%%

PHILOSOPHY

The ultimate measure of the effectiveness of Central Luzon State University as an

institution of higher learning is its contribution to and impact on the educational,
economic, social, cultural, political and moral well-being and environmental
consciousness of the peoples it serves.

VISION

The Central Luzon State University as a world class knowledge-based people’s

university, pro-active, relevant and committed to service and excellence.

MISSION

The Central Luzon State University shall develop socially responsible and empowered
human resources and knowledge for poverty alleviation, environmental protection and
global competitiveness towards sustainable development
PHILIPPINE HISTORY
and GOVERNMENT

PARICO, OLIVA B.
REYES, BENEDICT F.
VILLAVER, BELLEDESMA L.

S.Y. 2017-2018
 PREFACE

When these ideas were put together in 2010 from being a handbook when it
was first appeared, the idea was to provide supplementary details of Philippine
History to enrich discussions with relevant exercises in every topic. The structure of
this book is according to the outline of historiography of Philippine History consisted
of more or less chronological series of essential events mainly fitted for the students
of history. From prehistoric Philippines, Spanish period, American occupation, the
short but oppressive experiences of Filipinos during the presence of Japanese
Imperial forces and the Contemporary Philippines were meant to provide certain
perspectives and good talking points.

Much of the approach of the study of Philippine History has been dialectical,
discussion based, educational tour, power point presentation, making an idea of
protagonist and antagonist depending on the roles they played. The result of these
approaches has been much things to review purposes making the students bored
and getting a lower scores in examinations. To help the students, this book includes
supplementary readings to enrich the ideas of students for them to become lovers
of history.

This book has the attempt to convey as clearly as briefly the knowledge in
Philippine History into the minds of students so that they will fully comprehend the
ideas for their continuing desire in digging up the more secrets of history. More
importantly to learn from the weaknesses of the Filipinos while helping to create a
true faith and fresh ideas in our country to cope with intellectual globalization.

This book despite its limitations, is genuinely recognizing the value of history
and an invitation to pick up the best of the past on our way to the future.

The Authors
2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Unit Page

1 Nature and Significance of History ------------------------------------------------------- 4-8

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9-42

2 Geographical Context of the Philippines ----------------------------------------------- 44-49

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50-52

3 Ancient Philippine Society ----------------------------------------------------------------- 54-61

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62-66

4 Spanish Colonial Rule ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 68 -73

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74-75

5 Revolts Against Spanish Colonization --------------------------------------------------- 76-80

Exercises ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82-84

6 The Birth and Development of Filipino Nationalism -------------------------------- 86-94

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95-107

7 American Colonial Rule ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 109-126

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127-129

8 Japanese Occupation and Fascist Rule -------------------------------------------------- 131-137

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 138-145

9 Neocolonial Philippines: The Experience and Struggles of the Filipinos in Nation 147-169
Building

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 170-176

10 Philippine Government ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 178-187

Exercises ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 188-194

References -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 196-197

3
 Unit I
NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY
A. Specific Object ives

At the end of the session, students should able to:

1. give a deeper and concise definition of history
2. express the practical relevance of history
3. be oriented to the different perspectives in history
4. appraise varied perspectives & approaches
5. pinpoint problems of colonial historiography, and their sources of distortions
6. construct measures to correct distortions in history

B. Time Required
4 hours
▪ Group exercises – 2 ½ hours
▪ Lecture – 1 ½ hours

C. Target Concept

Defining history as a study or record of past human events does not give a
complete and sufficient definition of the discipline. The working definitions of history
offered by progressive historians were formed out of our constant search for national
identity that may push for the development of national consciousness. Here are some
appropriate definitions shedding some light on its meaning and focus as well:

DEFINITION / MEANING AND INSIGHTS

History
 is both facts and interpretation
 refers to the historian’s reconstruction of the past
 is about our knowledge of past events especially those beyond living memory and
is based on:
a) written records
b) oral traditions
c) physical evidences /artifacts

COMPONENTS OF HISTORY (Kasaysayan) Without facts, the

historian is restless and
Salaysay – a futile, and without the
narrative/ detailed Are inseparable, historian, facts are dead
without both, and meaningless
information
you can’t have a
(Resurreccion,
Saysay – a way true history
2005)
of viewing / looking
(Ocampo, 2001)
at the world

REMEMBER:
1. All interpretations are valid, unique, distinct, and good for particular historical
situation
2. Conclusions in history are not final. Everything is rewritten by every generation using
the same document but interpretation varies according to time. 4
 A. (Constantino,1999,p.5 ): History is the recorded struggle of the people for increasing
freedom and for newer and higher realization of the human person

 Not merely a chronology of events

 Not the story of heroes and great men

Principal focus:

Anonymous masses of individuals and who were relegated to

the sides on the social forces generated by collective lives and
struggles project “people history”. (Constantino,1998)

WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY HISTORY?

1. to raise our historical consciousness essential to national

development
2. to enable us to exercise the faculty of criticism through
intelligent reading
3. to learn what man did in the past and to gain insights into
the nature of our present difficulties by projecting
people’s history
4. gives us the proper perspectives to formulate correct
policies in the future
5. to learn lessons from the past in order to apply to the
present so that we may act correctly in the future
6. is our scientific guide to understanding the present and future
7. it raises our historical consciousness so as to develop a commitment for the oppressed

5
WHAT PROBLEMS HAVE BEEN ENCOUNTERED IN THE WRITING, TEACHING, AND STUDY OF
HISTORY? WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF DISTORTIONS?

1. Some Filipino historians were captives of colonial

historiography who viewed/interpreted our history from the
eyes of the colonizers. There are still Filipino historians with
colonial hangover and are brainwashed.
2. There are many imbalances contained in colonial
historiography so as to hide their real motives and colonial
interests. “One-sided approach” had colored our native
history.
3. There were indiscriminate recording of events basically because they were not
trained as socio-anthropologists.
4. Colonial historians has biased and limited observations that described situations in
pure generalizations and were full of inaccuracies.
5. Early writers of Philippine history (colonial history) were ethnocentric and tend to
disregard native customs and values that does not conform to their colonialists
tastes.
6. History is gender-blind. The participation of women in history was hidden and
rarely or never even mentioned.
7. Narcissus complex – focused only on the achievements of Spaniards and
Americans
8. National history is Manila-centric, which tends to define national political history.
It has omissions or data-gaps relative to local History.
9. Local histories have not gained academic importance or official recognition.
10. Intellectual inadequacy of history teachers who were ill-prepared to be historians.
11. Few history teachers doing historical research.

HOW SHOULD WE STUDY HISTORY?

Several approaches on how history should be written, taught or studied were proposed by two
dominant schools of thoughts and progressive writers of history. These are as follows:

1. RENATO CONSTANTINO ( 1998):

Since the past is a matrix of events, a framework of analysis has to be applied. As a

historian, one has to make a stand. There is a need for a nationalist framework in
order:

a) to redress the imbalances that characterized historical narratives written by foreign

sources
b) to judge historical events as to whether Filipinos have benefitted from these
situations or simply served the selfish ends of the colonizers and politicians.
c) to show the Filipinos not merely as victims of oppression by the colonizers but as
active members of society capable of fighting for their rights and asserting their
cultural identity under adverse conditions.

6
 d) to unmask colonial historiography by exposing their real agenda behind
colonization and as such, it is impossible to apply objective judgement over these
colonial accounts because of the subjectivity of the colonial historians.

2. TEODORO AGONCILLO (1975)

Using imagination in historical writing is as important as it is in the writing of

fiction, drama or poetry. The data referred to as the “bones” in history cannot speak
for themselves alone. It requires the disciplined of imagination of the historian to add
vibrance and color to his historical account. The “flesh and blood” of history is supplied
by the historian’s imaginative understanding. Imagination is conditioned by the facts
and the two are inseperable. Interpretation is an aspect of historical imagination.
Imagination not based on facts is wild. And if were to write history. Agoncillo suggested
to write clearly, creatively, logically and with literary freshness. Facts must be
reviewed with feelings. Data or facts must be reviewed with passion and must be used
judiciously.

There should be a radical revamp of the Philippine education

system to emphasize Filipinismin order to root out colonial mentality.
It takes courage and strong dose of nationalism to banish the effects
of colonialism.

3. CELEDONIO RESURRECCION (2005)

In writing history, one must be descriptive but at the same time analytical. And to be
analytical one must write with logical reasoning and bring discussion to the realm of
value judgment. Cultivate critical historical consciousness among students of history.

Be original, contribute something new.

4. FIRSTSCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Proposed that history must be written, taught or studied for its own sake. This is
premised on the principle that History is an intellectual pursuit of truth. The function
of history is to understand the past as it had happened and abandon the present.
(Diokno, 1985, p.19)

7
 5. SECOND SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Study the past in light of the present. Furthermore, the tasks of the historian is to:
a) understand the past as the key to understanding the present

b) use History to look into the future. It stresses the practical value of history.
The only weakness of this approach is that it makes History an easy prey
for manipulation. If the past is specifically selected and used for practical
purpose,then History is misused or abused. (Diokno, 1985 )

6. AMBETH OCAMPO

Be courageous enough tochallenge existing beliefs, facts and theories.

( Ocampo, 2001,p.xviii)

RELATIONSHIP OF HISTORY TO OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

Social Sciences are all academic disciplines which deal with the individual behavior in its
social context. These include psychology, economics, political science, sociology, anthropology and
history. These social sciences are dependent on each other in concepts, theories, methods, and
techniques for data gathering. The interdisciplinary approach in social research is increasingly being
adapted especially in studies related to national development.

History deals systematically with the past by analyzing, correlating, and explaining the
effects of human behaviors in the past. Specifically, historians seek to establish the sequence of
events and link these past events with the rise of civilization. It provides a far greater range of data
and experiences that can be drawn from the present time. History deals invariably on human
experiences viewed separately among the different disciplines of Social Sciences.

History and Geography

Both History and Geography have closer ties. Factors such as time and space give history
its correct perspective. Geography plays important role in the national character formation and
influence socio-cultural behavior. The climate and topography of a country greatly affects the
civilization of a country.

History and Political Science

A historian is interested with tracing the history of political processes, in the development
of political institutions, rules, laws, justice and bureaucracy. Politics is part of the whole range of
activity recorded by historians. Knowledge of history enable our politicians to be aware of politics
and perform their responsibilities in the pursuit of good governance. History can explain origins of
present political problems and point out to policy makers the effects of their political decisions.
(Daniels.1998, p.226-227)

8
History and Economics
Like Geography and Political Science, History and Ecnonomics have intrinsic relationship.
Historians will be able to understand various historical phenomenon by studying economic
activities and processes in society. The historian of any period must be knowledgeable to the basic
principles of economics. At present, history is so closely interlinked with the study of economic
problems that it would not be possible to reconstruct history without knowledge of the relevant
economic problems.(Aggarwal, 2016)

History and Sociology

A historian like sociology is concerned with social processes such as social institutions,
values and conflicts. Sociology is closely linked to history in the study of “social dynamics” which is
a study of society in constant process of social change and causation that brings new perspective
in History. Many studies are now being made on social history. (Aggarwal, 2016)

History and Psychology

Like the other disciplines of social sciences, history is closely link to psychology. A historian
must show some psychological insights while analyzing the motives and actions of men and
societies. An understanding of the group psychology enable the historian to determine the role of
masses in various revolutions and other mass actions. And historians can discuss the causes of
certain wars with the help of social psychologists. The influence of psychologists on historians have
undertaken the study of revolts and their corresponding impacts. (Sarkar, 2016)

History and Anthropology

Anthropology depends on history to understand the context of the current cultural climate.
In viewing the relationship of anthropology and history, historical events must be viewed from a
holistic lens and from a variety of cultural viewpoints. History presents a description of social
events in society. Both study ancient civilization and human societies. (Sarkar,2016

Socio-Anthropology needs history in as much as history depends on anthropology.

