two thermocouples, T4 and T5.

All thermocouples are spaced 15mm intervals apart and are connected to the Heat Transfer Service Unit
where temperature readings are provided, and the input voltage can be changed.

The schematic provided below shows the linear heat conduction system:

3
 Figure 1: Linear Heat Conduction System

1) Base board
2) Thermocouples
3) Miniature thermocouple plug
4) Heating element plug
5) Brass/Aluminium intermediate section
6) Heating element
7) Heating section
8) Cooling section
9) Flow rate sensor
10) Hot water outlet
11) Flow meter
12) Water filter
13) Inlet pipe to water filter
14) Intermediate sections (other)
15) Toggle clamps
16) Cold water inlet

The schematic provided below shows the Heat Transfer Service Unit:

4
 Figure 2: Heat Transfer Service Unit

1) Mains standby switch

2) Manual/remote switch
3) Multi-turn potentiometer
4) USB
5) Top panel meter
6) Measurement selector
7) R
8) ZERO
9) L
10) Ua
11) Cooling water flow sensor is connected to this Fw socket
12) Thermocouple socket
13) The required temperature reading is selected via a switch
14) Adjacent panel meter
15) The auxiliary drive potentiometer

5
3 Results

3.1 Brass

a) Determine the heat flow (power input to the heater).

In order to determine the heat flow, a few assumptions were made. Assuming there was no electrical
heat loss to the environment. The electrical power, using the voltage and current supplied to the heating
section, were translated to the constant heat flow rate throughout each section.
𝑄̇ = 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼

Table 1: Heat flow calculations for 12V, 15V and 17 V

12V system 15V system 17V system

I [A] 1.21 1.51 1.71
𝑸̇ [W] 14.52 22.65 29.07

b) Determine the temperature difference across the heated section.

∆𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇1

Table 2: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the heated section

12V system 15V system 17V system

Theat [0 C] -8.4 -11.6 -13.9

c) Determine the thermal conductivity of the heated section.

∆𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴( )
∆𝑥
The after rearranging the equation, the thermal conductivity could be calculated:
𝑄∆𝑥
𝑘=−
𝐴∆𝑇
𝜋
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐴 = 𝐷 2
4
𝜋
= 0.0252
4
= 490.87 𝜇𝑚2

6
 Table 3: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the heated section

12V System 15V System 17V System

𝑸̇ [W] 14.52 22.65 29.07
∆x [m] 0.03 0.015 0.03
A [m2] 0.00049 0.00049 0.00049
Kheat [W/m˚C] 105.64 119.33 127.81

d) Determine the temperature difference across the intermediate section.

∆𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇5 − 𝑇4

Table 4: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the intermediate section

12V System 15V System 17V System

∆𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒕 (℃) -2.8 -5.3 -6.5

e) Determine the thermal conductivity of the intermediate section.

Using the same; equation from section 3, heat flow values from Table 1, cross-sectional area from Table
3, Δx (m) for the appropriate brass segment from Table 3. The thermal conductivity could be calculated
for the intermediate section.
Table 5: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the intermediate section

12V System 15V System 17V System

Kint [W/m˚C] 158.46 130.59 136.66

f) Determine the temperature difference across the cooled section.

∆𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑇8 − 𝑇6
Table 6: Temperature difference for 12V, 15V and 17V across the cooled section

12V system 15V system 17V system

Tcool [0 C] -6.6 -9.6 -11.7

g) Determine the thermal conductivity of the cooled section.

Using the same equation from section 3, same heat flow values from Table 1, same cross-sectional area
from Table 3, same Δx (m) for the appropriate brass segment from Table 3. The thermal conductivity

7
could be calculated for the intermediate section.

Table 7: Thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V across the cooled section

12V System 15V System 17V System

Kcool [W/m˚C] 134.45 144.19 151.85

h) Compare the calculated value for the thermal conductivity of the brass in the three sections at the
same heat flow.

Table 8: The thermal conductivity of the brass in the three sections at the same heat flow

Thermal Conductivity k [W/mK]

Heat Flow [W] Heated Section Intermediate Cooled Section
Section
14.52 105.64 158.46 134.45
22.65 119.33 130.59 144.19
29.07 127.81 136.66 151.85

For a heat flow of 14.52W the thermal conductivity for the heated, intermediate, and cooled sections
were found to be 105.64, 158.46 and 134.45 W/mK respectively. These results show that the thermal
conductivity increases as it approaches the intermediate section and then decreases as it approaches the
cooled section.
For a heat flow of 22.65W, the thermal conductivity for the heated, intermediate, and cooled sections
were found to be 119.23, 130.59 and 144.19 W/mK respectively. These results show that as the specimen
changes from the heated section, and then to the intermediate section and finally to the cooled section,
the thermal conductivity increases. The same increasing pattern is observed for the heat flow value of
29.07W.

i) Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line through
the points.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between temperature and position for all the 3 voltage systems. A linear
relationship between and position is observed. As the position increases, the temperature decreases
linearly.

8
 Temperature vs Position
90

80
70
Temperature ℃

60 12V
50 15V
40 17V

30 Linear (12V )

20 Linear (15V)

10 Linear (17V)

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Position (m)

Figure 3: Relationship between temperature and position for all the 3 voltage

j) Calculate the average thermal conductivity of the brass bar using the gradient of each straight line
and the corresponding heat flow through the bar. Compare the value obtained with the values
previously obtained for each individual section of the bar and comment on any difference.

9
 Temperature vs Position at 12 V
60

Temperature ℃
50
40
30
20 y = -251.83x + 54.633
10 R² = 0.9949
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Position (m)

Figure 4: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 12V

Temperature vs Position at 15 V

80
Temperature ℃

60

40
y = -385.48x + 69.975
20 R² = 0.9977
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Position (m)

Figure 5: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 15V

Temperature vs Position at 17 V

90
80
70
Temperature ℃

60
50
40
30
20 y = -471.19x + 78.775
10 R² = 0.9975
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Position

Figure 6: Relationship between temperature and position along the brass segments at 17V

10
 ∆𝑇
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝐿
∆𝑇
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑤: 𝑄̇ = −𝑘𝐴 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑥 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐿
𝑄̇
∴𝑘=−
𝐴 𝑥 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑
Table 9: Average thermal conductivity for 12V, 15V and 17V

12V System (˚C) 15V System(˚C) 17V System (˚C)

Temp grad (°C/m) -251.83 -385.48 -471.19
𝑸̇ [W] 14.52 22.65 29.07
𝒌𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 (W/mK) 117.46 119.70 125.68
𝒌𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟖 (W/mK) 132.85 131.37 138.77

The thermal conductivity averages between using temperature gradient and using the results from the
table 8 differ by an order ±15𝑊/𝑚𝐾. For 𝑘𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 the thermal conductivity values take
a gradual linear increment whilst for 𝒌𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟖 there is an outlier for 15V segment of the
brass and therefore these thermal conductivity values do not show any trend.

3.2 Aluminium

a) Determine the heat flow (power input to the heater).

To determine the heat flow, the voltage and current supplied to the heater was determined, assumptions
made was that there was no heat loss to the environment and that no electrical work is lost. Thus, the
power is calculated as follows:

𝑄̇ = 𝑉𝐼

Table 10: A table indicating the values used to calculate the power for the first system

12V System 15V System 17V System

I [A] 1.21 1.5 1.72
𝑸̇ [W] 14.52 22.5 29.24

b) Determine the temperature of the hot surface of the intermediate section (𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒕 ).

To determine the hot surface temperature, steady state was assumed to be reached and as a result:

11
 ∆𝑇
𝑄̇ = 𝑘𝐴
𝐿

𝑇2 − 𝑇3 𝑇3 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡
=
𝐿1 𝐿2

Where, 𝐿1 = 15𝑚𝑚, 𝐿2 = 7.5𝑚𝑚.

𝐿2
𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 𝑇3 − ∗ (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 )
𝐿1

Table 11: Tabulated data for the calculation of the hot temperature for all systems

12V System 15V System 17V System

T2 [0C] 49.2 59.1 70

T3 [0C] 45.5 53.9 63.6

Thot [0C] 43.65 51.3 60.4

c) Determine the temperature of the cold surface of the intermediate section (Tcold).