Pioneering scholars like August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and MaxWeber studied
social phenomena and believed that the study on preliterate people would be more significant if
facts could be analyze from historical perspective.(Daniels, 1998)

History and Philosophy

History is a philosophical inquiry into causes of historical phenomena
(Resurrecion,2005,p.6). In order to come up with a distinct and sensitive judgments on the
historical incidents and characters, a historian must be aware of the ethical principles of the time
which influenced the conduct of the people in the past. A historian must understand and
internalize the science of ethics to have a a wider and holistic perspective of the issue. (Aggarwal,
2016)

9
READINGS:

1. Teodoro Agoncillo, “ Imagination in History”, Presented at a Conference sponsored

by National Historical Commission, 1970.

2. Digna Apilado, “A Methodology of Local History”, Proceedings from National

Conference for Oral and Local History,

3. Renato Constantino, 1998, “ Towards a People’s History, The Philippines: A Past

Revisited, vol.1, pp.3-11

4. Ambeth Ocampo, “Introduction,” Meaning and History: The Rizal Lectures, 2001

5. Celedonio Resurrecion. “The Study and Interpretation in History”, Far Eastern

University., 1995

6. Veneracion, Jaime. 1997.AGOS NG DUGONG KAYUMANGGI. Education Forum – AIM.

Chapter 1, pp. 2-10

10
 EXERCISE 3: VIDEO CRITIQUE ( “LIYAB NG SANLIBONG SULO”)

Name ________________________ Course & Sec_________ Date __________

Watch the video“LIYAB NG SANLIBONG SULO” and critically analyze the documentary.Write your
reflections inside the box based on the following criteria: themain theme of the film, impact of the
film on you, its contributions to the general knowledge of the public and, relevance.

11
 Unit II
GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT OF THE PHILIPPINES

Objective:

a) This section provides a brief introduction of the country’s geography and review of the
Philippine natural resources
b) To be oriented with various viewpoints/theories on the geological beginnings of the
Philippine archipelago

Content:

Physical Setting and Climate

The Philippines dubbed as the “Pearl of the Orient”, is an archipelago comprising over
7,107 islands and islets which lies along the south eastern part of Asia. The size of its land area is
about 1,850 kilometers or 29,817,000 hectares. Philippines’ coastal areas with a size of 200 million
hectares is seven times larger that its landsizeIt is bounded on the west by the highly disputed West
Philippine Sea and its Asian neighbors like Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea and Thailand. Eastside of the
Philippine lies the Philippin Sea, the newly discovered Benham Rise and Pacific Ocean. On the
northside, Philippines is bounded by Taiwan, China, Korea and Japan. While at its south lies
Indonesia, Borneo, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea. (Edgar Domingo, Marine Science Institute-UP
Diliman.2016)

Monsoon rains, although hard and drenching, are not normally associated with high winds
and waves. But the Philippines sit astride the typhoon belt, and it suffers an annual onslaught of
dangerous storms from July through October. These are especially hazardous for northern and
eastern Luzon and the Bicol and Eastern Visayas regions, but Manila gets devastated periodically as
well. ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_the_Philippines )

One of the biggest issue in studying climate change in the Philippines is the lack of
consistent information about Philippine climatological condition we have at present or in the
recent past due to the erratic climate patterns Philippines had been experiencing. Before, the
country still relies on the Coronas Climate Classification which is based on the seasonal distribution
of rainfall. However the Philippines has a complex physical geography with complete ecosystem
while its adjacent areas also have different climates especially given their distinct physical features.
With the rapid changes in land use practices, a localized and unpredictable change in climate, and
classification is expected. According to Koppen Climate Classification System, tropic region of
monsoon and has four types of climate: TROPICAL – is mild and characterized by sufficient rains
through out the year prevalent in areas of Eastern Luzon, Bicol, Samar and Leyte; TROPICAL which
is mild and sufficient rain but dry spells may ensure from November-May and is prevalent in areas
of Luzon and Negros; SAVANNA TROPICAL – characterized be dry reason for most of the year and is
dominant in the area of Cagayan; MILD TO COOL CLIMATE – found in mountainous areas 4, 000 ft
12
(1, 500 m) or 2,400 km above sea level. (Guillermo,Ramon and Almirante,SG.1999. Philippine History and
Government. IBON Foundation Inc. p.18; http://aghamscientia.blogspot.com/2011/01/revisiting-
classification-of-philippine.html )

Philippines is part of the Pacific “Ring of Fire” where there is the largest concentration of
active and dormant volcanoes. A large portion of the land territory of the Philippines include its
mountain.Its total land size which include those that are steeply sloped is 18 million hectares. The
Philippines is rich in biodiversity, with diverse “flora” and “fauna”. These are about 8, 500 species
of flowering plants; some 800 species of orchids;3, 000 species of trees; 2, 100 species of fishes.
The rain forests also offer prime habitat for more than 500 species of birds, including the Philippine
eagle (or monkey-eating eagle). However, due to continued misuse and abuse, the Philippine
environment is in an alarming state of destruction. To protect the country's biological resources,
the government has taken a first step of preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan to address
conservation of threatened species. (Guillermo.1999.; DENR 2005 Report )

The country's most extensive river systems are the Rio Grande de Pampanga which drains
southeast of Central Luzon into Manila Bay; the Pulangi River, which flows into the Mindanao
River (Rio Grande de Mindanao); the Agusan, in Mindanao which flows north into the Mindanao
Sea; and the Cagayan in northern Luzon;. Laguna de Bay, east of Manila Bay, is the largest
freshwater lake in the Philippines. Several rivers have been harnessed for hydroelectric
power.(Domingo.2016)

Political geography:Provinces of the Philippines and Regions of the Philippines

The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the 81
provinces as the primary unit. Provinces are further subdivided into cities and municipalities, which
are in turn composed of barangays. The barangay is the smallest local government unit.

The Philippines is divided into 17 regions with all provinces grouped into one of 16 regions
for administrative convenience. The National Capital Region however, is divided into four special
districts.

Most government offices establish regional offices to serve the constituent provinces. The
regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. (20http://www.namria.gov.ph/)

Regions

• Ilocos Region (Region I)

• Cagayan Valley (Region II)
• Central Luzon (Region III)
• CALABARZON (Region IV-A)
• MIMAROPA (Region IV-B)
• Bicol Region (Region V)
• Western Visayas (Region VI)

13
 • Central Visayas (Region VII)
• Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)
• Zamboanga Peninsula (Region IX)
• Northern Mindanao (Region X)
• Davao Region (Region XI)
• Soccsksargen (Region XII)
• Caraga (Region XIII)
• Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)
• Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR)
• National Capital Region (NCR; Metro Manila) ( 2015. http://www.namria.gov.ph/ )

PRE-HISTORY

Theories on the Beginnings of the Philippines

Two classical theories had shed light on the geologic and geographic background of the
Philippines. These are:

1. The Land bridge Theory theorized by Henry Otley Beyer, that over one million years ago during
the Pleistocene or Ice Age, the Philippines was connected to mainland China through a vast
land area called land-bridges ( Agoncillo, 1990,pp.20-21)

2. Volcanic Theory offered by Dr. Fritjoff Voss, a German geologist disputed Beyer’s Land Bridge
theory. He said that the Philippines was never part of the Asia mainland. He pointed out
through scientific studies made between 1964-67 on the thickness of the earth’s crust. It was
found out that the 35-kilometer thick crust underneath China do not extend to the Philippines.
Dr. Voss’s theory eventually generated further studies which includes that of Dr. Raymundo
Punong-Bayan. Part of his findings is presented in a schema on next page shedding some light on
the geological beginnings of the Philippine archipelago. (Agoncillo, 1990)

Theories On The Peopling Of The Philippines

1.Migration Wave Theory

Adjunct to Henry Otley Beyer’s Landbridge theory of which the Philippines was believed to
be part of mainland China sometime in Pleistocene era, Beyer posited that the Negritoes traverse
through these landbridges to the Philippines through series of migration waves. This theory has
been widely accepted since early 1970s. Beyer claimed that the Negritoes were the early settlers
or aboriginal groups of the Philippines. Through second wave of migration, came next were the
groups of Indonesians and the Malays that now constitute the dominant population among present
day Filipinos .(Agoncillo,1990,p.21)

2.Tabon Cave (Wo)man or Homo Sapiens Sapiens

Filipino anthropologist like Felipe Landa Jocano Sr. of the University of the Philippines
challenged Beyer’s theory by asserting that there were fossil evidences of the prehistoric people in
the Philippines. The youngest evidence of human life in the Philippines was the Tabon Cave whose

14
half skull cup and a portion of a jaw was discovered inside the Tabon Cave of Palawan in 1962.
Because of its smaller cranial size, the Tabon cave man or Homo Sapiens Sapiens was believed to be
a woman instead of a man. It was believed to have existed between 21,000-22,000 years ago.
Felipe Landa Jocano Sr. further maintained that the three ethnic groups identified by Beyer stand
as co-equal racially and culturally.( Agoncillo,1990)

The Historical Schema for Pre-Historic

The Historical schema presented in the ensuing pages gives us a bird’s eye and holistic
view of the continuing evolution of Philippine society from prehistoric era to contemporary period.
For us in history, we must look beyond what the national papers say by looking into a matrix of
structures that we can use in arranging, classifying and interpreting information in a scientific
way.This schema tells us that the succeeding changes that transpire within the different structures
and institutions of our society cannot be taken apart from the changes that transpire within our
physical environment.(Veneracion.1997)

15
 ANG KRONOLOHIYA SA PAGKABUO NG PILIPINAS
Source: Dr. Raymundo Punong-Bayan. 1998. Genesis of the Philippines, Environmental Center of the Philippines
Foundation Atlas of the Philippines, Quezon City
Panahong
Taong Sakop Heolohika Kaganapan

65 milyong taon Huling Ang islang-arko ng BIKOL, LEYTE, at SILANGANG MINDANO ay

(B.C.) Cretaceous nabuo matapos na lumubog angPhilippine Sea Plate sa ilalim ng
Indian-Australian Plate.Sila ang mga unang elemento ng arkipelago
ng Pilipinas.

57-57 milyong Mula sa ekwator, kasabay ng pagkilos ng Pacific Plate, ang islang-
taon bago Eocene arkong nabanggit ay “naanod” patungo sa pahilagang-kanlurang
ngayon direksyon. Sa panahong ito, nahati ang Pilipinas sa tatlong
magkakahiwalay na islang-arko: Arkong Luzon
( Sierra Madre at Samar), ang Arkong Halmahera ( bahagi
na ngayon ng Indonesya) kung saan nakadugtong ang
Silangan at Sentral Kordilyera ng Mindanao, at ang Arkong
Sangihe, kung saan matatagpuan ang Tangway ng
Zamboanga at ang Talampas ng Kudarat.

37-23 milyong Gitnang Paglawak ng Dagat Timog Tsina dulot ng ekspansyon ng seafloor sa
taon Bago Ngayon Oligocene pagitan ng Eurasian Plate at Micro-continental Block.

23-6 milyong taon Maagang Paglawak ng seafloor na matatagpuan sa Dagat Sulu.

Bago Ngayon Miocene

Gitnang Miocene Bumangga ang Micro-continental Blockng Palawan sa orihinal na

islang arko (Luzon) ng Pilipinas. Nagdulot ito ng bulkanismo sa
Arkong Sulu.