For 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 :

𝑇6 − 𝑇7 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑇6
=
𝐿1 𝐿2

Where, 𝐿1 = 15𝑚𝑚, 𝐿2 = 7.5𝑚𝑚. Thus, the equation for 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 is:

𝐿2
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = 𝑇6 + ∗ (𝑇6 − 𝑇7 )
𝐿1

Table 12: Tabulated data for the calculation of the cold temperature for all systems

12V System 15V System 17V System

T6 [0C] 34.5 39 42.7

T7 [0C] 30.7 33.4 36.5

Tcold [0C] 36.4 41.8 45.8

d) Determine the temperature difference across the intermediate section.

12
 𝑇𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑

Table 13: Tabulated data for the calculation of the temperature difference for all systems

12V System 15V System 17V System

Thot [0C] 43.65 51.3 60.4

Tcold [0C] 36.4 41.8 45.8

Tdiff [0C] 7.25 9.5 14.6

e) Determine the thermal conductivity of intermediate section.

The calculation of the thermal conductivity was simple, and makes use of the following equation:

∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 ∗
𝐿

Q L
k= ∗
A ∆T

Table 14: Tabulated data for the thermal conductivity in, intermediate section for all systems

12V System 15V System 17V System

∆T [0C] 7.25 9.5 14.6
Q [W] 14.52 22.5 29.24
A [m2] 0.0004909 0.0004909 0.0004909
L [m] 0.030 0.030 0.030
KInt [W/m˚C] 12.24 14.475 12.24

f) Determine the total resistance to heat flow.

The following equation was used:

𝑇1 − 𝑇8
𝑄̇ =
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

𝑇1 − 𝑇8
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 =
𝑄̇

13
 Table 15: Tabulated data for the total resistance to heat flow

12V System 15V System 17V System

𝑻𝟏 [0C] 53.2 64.4 77.3

𝑻𝟖 [0C] 28.1 29.9 31.1

𝑸̇ [W] 14.52 22.5 29.24
0
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕 [ C/𝑾] 1.729 1.53 1.58

g) Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient.

𝑄
𝑈=
𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇8 )

Table 16: Tabulated data for the total resistance to heat flow

12V System 15V System 17V System

𝑻𝟏 [0C] 53.2 64.4 77.3

𝑻𝟖 [0C] 28.1 29.9 31.1

𝑸̇ [𝑾] 14.52 22.5 29.24
A [m2] 0.0004909 0.0004909 0.0004909

𝑼(W/m2K) 1 177.57 1 328.61 1 289.34

h) Compare the two values obtained for the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient U and U = 1/R
and comment on any difference in the values obtained.

Using the equation below:

1
𝑈=
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Table 17: Tabulated data for the overall heat transfer coefficient in the heated, intermediate, and cooled sections

14
 for all systems.

12V System 15V System 17V System

𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 [𝐊/𝐖] 1.729 1.52 1.58
U [𝐖/𝐊] 0.5784 0.6579 0.6329

From the table above, the two values of U are immensely different. If we take the area into consideration
U= 1/RA, the values of U will then be approximately equal to that found in (g). This emphasizes the
importance of the area or geometry of the section. The area plays a massive role in the difference of the
coefficients.

i) Compare the values obtained for the thermal conductivity of intermediate section at the
different settings of heat flow through the specimen.

From the equation k = (Q/A) * (dx/dT) we know that A and dx are constant for all voltages, therefore
leaving only Q and dT to be used for comparison for the thermal conductivity. k and Q have a direct
relationship to one another, but k and dT have an inverse relationship.

We observe an increase in the thermal conductivity at 12V and 15V, with 12V at a k value of 12.24W/m°C
and 15V at 14.125W/m°C. The temperature at 15V is larger than that of 12V thus affecting the aluminium
molecules which cause them to move faster hence high heat transfer. We observe that there was a higher
heat transfer rate difference of 7.98W (22.5-14.54) but a temperature difference of 2.3°C (9.8-7.5)
between the 2 voltages. The small temperature difference and higher heat transfer between the 2 gives
rise to a higher k value being observed at 15V.