6 milyong taon Huling Miocene Tumigil ang bulkanismo sa Arkong Sulu, ngunit patuloy pa rin ang
Bago Ngayon pagkilos ng Pacific at Philippine plates. Bumangga ang hilangang
bahagi ng Manila Trench sa Taiwan, na nagdulot ng paglitaw ng mga
mababang bahagi (kapatagan) ng Luzon mula sa karagatan.

6-2 milyong taon Huling Miocene Umabot ang Manila Trenchhanggang Kanlurang Mindanao. Naputol
Bago Ngayon hanggang simula at naging NegrosatCotabato nang dumikit na ang bloke ng Mindoro-
ng Pleistocene Palawan at ang Tangway ng Zamboanga sa orihinal na islang arko
(Luzon) ng Pilipinas. Sa panahong ito, nagsimula na ring lumubog
ang Silangang bahagi ng bansa sa erya ng Philippine Trench. Ito na
ang simula ng pagkakabuo ng lupang Pilipinas sa kanyang
kasalukuyang lokasyon, porma, hugis at anyo.

16
 SUGGESTED SCHEMA FOR PHILIPPINE PRE-HISTORY
(Adapted from: Jaime B. Veneracion. 1987. AGOS NG DUGONG KAYUMANGGI: Isang Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas,p.7)
Era Period Technical Political Material
Description Characteristics Forms Economy Culture Essence

Beginning Pleistocene Formation of Groups “Foraging for Developme

Pre- 250, 000 BC archipelago Food “ Stone tools nt of
Austronesia Glaciation ( Nuclear ( crude ) Man & his
n Family) “ Hunting & Culture
250, 000 BC Paleolithic Homonization Gathering “
to 9000 BC Interaction
of Man and
Nature

Austronesia 9000 BC to Spread of Clan of Domesticatio Chinese &

n 1500 BC Austronesian n of plants & Flake Indian
Neolithic tradition Extended animals Tradition Influence
Slash & Burn
Family Agriculture Continuing
struggle of
Man &
Nature

1500 BC to Emergence
200 AD Particularizatio of
Metal Age n & Separation Fishing , Pottery permanent
from Commerce Basketry settlements
Austronesian Dry / Wet Bead, Glass
Tradition Rice and Metals Man vs Man
Agriculture
Interaction
between
clan and
tradition
Proto-
Filipino 200 AD Proto- Emergence of Ethnic Expanded Regional
to History Regional Forms groups & commerce Same as particulariliz
1565 AD in SEA ethnic above ation
state ( SEA)

Filipino 1565 to History Emergence of National Agricultural Technology Man vs Man

present Philippine communit industry ( plow with (struggle vs
forms from y & ( export- crop wedge & colonialism
ethnic oriented ) Harrow ) )
beginning into Nation -
national States ( market Machinery Struggle for
community economy ) Democracy

Struggle ofr
Nationalism

17
READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, Teodoro. HISTORY OF THE FILIPINO PEOPLE, Chapters 1-2, pp 1-23

2. FILIPINO HERITAGE, vol. 1
3. Veneracion, Jaime. AGOS NG DUGONG KAYUMANGGI. Chapter 1, pp. 2-10
4. KASAYSAYAN vol.1

EXERCISE 1: “What is the Philippines?”

Objective:
To review Philippine geography. It is an exercise that will test students’ familiarity about
their own country

Procedure:

A. Divide the class into groupings of 3-5. Each group will be given a blank map of the
Philippines. Each group will be assigned one category from the following:

1- topography
2- political boundaries,
3- Products and Resources- land, forest, agriculture & aquatic,
4- big projects- e.g huge government infrastructure projects-dams, power plants, MNCs,
Exportprocessing zones,
5- Places of origin of landlords and big businessmen.

B. Locate on a blank map of the Philippines on page 51 the details of their assigned
category. Limit to 5 items each for Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.

Note to the Teacher: This can also be done individuallly.

18
 EXERCISE 1: “WHAT IS THE PHILIIPPINES?”

Name_________________________ Course & Sec ________ Date ___________

19
 Unit III
ANCIENT PHILIPPINE SOCIETY

Objectives:

a) Be oriented with various views and theories on the Peopling in the Philippines.
b) To trace the genealogy of contemporary Filipinos
c) To identify and characterize ancient Filipino settlements holistically

Concepts:

The period prior to the colonization is the longest in our history covering prehistoric to pre-
Hispanic or pre-colonial stages ( 2 million AD to mid-16th century).

Solid evidences attesting to the existence of early civilizations of the Philippines dated back
in Pleistocene era. Presentation of the suggested schema for Philippine Pre-history may help
deepen discussion on this certain period.

The indigenous communities in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization were viewed
and described by early Spanish chroniclers as uncivilized, a gross misconception that Robert Fox
and other progressive Filipino historians had wanted to rectify.

The succeeding discussion will focus on the characterization of these early societies that
evolved in the Philippines several years before the Spanish conquest.

A. General Information:

Precolonial population was less than 1 million from the lowland people from Luzon and
Viasayas. This population figure excluded the upland and Muslim populations. The population of
the Philippine island at the onset of Spanish rule was estimated to at about 750,000 headcounts.
20
This was based from the 1591 census of tributes ordered by Governor General Gomez Perez
Dasmariñas. (Constantino,1998, p.29 )
The barangay was the simplest social unit and was more of kinship groupings rather than
political units. Each one was a separate entity with only informal contacts with other villages. They
vary from sizes. The average village size was from 8-10 households (20-30 inhabitants. But there
are also extraordinary big barangays called as giant barangays with 2,000 or more inhabitants.
Manilad (Manila), Sugbu (Cebu), Maktan (Mactan), Bigan(Vigan), Butuan and Jolo. ( ibid, p.29)

Location:

Most communities were nucleated, aggregated but dispersed

and were mostly found along riverines, riverbanks, coastal or near
coastal. Their proximity to the waters was because rivers as the
“rivers of life” are the rich source of their food and protein aside from
being used as trading routes. Therefore, contacts with domestic and
foreign traders facilitated cultural change among people inhabiting
the coastal areas.

2 Ancient Settlement Patterns

1. SA-ILUD – communities found near the mouth of the river, is

where most people lived. It was overpopulated andwhere most
advanced socio-political organizations were found. Three progressive
riparian settlements found along the mouth of the Pasig River were
Sapa(“Sta.Mesa”), Maynilad (Manila)and Tunduk (Tondo). Communities
located in this type of settlement developed faster than the Saraya.

2. SA-RAYA- inland, upriver and upland communities (Veneracion 1987, p.49-50)

Temporary Shelters and Dwellings

The customs and traditions of the people explained why mostly were temporary
settlements. For example , people had to abandon or burn their dwellings when a member of a
family dies so as to drive away evil spirits or the scent of death or bad-luck.

During also in pre-colonial era, structures made of stones were non- existent. Religion
centered on family or kin group. Each home was a temple on its own. Pre-Spanish settlements
were an aggregate ofindependent households. Houses or dwellings were mostly made from light
materials, are separate and with no adjoining parts. Lower parts areenclosures made of stake
bamboos, where poultry or livestock were raised. Ladders are drawn up when one ascends the
house. Houses were also built on treetops to be safe from wild animals or enemy attacks. The
Mandayans, Bagobo sand Kalingas were well known as tree-dwellers. Others were made in
boats for sea-rovers whose lives depended on the wealth of the sea. ( KASAYSAYAN, 2000, vol.2)

Moreover, early Filipino houses were constructed without nails or pegs. They were just
tied together with a rattan. Afong Fa-yu– one of the Igorot’s (Bontocs) largest open board

21
dwellings 3 ½ - 4 ft. high with a tall, heavy roofing. It is reserved only for highly respected elders.
The torogan among the Muslim societies particularly the Maranaos was a symbol of power. It was
where the datu live. They were with brightly painted wood carvings or okkil which emphasized
religiosity and hierarchical significance. The ulog in Bontoc Central, is a place for“trial marriage “or
“trial mating” because procreation was main function of marriage. Physically, it is a low stone-
walled cogon thatched house in which the unmarried girls of the village sleep at night. The Ato was
combination bachelor’s dormitory and council house for village elders. ( KASAYSAYAN, 2000)

Transporation: horses and carabaos have been used since the earliest times for pack and
riding animals. Male horses were called “bait kota” while mares were called “mamat koda.”
Moreover, people traveled principally by water. No roads bisected the countryside nor were there
any wheeled vehicles. Trails followed the streams. ( KASAYSAYAN, 2000)

Political Life

Barangay was the social and political unit of the Filipinos before the coming of the
Spaniards. It comes from the Malay word balangay which mean boat. The barangays were
generally small with thirty to one hundred houses and their population varied from one hundred to
five hundred persons.( Constantino,1998,p.29 )

Flourishing trade and the spread of Islam paved the way for the evolution of independent
and self-sufficient baranganic societies.

Most of the members of the barangay were related to one another by blood or by
marriage. Besides kinship, common economic interests and shared rituals formed the bases for
community cohesion. The barangay was a social rather than a political unit, each one a separate
entity with only informal contacts with other villages.

Each barangay is independent from each other often headed by a

chieftain for non-Muslim groups or by a king called datu among muslim
societies or principalities. For bigger confederation of barangays, the rajah is
the designated head among principalities. This proves that the early Filipinos
already had the idea of organizing themselves into bigger political body which
was invariably a step to nation-building. But there were factors which delayed
them from uniting mainly due to the topography of the archipelago or
geographical make-up and language barriers.

The powers of datu or raja ranged from being the implementor of laws in the barangay,as the
supreme commander in times of war and as the legislator or lawmaker The primary duty of datu or
raja is to rule and govern his subjects and to promote their welfare and interests. As adjudicator of
law, the pre-colonial barangay system adheres to due process of law, that is giving equal
opportunity to the accused and to the victim and their respective witnesses to be heard and after
that, the datu upon consultation to the Council of Elders handed down his verdict in favour or
against the accused. The penalty depends on the gravity of crime committed, ranging from severe
lashes or beatings to death by drowning. (Veneracion,1997,p.60-62)

Another way of determining the guilt of an accused that applies in the pre-colonial criminal
justice system is the so-called trial by ordeal. It is in this context that the datu as the chief

22
adjudicator believes that God in His supreme wisdom will not allow an innocent person to suffer.
The accused will be tested in any of the following scheme:

1. The datu will order the suspects to place a stone in a vessel with boiling water and
compelling them to dip their hands into the vessel to take out the stone. The suspect who
refused to obey the command will be regarded as the culprit. If the suspects made the
attempt as ordered, the man whose hand was scalded the most will be considered guilty.
2. The suspects will be given lighted candles and the man whose lighted candles died out first
will be regarded as guilty.
3. The suspects will be ordered to plunge into the river or lake with lances. He who came to
the surface first will be considered guilty.
4. The suspects will be ordered to chew uncooked rice. Each of them will spat his saliva and
the one whose saliva came out the thickest will be adjudged as the culprit.

Economic Life

Precolonial baranganic communities were in the main primitive economic units with a
system of subsistence agriculture having barely enough for their needs. Therefore, all inhabitants
are subsistence farmers. Most barangays were established in the river, coastal or near coastal. This
was because the principal sources of protein came from the seas and rivers, the people relying
more on fishing than on hunting for sustenance.

Agriculture was the main source of livelihood and there was abundance of rice, coconuts,
sugarcanes and many other tropical crops. Land cultivation was done in two ways, kaingin and
tillage. Productivity was increased by the use of irrigation ditches such as the Ifugao terraces.