Furthermore, a decrease in the thermal conductivity is observed when moving from 15V to 17V. A k value
of 12.24W/m°C is observed for 17V and 14.125W/m°C for 15V. The heat transfer rate difference between
the 2 Voltages was 6.74W (29.24-22.5), whereas the Temperature difference between the voltages is
4.8°C (14.6-9.8). This shows that at 17V we have a lower heat transfer difference between the 2 Voltages
as compared to the 12 and 15 Voltage comparison, we also observe a higher temperature difference
between the 2 voltages, hence why we see a decrease in the thermal conductivity from the relation Q
and T have with k.

j) Plot a graph of temperature against position along the bar and draw the best straight line
through the points for the heated section and cooled section. Extrapolate each line to the
joint with the intermediate section then join these two points to give the gradient through

15
 the intermediate section.

Table 18: Tabulated data for the overall heat transfer coefficient in the heated, intermediate, and cooled sections.

12V System

Gradient: -0.2417

15V System

Gradient: -0.33167

16
 17V System

Gradient: -0.4867

k) Calculate the average thermal conductivity of the aluminum alloy bar using the
temperature gradient of each straight line and the corresponding heat flow through the
intermediate section.
Using the gradients calculated above, the following can be used:
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 ∗
𝑑𝑥
𝑄 1
𝑘=− ∗
𝐴 𝑑𝑇/𝑑𝑥

Table 19: Tabulated data indicating the average thermal conductivity for each voltage

12V System (˚C) 15V System (˚C) 17V System (˚C)

𝑨 [𝒎𝟐 ] 0.0004909 0.0004909 0.0004909

𝒅𝑻 -0.2419 -0.3316 -0.4484

𝒅𝒙
[K/mm]

𝑸̇ [𝑾]
14.52 22.65 29.24

Kavg [W/mK] 122.28 138.78 132.84

17
4 Discussion of Results

As the voltage and current, the power in the brass increases as expected. This is consistent with theory.
For the heating section of the brass specimen it was observed that an increase in power lead to an
increase in temperature difference and increase in thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity values
are 105.64W/m°C, 119.22W/m°C and 127.81W/m°C for the 12V, 15V and 17V system respectively.
For the intermediate section of the brass specimen it was observed that an increase in power lead to an
increase in temperature difference, the thermal conductivity starts at a large value of 158.46W/m°C at
12V, then it decreased to 130.59W/m°C at 15V and then slightly increased again to 136.66 at 17V.
For the cooling section of the brass specimen, it was observed that an increase in power lead to an
increase in temperature difference and increase in thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity values
are 134.45 W/m0C, 144.19 W/m0C and 151.85W/m0C for the 12V, 15V and 17V system respectively.
It was expected that for a given heat flow, the thermal conductivity value would increase along the
different sections of the brass specimen. However, there was a discrepancy found for a heat flow value
of 14.52W, the thermal conductivity value in the cooled section was found to have decreased from that
of the intermediate section. For a heat flow of 14.52W, the thermal conductivity values read
158.46W/m°C whilst for the heat flows values of 22.65W and 29.07W the thermal conductivity values
read 130.59W/m°C and 136.66W/m°C, respectively. It was suspected that an inaccurate reading may
have been recorded from the intermediate section as it differs significantly from the values read in the
two other heat flow readings.