The autonomous barangay communities that Spaniards encountered were in the main
primitive economic units with a system of subsistence agriculture which provided them with barely
enough for their needs. Proof of this is that Legazpi himself had to move his main camp repeatedly
from Cebu to Panay to Luzon for the simple reason that there was not enough to eat

Concepts of property

Barangay system had one distinguishing feature: the absence of absolute private
ownership of land. The datus merely administered the lands in the name of the barangay. The
social order was an extension of the family with chiefs embodying the higher unity of the
community. Each individual therefore, participated in the community ownership of the soil and the
instruments of production as a member of the barangay. (Constantino,1998,p.38)

Pre-Hispanic societies’ primitive economy was geared to the use of the producers and to
the fulfillment of kinship obligations. It is not the economy that geared to exchange and profit. The
means of production were decentralized and familial and therefore the relations of dependence
were not created within the system of production. (Constantino, 1998)

23
Socio-Cultural Life

At the onset of Spanish conquest, barangays were societies in transition moving

from primitive communal state to an Asiatic version of feudalism among the “principalities “
(Muslim) in the south. Of the four class structures of unhispanized societies (Scott), the
principalties or the Muslims in the south had achieved the most advanced stage. However, social
stratification was simply societal divisions of labor and not rigid. Positions in pre-Spanish societies
were not permanent positions of which even a chieftain can be deposed if proven to not an
effective ruler or leader. Similarly, the dependent population with a gradiation of dependency were
not similar to the European concept of “ chattel slaves” (Constantino). The politically correct term
to use in referring to this sector was debt peons.

Native society had differing social structures depending upontheir location, socio-
political and economic specializations. Social stratification was not rigid and was simply societal
divisions of labor among members of communities where social statuses are not permanent.

Pre-colonial cultural life was rich and diverse. Literacy was for practical use only
thus the absence of a separate group of literate class as an exploitative class. Written language
believed to be of Austronesian parent stock was just used for communication and for literary
expression of moods. (Constantino, 1998)

Culture of the Early Filipinos:

The culture of one’s nation is always categorized in two aspects: first is the material or
simply cultures that existed and hence can be observed and are part of everyday life. The other one
is non-material culture in which its existence is not measured by tangible things. They existed and
followed by the people because they know that these two kinds of cultures are beneficial to them.

• Clothing: Among early Filipinos, clothes worn by the male sectors are different from that
worn by females. The upper part of men’s clothing was called as kangan, a sleeveless jacket
usually made of animal’s skin and in different colors like blue, black or red. Their lower part
was known as bahag, a piece of cloth wrapped around to their waist in which two legs
were exposed. They had also a headgear called putong that are indication of good stature if
one was wearing an embroidered that means heroism because of having killed seven
enemies already.

Women worn baro or camisa for the upper part and saya in lower part. This saya was
patadyong among Visayan women. They had also tapis, a piece of cloth which was wrapped
around to their saya or patadyong.

• Housing: The early Filipinos tend to live in a far flung or separate ways, but when the
knowledge of having shelters were started, they built their own houses. Among Tagalogs,
their houses were like a bahay kubo in our today’s time. Hanged within four pillars or
arigue leaving the lower portion as shelter for their livestocks or any domesticated animals.

24
 It has also little decorations called bahandin. Parts of their houses hadbatalanes and
banggerahan where they can do some washing and other chores.

For those early Filipinos living near the seas or rivers built their houses on boats. They were
the sea gypsies people. In some parts of Mindanao, natives there built their houses on tree
tops for protection from the enemies and wild animals.( KASAYSAYAN, 2000)

• Religion: Categorically, religion of early Filipinos can be in line with paganism and animism
because they worshipped nature and diwatas. The roles of native priests and priestesses
called babaylan or katalonans were to drive away sickness in the villages and to give
spiritual needs of the people. If there were unexplained things, they were the one
consulted by the people. However, people believed in highest deity called Bathala with sub
deities to pray upon when needed. Some of these local deities are as follows,to wit:

1. God of agriculture was Idiyenale

2. God of love-Diyan Masalanta
3. God of harvest-Lalahon
4. God of rainbow-Balangaw
5. God of fire-Agni
6. God of other world-Magwayen
7. God of war-Mandarangan
8. God of hell-Siginarugan

• Marriage Customs:

Among Tagalogs, marriage customs was following 3 steps. First was Paninilbihan in
which the groom to-be will perform different chores in the house of the bride to-be.
Second was the settlement of dowries with three categories: Panghimuyat and Himaraw
comprised big amount of money to be given to the parents of the bride, and Bigay-suso as
reimbursement for the one served as wet nurse of the bride during her infancy. The third
step was Pamumulungan or Pamamalae which was the wedding festival that lasted usually
for seven days.

Among Muslims, they also followed three steps: First was the Panalanguni or
Betrothal in which the man and the group of tribesmen will pay visit to the girl’s house
announcing their intention. Second step was the settlement of dowries called Pedsungud
composed of seven dowries, namely:

1. Kawasateg-money to be given to close relatives of the bride

2. Siwaka-payment to those who helped in arranging the wedding
3. Enduatuan-bribe for chieftain
4. Pangatulian-jewelries for bride’s mother and aunts
5. Tatas-blades for bride’s father and uncles
6. Langkad-payment for the bypassed sisters of the bride
7. Lekat-payment for the bride’s attendant

After the two steps, the wedding festival called Pegkawing will follow which also
lasted for seven days.( Agoncillo, 1990,p.36-38)

25
 CLASS STRUCTURES IN THE UNHISPANIZED PHILIPPINES
(William Henry Scott. 1998. Cracks in the Parchment Curtain : And Other Essays in History)
The different class structures in unhispanized societies in the Philippines reflect the economic and ecological
variations as well as the social and political specializations of each community.

TYPE I – CLASSLESS SOCIETIES

( Mangyans from Mindoro, Ilongots-Cagayan, Ne, Quirino, Negritoes-Central Luzon, Tiruray-Cotabato, Hanunuo-
Mindoro, Bataks from Palawan, Sulod from Panay, Magahat from Negros Occidental, Mayanaua-Mindanao)
1. produce little or no surplus from environment; hunting and gathering engaged in swidden farming and
fishing
2. no class or group exercise authority or advantage over other classes by virtue of ascribed or achieved
status
3. juridical decisions were made publicly by older males
4. they have no concept of private land ownership; surrounding environments were believed to be owned
by the supernational personalities whose permission must be ritually secured for their fruitful use
5. classless societies developed in an environment with unlimited resources and land

TYPE II – WARRIOR SOCIETIES

( Isnegs and Kalingas, Ilonggots from CARand Luzon, Mandaya-Mindoro, Manobo-Agusan/Cotabato & Bilaan-
Davao & Cotabato, Tagakaolo of Davao, Bagobo, Subanon & Kulaman from Southern Cotabato.)
1. distinguished by a distinct warrior class from which membership in won by personal achievement
2. warrior chiefs carry weight of the group decisions but real leadership skill is to settle disputes
3. legal cases argued before judges and decisions should be acceptable to both parties in public drinkfests
4. warrior societies lived by swidden farming ( like the Kalinga-terraced farming where the braves work in
the land like everybody else), agricultural surplus produced by the labor force through progeny, sons-in-
law dependents by blood or debt or slaves

TYPE III – PETTY PLUTOCRACIES

(Kadangyansa and Baknang)
1. Dominated socially and politically by a recognized class of rich men who attained membership through
birthright inheritances, acquired property and performances of special ceremonies. They are called
“petty” because authority was localized.
2. Petty plutocrats were found only in CENTRAL CORDILLERA; practiced terrace farming, raise live stocks,
planted root crops
3. community decisions were made by Kadangyan or Baknang peers acting either collectively as council or
competitively as individuals
4. there is also the presence of small landholders and debt peons (propertyless class)
5. Communal decisions were made by the cumulative power of plutocrats but their methods vary
[e.g. Ifugao uses Munkalon (go between), among Bontocs,cases are heard at the ATOR ASSEMBLIES of
the elders)
SINGKIT – represents the dependent population

TYPE IV – PRINCIPALITIES
(Muslim in the South – Maranao-Maguindanao, Tausugs-Sulu)
1. Dominated by a recognized authority (datu class) with birthright claim to allegiance to the followers
which produced local overlords with individual political titles and offices. It has the most centralized
political organization.
2. The datu class , believed to be the descendants of Mohamed, has the ultimate right to land disposition
and receives material support from community but provided both material and military aid in time of
danger and emergencies. He collects taxes, delegates authority, appoints judges, ministers and other
officials.
SAKOP – followers has the right to use land and get involved in ritual brotherhoods.
DEBT PEONS – temporarily or permanently disenfranchised members through loss of economic viability
3. Principalities communities practiced agriculture upper class were engaged in maritime trade and
enjoyed certain amount of slave labor
26
THE ADVENT AND SPREAD OF ISLAM
(MUSLIMS IN THE SOUTH)

The influence of Islam in the Philippine grew steadily from 1280-1565. Based from Tarsila
(early document on Sulu genealogy), the Buranons were the first mountain people of Sulu.
Personalities like Tuban Magbalu, Tu han Mashai-ka and Karim Ul Mahkdum were the first Muslims
to settle in Jolo in 13th Century. Sultan Abubakr founded the sultanate of Sulu and laid the
foundation of a strong Sino-political structure in the South. Muslim in the south were the most
developed among indigenous communities due to islamization of Mindanao.
Societies that were in the post-communal state already had quasi-class orientation as a
result of the diffusion of the culture of more advanced Muslims who were establishing settlements
farther north.

Relations with Other Asian neighbors

Foreign traders were primarily interested in obtaining Philippine raw materials like ,
gold ore, abaca, beeswax, and pearls. Mechanisms for exchange (domestic and foreign) between
Philippine lowland and upland population were strongly developed even before Chinese trade.
Early Filipinos were believed to have traded with the following Asians:

1. Orang Dampuans (Men from Champa/Kampuchea) – 900-1200 AD

2. Banjars (Borneo/Brunei)
3. Indochina
4. Chinese (10th Century)
5. Arab (8th Century)
6. Japanese – 654 AD
7. Indians – 800 BC

Contacts with these groups generated intensive trade activities in the Philippines and
pushed economic and cultural development to a new phase.

READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, T. Chap. 3 & 4, pp. 33-66

2. Constanino,R. Chap. 3, pp. 26-41
3. FILIPINO HERITAGE, vol. 4 & 5
4. Scott, William Henry. 1998 CRACKS IN THE PARCHMENT CURTAIN: OTHER ESSAYS IN PHILIPPINE
HISTORY, “Boat Building & Seamanship”, New Day Publisher, pp. 60-127
5. KASAYSAYAN vols.1-3

27
 Unit IV
SPANISH COLONIAL RULE

Introduction

Our country was discovered of course, by our ancestors, centuries before the coming of the
Spaniards and the European did not know this. Intercourse between Europe and Asia was well
established during the days of Greeks and Romans. There were invasions made by both regions
like: Persians attacked Greece in 5th Century B.C., Alexander the Great was also involved when he
conquered, a century later, the entire region of the East. But these conquests made possible the
fusions of east and west culturally, commercially and politically.

Asia has been trading with Europe thousand of years before the birth of Jesus Christ
particularly Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain. One of the most important Asian products were
spices like cinnamons, nutmegs, peppers, ginger, etc. These products found their way into
European market through several caravans and maritime routes that led to the Spanish
Colonization of the Philippines.

The objectives of this module are as follows

1. To know how the Spaniards conquered the Philippines.

2. To know how the Spaniards utilized their instruments of pacification.
3. To be oriented about the colonial economy, politics and cultural life established by the
Spaniards.
4. To be aware about the Filipino reactions to the colonial rule such as the rise of Filipino
Nationalism like reform movement and
5. Philippine revolution.

CONTENT

As background of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, there were two rival countries in
maritime discoveries during the Renaissance period: Spain and Portugal. Both countries have their
capabilities to push through their ultimate goals; to discover and conquer the rest of the world.
Armed with new technologies like ships, navigational instruments, maps, sailing charts and gun
powder, they were able to finance many expeditions in honor of their country.

Portugal was the first European country to establish direct contact with the orient when
Prince Henry, the navigator, established the first navigational school in the world in honor of
Portugal. He encouraged his sailors to push down further the African coast until, in 1441; Antonio
Gonzales reached CapeBlanco and brought the first Negro slaves to Europe. Denis Fernandez
discovered Cape VerdeIslands in 1445 and in 1448, Bartolome Diaz rounded the Cape of Good
Hope while in 1498, Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India.

28
 Inspired by the Florentine mapmaker, Paolo Toscanelli, Spain was not to be outdone when
she financed Christopher Columbus by sailing westward that led to the discovery of America in
1492. It was rediscovered by Amerigo Vispucci when he stayed there in 1499-1503 and America
was named after him because Columbus believed that what he discovered was still part of the old
world. In 1513, Nuñez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in honor of Spain. (Maguigad, 2005)

DIVISION OF THE WORLD

The rivalry between Spain and Portugal over their claims on alleged discovered areas was
settled when Alexander VI, a Spanish Pope, issued the Papal Bull in 1493 that led to the signing of
Treaty of Tordesillas by both kings of Spain and Portugal. The treaty provided an imaginary
demarcation line which was drawn from north to south at a distance of 370 leagues west of Cape
VerdeIslands. Lands to be discovered east of the line would belong to Portugal and those in the
west would belong to Spain. (Agoncillo, 1990)

THE EXPEDITION OF MAGELLAN

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese who offered his services to King Charles I of Spain.
He was a veteran of the Portuguese campaigns in Africa and Malacca but instead of rewarding him,
King Emmanuel ignored his achievements and cut his pension.
He was once again ignored when he proposed that he will sail using westward direction
going to the orient to win all the spices there. He renounced his Portuguese citizenship and by the
help of his father in law, Diego Barbosa and his friend Ruy de Faleiro, was able to convince Charles I
to finance his expedition and could reach the Spice Islands. Thus, began the great expedition,
reached the Philippines in March 17, 1521 and died in the hands of Lapu-lapu on April 28, 1521 in
the battle of Mactan.

Spanish Expeditions after Magellan:

Loaisa (1525) reached Mindanao but were driven out by the natives.

Cabot (1526) failed to reach his destination as well.

Saavedra (1527) reached Mindanao but he was intercepted by the Portuguese

Villalobos (1543) was able to land in the island of Kandaya, known now as Leyte and was
later renamed as Las Islas Felipinas.

Legaspi (1565) made the most successful expedition.

29
INSTITUTIONS FOUNDED

A. POLITICAL

Philippines was a dependent of Mexico from Legaspi to 1821. It was administered by the
Council of Indies, a body created in administering the overseas colonies of Spain. In 1821, when
Mexico was separated from Spain, the Philippines was directly administered through Ministerio del
Ultramar which was assisted by the virtue of Leyes Indias. The head of the central government
known as Governor General was appointed by the King as his official representative. It was headed
by Alcalde Mayor within the provincial level.The local government units from the Municipal level
was headed by the Gobernadocillo and by the Cabeza de Barangay withinthe barangay level.
Spanish Cortes was the highest law making body while Royal Audiencia served as the highest court.
Residencia and Visita were also created to check the abuse of power of the government officials.
The highest governmental position that the Filipinos could attain was gobernadorcillo.
( Agoncillo,1990 )

B. ECONOMIC

TAXATION or TRIBUTES:
It was known as tribute or buwis to be paid in cash or in kind. Originally, the Filipinos pay
10 reales (1 real=12.5 cents) but it was increased later to 15 reales.

BANDALA:
It was a compulsory sale of Filipino products to Spanish government based on quota
system at only half of the original price.

POLO:
There were two kinds of polo: servicio and prestacion personal. The former should be
rendered to the government and the latter was to the monarch. From 16-60 years old, Filipino
males of able bodied were required to render 40 days every year to the force labor pool.However,
one may be exempted by paying an amount of money known as falta. The falta eventually
encouraged the collecting officials to pocket the money collected for falta until it was
institutionalized as a corrupt practice of the people from the Spanish bureaucracy.
( Agoncillo, 1990 )

ENCOMIENDA:
It was not a land-grant but just an administrative unit for tax collection for the government.
In return, the encomendero who was assigned to administer the encomienda has the responsibility
to protect the natives for the maintenance of peace and order, for the defense of the colony and to
support the Spanish priests in their missionary works. The amount of land placed under the
jurisdiction of the encomiendero was limited to a small size called private encomienda whereas
those of large size called crown encomienda remain under the control of the central or national
government. It cannot be hereditary beyond 3rd and 4th generations, once the encomendero dies,
the encomienda reverted back to the crown.

30
GALLEON TRADE:
It was the only regular fleet service in the huge stretch of Pacific Ocean from Manila to
Acapulco. The galleon trade benefitted the privileged Spaniards like governor and consulado. The
only participation of Filipinos in galleon trade was polo.

MONOPOLY SYSTEM:

It was administered by the Spanish colonial administration through the leadership of Jose
de Basco Y Vargas. Among the products being monopolized were tobacco, sugar and native liquor.
It brought a huge amount of money in the treasury
of the government for the self subsidy of the Philippines but brought negative
effects for the Filipinos.

ROYAL ECONOMIC SOCIETY OF FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY:

A royal order to form a society learned and competent persons capable of producing useful
ideas composed of leading men in business and industry but only to exploit our natural resources.

ROYAL PHILIPPINE COMPANY:

An agreement created with an aim of uniting the American and Asian commerce for 25
years.

C. EDUCATIONAL:

The implementation of Educational Decree of 1863 provided for the establishment of one
school for boys and one school for girls in each of the major towns in the Philippines. The friars
believed that Filipinos were incapable of learning and there was that deliberate refusal of the
authorities to teach the Filipinos the Spanish language. They feared that the education of the Indios
would, in the end, undermine their authority.

Three of the oldest schools for boys, founded by the Jesuits in 1589 were the Colegio
Maximo de San Ignacio, Colegio de San Ildefonso in 1599, which is now the University of San Carlos,
and the Colegio de San Jose in 1601. The former name of Ateneo was College of Immaculate
Concepcion grew out as Escuela Pia for poor boys in 1817. The Colegio Del Nuestra Senora
Santisimo Rosario became UST which was founded by the Dominicans in 1611 .

The school for girls was known as beaterios for young ladies called beatas. Among the
schools were Sta Potenciana in 1591, Sta Isabel in 1632, Sta Catalina de Cena in 1696, San Sebastian
de Calumpang, now, Sta Rita College, in 1719, Sta Rita de Pasig in 1740 and Sta Rosa in 1750. The
19th century saw the establishment of other colegios for women: ConcordiaCollege in 1868, Looban
in 1885 and Assumption in 1892. (Agoncillo, 1990)

31
D. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL:

Probably one of the most indelible marks left by the Spaniards was the adoption of
Hispanic names, as decreed by Narciso Claveria in 1849. Among the surnames which are still being
used by the Filipinos were adopted from the Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos. The former bahay
kubo became bahay na bato. The Filipinos also adopted Spanish cuisines like adobo, menudo
sarciado, puchero or mechado. In clothing, the former bahag and kanggan transformed into barong
tagalong or camisa, putong into hats, shoes and slippers became part of men’s fashion while the
women wore baro at saya.

E. RELIGIOUS ORDERS:

The Augustinians in 1565 were the first religious order to arrive in the Philippines to do
missionary works. They were followed by the Franciscans in 1577. The Jesuits arrived in 1581,
followed by Dominicans in 1587. Later on, the Recollects arrived in 1606 and while the
Benedictines in 1895. Because of these religious orders, the Christianity has been propagated in the
whole country.

The Secularization Controversy

Two kinds of priests served the Catholic Church in the Philippines. These were the regulars
and the seculars. Regular priests belonged to religious orders. Their main task was to spread
Christianity. Examples were the Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans, and Augustinians. Secular
priests did not belong to any religious order. They were trained specifically to run the parishes and
were under the supervision of the bishops.

Conflict began when the bishops insisted on visiting the parishes that were being run by
regular priests. It was their duty, they argued, to check on the administration of these parishes. But
the regular priests refused these visits, saying that they were not under the bishop’s jurisdiction.
They threatened to abandon their parishes if the bishops persisted.

In 1774, Archbishop Basilio Santa Justa decided to uphold the diocese’s authority over the
parishes and accepted the resignations of the regular priests. He assigned secular priests to take
their place. Since there were not enough seculars to fill all the vacancies the Archbishop hastened
the ordination of Filipino seculars. A royal decree was also issued on November 9, 1774, which
provided for the secularization of all parishes or the transfer of parochial administration from the
regular friars to the secular priests. (Cortes et.al, 2005,p.113-117)

The Spanish friars or regulars resented the move because they considered the Filipinos
unfit and lowly for the priesthood. Among other reasons, they cited the Filipinos’ brown skin, lack
of education, and inadequate experience.

The controversy became more intense when the Jesuits returned to the Philippines. They
had been exiled from the country because of certain policies of the order that the Spanish

32
authorities did not like.The issue soon took on a racial slant. The Spaniards were clearly favouring
their own regular priest over Filipino priests.

Monsignor Pedro Pelaez, the ecclesiastical governor of the Church, sided with the Filipinos.
Unfortunately, he died in an earthquake that destroyed the Manila Cathedral in 1863. After his
death, other priests took his place in fighting for the Secularization movement. Among them
were Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jacinto Zamora. (Cortes et.al,2005)

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, students must:

• Explain the Spanish conquest, settlements, and instrument of Pacification they used,

• Understand the economy, politics and cultural life imposed by the Spaniards,

• Demonstrate the Filipino reactions to the colonial rule, and,

• Distinguish the reform movement from KKK and the Philippine Revolution.

READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, T. Chap. 5 & 6, pp. 69-101

2. Constanino,R. Chap.2, 4-6 & 8-9, pp. 22-84
3. Cortes, Rosario Mendoza, et. al. 2005. The Filipino Saga: History as Social Change, Chap.5,p102-119.
3. FILIPINO HERITAGE, vol. 5 & 6
4. Scott, William Henry. 1998. “The Nine Clergy of Nueva Segovia”, Cracks In The Parchment Curtain: Other
Essays In Philippine History, p. 178
5. KASAYSAYAN vols. 3-5

33
 Unit V
REVOLTS AGAINST SPANISH COLONIZATION
ILOCOS
1589-1st Ilocos revolt vs Tribute system ISABELA
1661-MALONG Rebellion CAGAYAN 1763-Revolt by Labutao /Baladon
1762-65 – SILANG Rebellion 1596-MAGALAT Uprising
1785- Revolt vs Forced labor, Tribute, Wine 1621-GADDANG
Monopoly 1625-29-CAGAYAN revolt
1807- BASI Revolt by Alababan
1815- SARRAT Rebellion 1763-DABO / MARAYAC
NUEVA VIZCAYA
Uprising
1805- Revolts vs. Tobacco Monopoly

PANGASINAN
1660-MALONG Revolt
1762-64 –PALARIS Rebellion TAYABAS
1796- MUSLIM Uprising in Baler
ZAMBALES 1840 –HERMANO PULE (Apolinario
1645-Revolt vs Tribute dela Cruz) Revolt
1660- Revolt by Pedro Gumapos
& Jacinto Macaslag
1681-83 – Revolt by Tumalang
BULACAN
1745-46 Agrarian Revolt by Matienza
PAMPANGA
1585- Revolt by Bambolito
1660 –Revolt by Melchor de Vera LAGUNA
1660- Revolt by Francisco 1745-46 - AGRARIAN revolt
Maniago 1762-64 - Revolt inspired by the British
victory in Manila

MANILA
1574- Revolt by LAKANDULA CAMARINES / Albay
1587 –TONDO CONSPIRACY 1649 – SUMUROY Revolt
by Magat Salamat &
Agustin de Legazpi
1845- SAMANIEGO revolt
SAMAR
CAVITE / TAGALOG REGION 1649- CORRALAT Revolt
1745-46- Agrarian Revolts 1649-50- SUMUROY revolt vs. Polo
1869- Revolt by Camerino 1762-64-Revolt inspired by British
1872- Cavite Mutiny by Sgt.La victory in Manila
Madrid

LEYTE
1621- - BANKAO apostasy
PANAY
1663- TAPAR Revolt

BOHOL
ZAMBOANGA / C 1621-22 – TAMBLOT Rebellion
1636-Revolt by Tagal CARAGA 1744-1829 –DAGOHOY Revolt
JOLO / BASILAN /MINDANAO O 1630- CARAGA
1578-80- Jihad Revolt T Revolt
1602-1638-Muslim Resistance by Sultan Bungsu, Datu A
Acho against tribute & Tobacco Monopoly B
A
T
O
1
5
9
6
–
This is a segment in our history that has always been skipped, ignored or simply not given
R
e
much attention by our teachers in high school. Perhaps, it is simply because of lack of familiarity
v
o
l
with the topic. But if we take a closer look into this topic, there were about 200 early revolts that
t
v
were staged against the Spanish rule. These local streams in our historical experience are often
s
F
i
considered as limited, fragmented, loosely organized or even as fanatic groups. However, many of
g
u

our ancestors’ struggles against Spanish oppression were continuous attempts of peasant
e
r
o
movements with simple beginnings that transformed into a more comprehensive and organized
a
1
8
group with nationalist aspiration. 6
1
–
U
p
Initially, the people’s rebellions were negative responses to colonial policies and
r
i

oppression (e.g. anti-polo, anti-tribute, anti-bandala, etc.) rather than positive movements for
s
i
n
independence. g
b
y
D
a
All revolts that were lodged against Spanish rule must be examined to determine their
t
u

nature and distinct characteristics. All revolts were allA localized and were easily quelled by the
Spanish forces due to the latter’s divide and rule tactics
R
N which used the natives in one region to
E
fight the rebels in another. R
I
E
L

All peasant movements were regarded as nativistic, messianic and irrational incidents that
come and go. These types of movements dominated the early part of the Philippine resistance
history. (Boquiren, 2002)

34
 They were regarded as revitalization movements which are groups with “deliberate,
conscious efforts to construct a more satisfying culture.” (Boquiren, 2002) Furthermore, they
were nativist movements which refer to groups that call for the elimination of alien persons,
customs and values. They were also messianic if a savior in human flesh is involved which means
that the person that leads the resistance exhibit extra-ordinary superpowers that can beat the
enemy in a single stroke.

In general, the revolts had three specific causes:

The first outbreaks and succeeding uprisings were outright reactions to Spanish impositions
and colonial policies (versus tribute system , versus encomienda, etc.) The second cause was the
natives’ reactions to the Spaniards’ imposition of Christianity by their desire to return to their old
religious beliefs and practices referred as asposthesism by Constantino. The third cause pertains to
the Spanish wars against the Dutch or Muslims which forced or dragged the natives to get involve
in these wars that are not theirs, thus, resulting in their great sufferings and lost of
lives.(Cortes,2005)

The most overt (open) resistance to Spanish colonization came from Mindanao. The
Muslims from the South were able to repel successfully Hispanic intrusions and were never
conquered by the Spaniards. This Muslim – Christian conflict has its roots during the Medieval era
at the turn ofthe 8th Century AD. It was a period of expansion of Islam wherein Spain had come
under the Islamic Moorish rule in 711 AD and ended in 1492 after the reconquest of Granada. From
then on, the Christian Spaniards became permanent enemies.

The peasant uprisings against Spanish colonial rule are clustered into several periods that
reflect the qualitative changes in the political, socio-cultural and economic conditions in colonial
Philippines.

A. 1563 - 1663

Peasants’ uprisings within this period were generally characterized as immediate reactions
to different colonial rule. They were mostly anti-tribute, anti-polo, anti-bandala (reales compras)
and other exactions.

This batch of revolts was likewise negative reactions to the alien character of the new
state. Examples of the revolts during this period are shown below:

35
 Date Description of Struggle Base & Scope

1574 MANILA REVOLT led by Lakandula, involving some 10,000 natives (during Navotas(Manila)
Limahong’s attacks) as reactions against Spanish officials extractions of to Cavite,
food supply; turned out to be anti-Spanish (civil officials and priests) Batangas and
Mindoro

1660 MANIAGO REVOLT (was actually a non-revolt) led by Don Francisco Pampanga, with
Maniago, initially caused by natives’ protests against the polo and contacts in
bandala, later became a struggle to free natives from Spanish rule. The Pangasinan, the
rebels were weakened by Gov. de Lara’s cooperation of Arayat chieftain Ilocos and
Makapagal. Cagayan

PANGASINAN REVOLT (Malong) led by Don Andres Malong, the “King of

Pangasinan” with some 11,000 men in all. Called for the elimination of
the Spanish civil bureaucracy, in place of which Malong set up a basic one
consisting of a count, a judge, and army generals based at “Palapag”, his Pangasinan
weakness: he spared the religious which was why he did not have a
commited following.

1621 TAMBLOT REVOLT of 2,000 men led by the babaylan Tamblot, called for Bohol
the rejection of Catholic religion, people to rise up against the Spaniards.
Tamblot reported the appearance of a diwata who promised the natives
a life of happiness and abundance “without paying tribute to the
Spaniards or dues to the churches.”

BANCAO, a chief of Limasaua, led a nativistic movement. He erected a

temple to the diwata and called on the people to destroy church
property. Leyte

1649- SUMUROY REVOLT led by the father of Sumuroy and himself, Don Juan Samar, Leyte,
1650 Ponce, Don Pedro Camuug, against the polo, but with a nativistic, anti- Albay, Camarines
friar sentiments behind it. Sur, Bohol, Cebu,
Iligan, Camiguin,
Surigao and
DABAO (“tricky Dabao”), led an uprising from Butuan to Cebu, through Zamboanga
Leyte and Samar, and to some parts of Bicol: the territory of the ancient
Visayan rajahs. Northern
Mindanao

B. 1663-1765

This batch of revolts was more intense, more widespread and longer in duration. Three
types of revolts characterized movements during the period:

1. agrarian uprisings in 1745 in Southern Tagalog regions

2. political revolts which took place mainly in Northern Luzon (anti-foreign/Spanish
rule)

36
 3. the culturally anti-friar controlled rebellion in Bohol which lasted for almost 80
years

Date Description of Struggle Base & Scope

1663 TAPAR REBELLIONwasled by a sorcerer Tapar who went Panay

around as a woman, a babaylan; nativist, with Christian-
inspired organization. He became a prophet and promised his
native followers a life of abundance by turning leaves into fish,
coconut fiber into linenand told his followers that they won’t
be hitnor die when hit by Spanish weapons; those who will die
in the rebellion will live again.

1745 TAGALOG AGRARIAN UPRISINGaimed to recover the Tagalog area

communal land system on account of the gradual
encroachment of the religious hacienda viz. the Hispanic
propriety right and customs

1759 LACAADEN and KIDIT wage attacks against religious and Benguet
punitive missions in Tangloand its neighboring villages in
Mount Sto. Tomas area.

1762-1764 PALARISuprising was led by Juan dela Cruz Palaris( formerly a Binalatongan,
timawa turned principalia ) Pangasinan

1744-1829 DAGOHOY revolt was assisted by some members of the Bohol

principalia. It was the longest held revolt that lasted for 85
years .

C. 1765-1815

Uprisings within this period showed signs of a growing sense of nationalism as a result of
intensifying colonial exploitation in view of the new reorientation of the economic policies of the
cultural government (liberalization of the economy, commercial agriculture, export cash crop,
regionalization of crops). The reorientation of the state’s economic policies led to more intensified
land concentration among fewer families and religious corporations via “sanglang-bili” or pacto de
retroventa (Constantino,1998), an outright landgrabbing. More known revolts during this period
were the following:

37
Date Description of Struggle Base & Scope

1807 BASI REVOLT – was a reaction to the government wine monopoly Ilocos

1815 SARRAT REBELLION Ilocos

- anti-cacique
- opted for egalitarian society, but within the context of Spanish
colonial state

D. 1815 – 1872

This period was characterized by the emergence of counter-consciousness, a developing

national identity that directly challenged the Spanish colonial rule. Uprisings of this period were
directed against the Catholic Church. It also struggled for reforms in legislative and judicial systems
of the government and for secularization which demanded for greater participation of insular and
half-breed priests in Church functions.

One of the well-known revolts during this period that directly challenged the ecclesiastical
status quo was the Confradia de San Jose of Hermano Pule.

Date Description of Struggle Base & Scope

1839-1841 CONFRADIA de SAN JOSEwas led by Hermano Pule (Apolinario Tayabas, Quezon
dela Cruz), Hermano de la Archi-Cofradia del Glorioso, Senor
San Jose y de la Virgen del Rosario (Brotherhood of the Great
Sodality of the Glorious Lord, Saint Joseph and of the Virgin of
the Rosary)

E.. 1872 - 1896

Revolts during this period witnessed the merging of the urban middle class with the
peasant movements that will eventually lead to the outbreak of 1896 revolution. Resistance during
this period showed anti-feudal, anti-cleric and anti-colonial characteristics.

The economic and social development of 19thcentury changed the complexion of the
struggle. Between 1872 and the outbreak of 1896 Revolution, a new generation of Filipinos
emerged. They were those who benefited from the Education reforms in 1863 and exponents of
liberalism.

The interaction of liberal ideas from Europe, the rising classes and experience of the
masses in the struggle contributed to the emergence of a nation with rising expectations and
common grievances. (Constantino, 1998)

38
 Date Description of Struggle Base & Scope

1872 - 1882 GUARDIA DE HONOR originally a loyalist group created by the Pangasinan, La
Dominican friars, designed to promote Christian values, with clerical Union
sanctions.

It became a millenarian movement under the leadership of a

charismatic couple, faith healers “Apo Laqui” (Julian Baltazar) and his
blind wife.

1886-1889 DIOS NA BUHAWI Negros

1887- 1907 BABAYLANES ( or PULAHANES or MONTESCAS or CIVIL ) led by Papa Negros

Isio (Dionisio Magbuelas; Sigobelya )

READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, T. Chap. 7, pp. 102-126

2. Constanino,R. Chap. 7-9, pp. 85-149
3. Cortes,RM et.al. 2005. Chapters 4, pages 72-101
4. Boquiren, Rowena. ‘The Local Streams of Philippine Nationalism” (hand-out)
5. Ileto, Reynaldo C. PASYON AT REVOLUTION (POPULAR MOVEMENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES),
Chapters1, 2, 8, pp.1-80, 259-279.
6. KASAYSAYAN vols. 3

39
 Unit VI
THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM

Introduction

“Nationalism or devotion to our advocacy of national unity and independence” according

to Teodoro Agoncillo is the most important requisite for the formation of national consciousness.
The social, political and economic developments in Europe during 18th and 19th century were the
take off point of different changes in the Philippines including the mind of the Filipinos for national
consciousness. There were factors that considered as the causes of development of Filipino
Nationalism.

CONTENT

The Opening of the Philippines to World Commerce:

Between 1834 and 1873, several ports were opened in the Philippines that stimulated the
economic activities in the country which brought prosperity to some Filipinos, but mostly to
Spanish and Chinese mestizos. The Filipinos, especially those that belong to the middle class, came
in contact with ideas from other lands. They became discontented with the old order of things
dominated by the Spaniards. They wanted social and political changes.

Rise of the Middle Class:

Economic prosperity in our country produced a new social class, the middle class (ilustrado
and principalia). These are the Filipinos who participated in agriculture production and commerce.
They were consisted of well to do farmers, teachers, lawyers, physician, writers and government
employees. They did not only acquire material wealth but also improved their social influence and
stature. They discussed political problems and reforms, and sent their children to colleges and
universities here and abroad.Thus, from their class, emerged the initial pillars of the reform
movement such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena and many others.

The Influx of Liberal Ideas:

When the Philippines was opened to the world trade, liberal ideas
of Europe and America reached the mind of the Filipinos especially those
that belong to the middle class. Books and magazines containing the ideas
of French and American Revolutions, the political thoughts of liberal
thinkers like Jean Jacques Rosseau (Social Contract), John Locke (Two
Treatises of the Government), Thomas Paine (Common Sense), and many others, entered the
country. Because of these ideas, the Filipinos began to wonder at their deplorable condition and
40
started to discuss reforms, justice, politics and liberty. Furthermore, the opening of Suez Canal in
1869 stimulated the Philippine progress because it shortens the distance of travel between Europe
and Asia.

The Secularization Movement:

This was a religious issue having racial implications between the Spanish friars and Filipino
priests over their control of the curacies of the Philippines. Spanish government deprived the
Filipino priests of their parishes and gave them to the Spanish friars. As has been previously
discussed in the preceeding chapters, the leading personalities of this Secularization movement
included Fr.Pedro Pelaez, labeled as thedefender of the rights of Filipino clergy and the three
martyred priests popularly called GOMBURZA who were executed on February 1872, implicated in
the Cavite Mutiny.

The Internal Problem of Spain (1868 Revolution):

On September 19, 1868, a revolution broke out against the despotic rule of Queen Isabel II,
who was overthrown in that revolution led by Juan Prim and Francisco Serrano. The triumph of
liberalism in Spain was extended to the colonies of Spain. Colonial officials with democratic ideas
were sent to the Philippines which led to enjoyment of the elite population to the blessings of
religious toleration, freedom of assembly, speech and of the press.

The Cavite Mutiny and the Martyrdom of GOMBURZA:

Although the Cavite Mutiny was led by a certain Sergeant Lamadrid and his soldiers due to
their protest in abolition of their privilege from paying the annual tribute, the GOMBURZA were
implicated and executed. They were sentenced to death without due trial by the approval of
Governor General Rafael de Izquierdo through garrote. The Filipino people resented the execution
because for them, the three priests were innocent. The blood of the three priests became the seed
of Filipino nationalism.

THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT

The emergence of the enlightened class, the liberal regime of malleable governor generals
like Carlos Ma. Dela Torre and Emilio Terrero, and the martyrdom of GOMBURZA, undoubtedly,
became the major factors that gave way for the Reform or Propaganda Movement. The movement
was led by the ilustrados like Jose Rizal, the gifted writer and novelist, Marcelo del Pilar, a lawyer
and journalist and Graciano Lopez Jaena, a fiery orator and writer. The movement started in Spain.
Their writings and speeches about freedom, justice and equality awakened the political
consciousness of the people, thereby, preparing them to a deeper sense of nationalism.

41
 The expatriates or the propagandists have the intention of achieving equality not by means
of violence or revolution but by means of diplomatic activities in using the press trying to prove
that pen is mightier than sword. Their ultimate objective was assimilation or to make the
Philippines as regular province of Spain so that all privileges enjoyed by the Spaniards should also
be enjoyed by the Filipinos. Specifically, the objectives of the Propaganda movement were:

1. Equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the law

2. Assimilation of the Philippines as regular province of Spain
3. Representation of Filipinos to Spanish Cortes or Spanish Parliament
4. Filipinization or secularization of the Philippine parishes
5. Individual liberties for Filipinos such as freedom of the press, speech and to meet the
petition for redress of grievances.

The La Solidaridad

The news organ of the Propaganda movement was the La Solidaridad which was founded
by Graciano Lopez Jaena and the first issue appeared in Barcelona, Spain in February 15, 1889. It
was the carrier of their noble ideas of equality by contributing essays, articles and other
information to enlighten the Filipinos and of course the Spaniards specially the monarch. La
Solidaridad ably championed the Filipino cause in Spain. Unfortunately, the publication was
stopped on November 15, 1895. The aims of La Solidaridad were:

1. To portray the deplorable situations of the Philippines

2. To work peacefully for political and social reforms
3. To combat the evil forces of medievalism
4. To advocate liberal ideas and progress
5. To champion the legitimate aspirations of the Filipino people for democracy and
happiness.

In writing for La Solidaridad, the contributors were using pen names for obvious reason.
Jose Rizal used Laon laan and Dimasalang, Marcelo del Pilar used Plaridel, Mariano Ponce used
Tikbalang, Kalipulako and Naning, Antonio Luna used Tagailog and Jose Ma. Panganiban used
Jomapa. Although La Solidaridad was lasted for only more than six years, it achieved and succeeded
in exposing the oppression of the Filipinos and paved the way to Philippine revolution.

Propagandists were also members of masonry, one of the oldest fraternity in Europe. Jaena
founded the Masonic lodge Revolucion in 1889 at Barcelona. Also in 1889. Marcelo del Pilar and
Julio Llorente organized Lodge Solidaridad were Jose Rizal became a member. Realizing that
masonry should also be founded in the Philippines, Pedro Serrano Laktaw and Antonio Luna with
instructions from del Pilar, founded the Lodge Nilad , the first Masonic lodge in the Philippines. An
exclusive Masonic lodge for women was also founded: lodge Walana where Rosario Villaruel
became the first woman mason in the Philippines.

42
Failure of the Reform

The ascendancy of liberalism in Spain which encouraged the reform movement in the
Philippines was short lived. The compromise between the liberals and conservatives in Spain to
rotate between themselves the control of the government did not in any way help the Filipino
liberals in their campaign for reforms. Other reasons were:

1. Lack of funds: The expatriates stopped giving their monthly dues that led to cease the
circulation of La Solidaridad.
2. The mother country was pre-occupied by its internal problems: There were allegedly
coup d’ etat against the monarch, thus, the king or queen had no time to read the La
Solidaridad where the reforms were written.
3. The friars were too powerful: Friars had their news organ, La Politica De Espana En
Filipinas, as counter-propaganda materials which attacked the La Solidaridad
4. Petty jealousies among the reformists: Their own identities, differences in ideas and
conflict of opinions further widened the rift among the reformists.

La Liga Filipina

Rizal founded La Liga Filipina on the night of July 3, 1892 during his homecoming. He
conceived the idea of organizing a pure civic organization with an aim similar to Propaganda
Movement. The aims or objectives of La Liga Filipina were:

1. To unite the archipelago into one compact, vigorous and homogenous body
2. Mutual protection on every want and necessity
3. Defense against all forms of violence and injustices
4. Encouragement of education, agriculture and commerce
5. Study the application of reforms
The President elect of the Liga was Ambrosio Salvador and the motto was Unus Instar
Omnium (One Like All). The La Liga did not last for long due to arrest order of Governor General
Eulogio Despujol to Dr Jose Rizal on July 7, 1892 and deported to Dapitan. The La Liga was divided
into two: Cuerpo de Compromisarios and the Kataastaasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga
anak ng bayan.

THE KATIPUNAN

On the night of July 7, 1892, after Rizal was deported to Dapitan, Andres Bonifacio, a
fearless champion of the masses, and his radical friends met in the house of Deodato Arellano at
Azcarraga Street (now Claro M. Recto) in Tondo, Manila. They founded the secret revolutionary
society called the Katipunan or KKK (Kataastaasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga anak ng
Bayan). The primary objective of KKK was to unite the Filipino people and struggle for separation
from Spain. They wanted the abolition of Spanish rule even by means of revolution.
43
Katipunan had three specific objectives:

1. Political-Total separation of Philippines from Spain

2. Moral-To become a good citizen and member of KKK
3. Civic-To help the needy

Sructurally, the Katipunan had three governing bodies:

1. Supreme Council or Kataastaasang Sanggunian-It was the highest governing body of

the society and was composed of President, Fiscal, Secretary, Treasurer, and
Comptroller.
2. Provincial Council or Sangguniang Bayan-It represents the province.
3. Popular Council or Sangguniang Balangay-It represents the municipality.

Aside from the three councils, the Katipunan had Judicial Council or Sangguniang Hukuman
served as the secret chamber of Katipunan which passed judgment to those members who violated
the secrets of the society and to mediate between quarrelling factions.

The recruitment of members was done through triangle system. The initiator of the triangle
knew the two new recruits but the two do not know each other. This system of recruitment was
slow, so they decided to change it and they agreed that any member of the society could recruit as
many as he can get. They will perform a blood compact and sign their names by means of their own
blood.

Katipunan Membership:

1. Katipon-1st Grade –with the password “Anak ng Bayan”

2. Kawal-2nd Grade- with the password“GomBurZa”
3. Bayani-3rd Grade- with the password “Rizal”

The first president or Supremo of Katipunan was Deodato Arellano but Andres Bonifacio
was dismayed over Arellano’s leadership due to lack of actions and dedication. He was deposed
and put Roman Basa as the second Supremo but still, Bonifacio was not satisfied by the
performance of Basa. He called a meeting and deposed Basa, and thenBonifacio was eventually
elected as the third Supremo or president of Katipunan.

The Women’s Section of Katipunan

The menfolk of the society, at first, were very wary of the danger involved in allowing
women to join a revolutionary society. But when their wives became suspicious of their nocturnal
activities, membership to the Katipunan was opened to all close female relatives such as the
wives, sisters and aunts of the regular members of the movement. As such the Women Chapter of
Katipunan was organized.

44
 Among its members included Gregoria de Jesus, Bonifacio’s wife who was called the
Lakmbini of Katipunan, Josefa and Trinidad, Rizal’s sisters, Maria Dizon, who was the cousin of
Emilio Jacinto and Benita Rodriguez who made the Katipunan flag. The president of the Women’s
chapter of Katipunan was Josefa Rizal.

The functions of the women were to help recruit new members into the movement. They
also were keepers or guardians of the society’s documents and papers. During the secret meetings
of Katipunan, the women members also acted as decoy to deceive or mislead suspicious civil
guards or ay Spanish authorities bypretending to having a party. They also nursed the wounded
and were active soldiers, Other well-known members of the chapter were Trinidad Tecson from
Bulacan was well-known to be a sharp-shooter woman -guerrilla. Both Teresa Magbanua and
Nazaria Lagos were both from Iloilo. Agueda Kahabagan Esteban was the first woman general of
Katipunan.Melchora Aquino was the 83 year-old member of the Katipunan.

The Kartilla and Kalayaan

Emilio Jacinto, the brains of Katipunan and the youngest member, wrote the Kartilla or the
primer of the Katipunan. The kartilla, composed of thirteen teachings, spread the revolutionary
principles that effectively motivated the Katipunan members. It was also the reason why the
number of members increased.

The official news organ of Katipunan was the Kalayaan which was founded by Emilio Jacinto, the
editor-in-chief, to disseminate the ideals of the society. To mislead the Spaniards, they published
that it was printed in Yokohama when in fact it was only in Tondo. The problems occurred upon the
founding of Kalayaan. The printing press which was bought by the Katipunan from Antonio Salazar,
the owner of Bazar El Cisne, came from the contribution of the two Katipuneros who won in a
lottery in Australia. They were Candido Iban and Francisco del Castillo from Cebu. Through the help
of Ulpiano Fernandez, classmate of Jacinto in San Juan De Letran, and Faustino Duque, friend of Dr.
Pio Valenzuela, who was working in daily El Comercio as printer, the Kalayaan came out of the
press. It was spread all over the Philippines that led in an enormous increase in Katipunan
membership.

The Discovery of Katipunan

The frequent nightly meetings of the Katipunan members made the

Spanish authorities suspicious. They were alarmed when some Filipinos
who were loyal to Spaniards, were reported recruiting and gathering men
and arms for unknown reasons. The friars used their parishes to denounce
these secret meetings.

Finally, when the Katipuneros Teodoro Patinio and Apolonio dela

Cruz had a quarrel—both of them were working in Diario De Manila—the former vowed to revenge
by revealing the secrets of Katipunan. He mentioned it to his sister named Honoria who was
working in an orphanage somewhere in Paranaque. It was also revealed to Sor Teresa, the madre
portera of the orphanage. All information regarding the secrets of Katipunan was given to Mariano
Gil, the friar in charge of the orphanage. Immediately, they destroyed the locker of Policarpio Turla,
45
a katipunero who was tasked to take care some of the important documents of Katipunan. It was
revealed to the Spaniards the lithographic stones used in documentations of katipunan papers and
receipts, including the masterlist of the Katipunan. Arrests were made by the Spanish authorities to
the Filipinos listed in the masterlist. They were imprisoned in the secret dungeon of Fort Santiago
where many of them died because of suffocation and sickness.

Cry of Balintawak and the Outbreak of Philippine Revolution

After the discovery of the Katipunan, Bonifacio, Jacinto, Valenzuela and many katipuneros
in Manila had to face the consequence and proceed to a deeper commitment of nationalism, the
revolution. On August 26, 1896, Bonifacio rallied the Katipuneros to an emergency meeting at
Pugad Lawin. The katipuneros felt the urgency of the situation to start a revolution in view of the
discovery of their society. Some objected because of lack of arms, funds and preparedness for war.
Bonifacio told them that they had no choice but to fight. They then dramatically took out their
cedula, tore it to pieces and shouted “Long Live The Philippines!”

At dawn of August 30, 1896, Bonifacio and his men attacked the arsenal or depot powder
of San Juan without any tactic or strategy. Demoralized by heavy casualties, Bonifacio and his men
fled in disarray leaving more than 100 dead comrades and more than 200 were taken prisoners by
the Spaniards. The battle of San Juan was not successful. Although Bonifacio was a great organizer
and a courageous fighter, he was not a good military commander. He engaged into 29 recorded
fights but unfortunately all were defeated.

Although Bonifacio was defeated, the flames of the revolution spread like wildfire to the
towns around Manila and other places like the eight provinces of Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Pampanga,
Tarlac, Manila, Cavite, Batangas and Laguna.

Power Struggle Within the Katipunan

Division within the ranks of the Katipunan became evident even during the early days of
the revolution. The Magdalos of Cavite under Emilio Aguinaldo thought of replacing the Katipunan
by establishing a new government, thereby installing a new leadership from their group. Flushed
with short-lived victory, Aguinaldo and the leaders of the Magdalo decided to replace the original
Katipunan and pre-empted the leadership of the revolution.( Constantino,1998 p.182-184)

“Cavitismo” was a chauvinism that animated the temporary victorious Cavitenos , who
believed that the revolution was only in Cavite and the leadership must therefore be a Caviteno

( R.Constantino,1998). The arrogance of the Magdalo group was shown in two specific incidents
which indicated that they did not recognize Bonifacio as the “ Supremo” of the revolutionary
movement. The first incident occurred when Emilio Aguinaldo and Edilberto Evangelista, a
Belgian-educated Filipino engineer who was responsible for the unauthorized release of two
prisoners of war which angered Bonfacio. Because of this, they were disgusted and regarded
Andres Bonifacio’s attitude with disdain as superior similar to a king. The Magdalo’s contemptuous
attitude towards a man whom they regarded as educationally and socially inferior. The mere idea

46
of replacing the Katipunan and Bonifacio was a classical manifestation of the ilustrado syndrome or
complex.(Constantino, 1998,p.181)

The second manifestation of the arrogance of the Cavitenos was when Bonifacio ordered
the arrest of Vicente Fernandez for failing to simulate his team’s offensive attack against the
Spanish forces with that of Bonifacio’s assault plan in San Juan del Monte. Vicente Fernandez’s
disobedience over Bonifacio’s command resulted to massive losses on the Katipunan’s side.
However, the Magdalo leaders, Baldomero Aguinaldo and Daniel Tirona refused to surrender
Fernandez. This had only proven the minimal influence Bonifacio had over the Magdalo faction.

The rivalry between the Magdalo and Magdiwang factions led to series of reverses and
setbacks. Attempts were made to patch things up by Mariano Alvarez and Andres Bonficaio via
Imus Assembly and Tejeros Convention. But their efforts to resolve the rivalry had failed. The
seizure of the leadership of the Katipunan, a mass movement which has a prospect of succeeding
by the provincial elite from Cavite, the Magdalostook place at the Tejeros Conventio. Those who
attended the convention who were mostly ilustrados and Cavitenos decided to elect officers for the
Revolutionary government in which Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the president of the new
government in absentia.Whereas Andres Bonifacio was demoted to the position of Director of
Interior. It was during this event that Bonifacio was insulted by a Magdalo, Daniel Tirona who
protested against the latter’s nomination to the position which almost led to a tragic shoot out.
Bonifacio walked out of the convention and decided to assert his leadership anto continue fighting
the Spaniards separate from Aguinaldo.s government.

The establishment of a new Revolutionary Government that replaced the Katipunan

signified the defeat of the revolution of the masses (Constantino,1998)

READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, T. Chap. 8-10, pp. 129-197

2. Ang See, Teresita et.al. 1996. ANG MGA ETNIKONG TSINO SA REBOLUSYONG
PILIPINO.
3. Constanino,R. Chap. 10-14, pp. 150-286
4. FILIPINO HERITAGE, vol. 7-8
5. Guerrero, Milagros C. et. al. 1994. “ANDRES BONIFACIO & 1896REVOLUTION”,
KULTURA magazine
6. KASAYSAYAN vol. 5
7. Schumacher, John. THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT 1880-1895
8. Tan, Antonio. 1994. ANG MGA MESTISONG TSINOY AT ANG PAGKABUO NG
KABANSAANG PILIPINO. KAISA Para sa Kaunlaran, Inc.

47
 Unit VII
AMERICAN COLONIAL RULE

Expected Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, students must:

1. Identify how the US entered the Philippines and how the Filipino-American war
started.
2. Determine the reasons behind US conquest of the Philippines and the
instrumentalities they employ to pacify the Filipinos.
3. Learn and master the US policies, especially in economy, politics and culture.
4. Learn the reactions of Filipinos to American rule.
5. Determine the positive/negative influences of American rule.

Introduction

This module focuses on the discussion of the objectives, instruments of pacification and
policies implemented under American colonial rule in the Philippines. The conquest of the
Philippines by the Americans was part of its grand expansionist plan in late 19 th Century. After the
US underwent an industrial revolution that led to overpopulation with so much excess products
that can’t be consumed by the American public, its economy experienced depression. To avert the
negative impact of the economic crisis, the US started to look for countries where they can dump
their excess products.

48
CONTENT

The American Colonial Program (BenevolentAssimilation)

The reasons behind American colonization include the following: Economically, they were
in search for new markets for their excess products, for cheap source of raw materials and labor
and to use the Philippines as a springboard to penetrate China trade. Politically, they wanted to
make the Philippines as the American’s first line of defense in Asia by putting military bases
overseas comprise their political agenda; and the expansion of Protestantism came as their cultural
motive behind American conquest of the Philippines.

The expansionist tendencies of the United States were given various justifications.
Predominant among them was Manifest Destiny or Benevolent Assimilation. US President William
McKinley in 1899 upheld his government’s intention to remain as the colonizers of the Philippines
but concealed their imperialist agenda under the declaration of Benevolent Assimilation. It was
their colonial program alternately known as “White Men’s Burden” which was disguised into
altruistic program which concealed the true objective behind colonization of Philippines. It was a
proclamation of Pres. McKinley which justified the American responsibility over the Philippines. In
this document, McKinley reasoned out that their responsibility over the Filipinos (Little Brown
Brothers) was forced upon them by God and by destiny (White Men’s Burden). It hid the real
motives to remain as colonizers of the Philippines. They disguised themselves as “friends and not as
colonizer.”

The Benevolent Assimilation, Treaty of Paris and Philippine Policy of America were
declaration of US to make the Philippines as their colony. However, there were other objectives of
US like:

1. To pursue or manifest the destiny of US as a world power.

2. To use Philippines as a source of raw materials for the US industries and as a market for
US manufactured products.
3. To use Philippines as military and naval bases and refueling port servicing their interest
in China.

The first type of government in the Philippines founded by the Americans was Military
government ignoring the declaration of Philippine Independence on June 12, 1898. It was
established by the Americans due to the existence of war and active resistance. The achievements
of the Military government were pacification of the country, improvement of the school system,
founding of courts, and establishments of local government. As a follow up to their intention,
commissions were sent by the US like the Schurman and Taft Commissions to look upon the
condition of the Philippines and to report recommendations to US Congress. It was followed by
laws, bills, amendments and the like to justify their hold in the Philippines.

FILIPINO-AMERICAN WAR:

The apostasies made by the Americans to the Filipinos ignited the hostilities between the
two former allies. It was truly started in February 4, 1899, when Pvt. Willie Grayson shot a Filipino
sentry who was passing in San JuanBridge. The US never attempted to investigate the matter;
instead, they issued the order to attack Filipino forces the day after the shooting incident.

49
Aguinaldo in his communication with the US authorities expressed his desire to cease further
clashes, but the US became more insolent due to successive arrivals of US troops reinforcements.
To suppress the Filipino rebels in Luzon, Americans assigned military officers like Henry Lawton,
Payton March, Frederick Funston among others, proving their superior way of fighting. Although
there were victories of the Filipinos but eventually the Americans captured almost all places
handled by the Filipinos. Aguinaldo was forced to take the mountainous trail going to the north and
finally, in March 23, 1901, he was captured by the Americans in Palanan, Isabela. He pledge
allegiance to US on April 1, 1901.

In Visayas, under the command of Marcus Miller, the Americans took Ilo-ilo on February
20, 1899, while in February 22, 1899, Cebu was taken captive. In Mindanao, US sent John Bates to
negotiate a peace agreement with the Sultan of Jolo by means of a treaty. It was known as the
Bates Treaty which provided that “the rights and dignities of the Sultan and his datus shall be fully
respected, and that the US government agreed to pay monthly salaries to the Sultan and his
leaders.” The treaty was a failure. (Constantino.1998. ; Cortes.2005)

BRUTALITIES DURING THE WAR:

The task of pacifying the Filipinos proved extremely difficult, thus, the Americans deviated
from basic rules of civilized warfare. For every assault made by Filipinos, whole towns