Similarly in the aluminum specimen, an increase in the voltage and current resulted in an increase in the
power. The temperature of the hot and cold surface of the intermediate section was found to increase
as the power increased. As a result, the heat flow increased which resulted in larger temperatures being
seen through the conduction system. These rise in temperatures caused larger temperature differences
to be realized proportionally to the increased power.
It was observed the thermal conductivity for the 12V and the 17V system was the same with a value of
12.24 W/m°C whilst the thermal conductivity in the 15V system had a value of 14.475 W/m°C.
The total resistance to heat flow was found to be largest in the 12V system at a value of
Rtot = 1.727°C /W. The total resistance to thermal conductivity then decreased in the 15V system to
1.53°C /W and increased again in the 17V system to 1.58°C /W.
The overall heat transfer coefficient of aluminum was found to increase as the voltage system changed
from 12V to 15V at values of 1 177W/m2K and 1 328 W/m2K respectively, and then decrease as it changed
to the 17V system to a value of 1 289 w/m2K.
18
The temperature gradients of brass for the 12V, 15V and 17V settings were -251.83, -385.48, -471.19
respectively. The temperature gradients of Aluminum for the 12V, 15V and 17V settings were -241.9, -
332.5, -448.4 respectively(NB this is after sorting out the order of magnitude as a result of using mm in x
axis of the graph) . It is evident that brass has a larger temperature gradient in comparison to aluminium
because aluminium is more conductive than brass. With reference to Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
𝑄̇ ∆𝑥
(∆𝑇 = ) ,it is clear that the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to ‘k’. The higher the
𝑘𝐴

thermal conductivity (or the more conductive a material is) the lower the temperature gradient.

19
5 Conclusions

Through the experimental investigation and heat conduction analysis of the brass intermediate section
it was found that the outcome did not vary much from the trend found in that of the aluminium
intermediate section. As the heat power was increased the produced heat flow rate (W) increased
proportionally and induced larger temperatures throughout the entire conductive system, with
temperatures decreasing from T1 to T8 at each heat power. This increase in temperature caused the
thermal conductivity of the intermediate sections to vary slightly. This variation may have been caused
by the experimental method being flawed in measurement accuracy or the time before taking down the
temperature values was not long enough for the system to settle as the final thermal conductivity results
all vary by a maximum error of 16% for brass and 18% for aluminium. With brass possessing a higher
calculated thermal conductivity value than that of aluminium.
It was also evident that the brass and aluminium followed a similar temperature gradient line throughout
the linear heat conduction system and only varied slightly due to the different thermal conductivity
values found and hence the different temperatures induced in the intermediate section. It was found
that aluminium had a temperature gradient less than that of brass. This was expected as aluminium is
the more conductive material. This discovery was contradictive to the findings of the thermal
conductivity values as brass should then possess a thermal conductivity less than aluminium. It was
determined that this contradiction may be due to the surface temperatures being used for the aluminium
intermediate section and the thermocouple temperatures being used for the brass intermediate section
when determining the thermal conductance.

20
6 References

Connor, N., 2019. Thermal Engineering. [Online]

Available at: https://www.thermal-engineering.org/what-is-fouriers-law-of-thermal-conduction-
definition/

21
Appendix A

Nomenclature

Roman letters

A L2 Area m2
T  Change in temperature 0
C
x L Change in distance m
I I Current A
K MLT-3 Thermal conductivity W/mK
L L Length m
Q ML2T-2 Heat flow W
R M-1L-2T3 Thermal resistance K/W
T  Temperature 0
C
Ti  Temperature at position i 0
C
U ML-1T-3 Heat Transfer Coefficient W/m2K
V ML2T-3I-1 Voltage V

M = Mass
I = Current
L = Length
T = Time
 = Temperature

Subscripts

cold cold section;

cool cooled section
diff difference
heat heated section
hot hot section;
i position where i=1,2,3…6;
int intermediate section;

A
Appendix B: Group Admin

Contribution

Initial and surname Contribution to Report

PC Mbedzi Introduction
JD O’Callaghan Experimental setup
TS Ngwenya Compiling of Brass questions
P Ifekoya Compiling of Aluminium questions
M Tumaini Discussion
RH Hamadziripi Conclusion
RH Hamadziripi Nomenclature
All members Calculation of results

Meeting log

Meeting 1:
• Date: 24/03/21
• Time: 19h00 – 19h45
• Agenda: Prac 1 discussion, distribution on work
• Present: ALL
Meeting 2:
• Date: 30/03/21
• Time: 14h00 – 15h00
• Agenda: Review report, make sure it’s ready for submission
• Present: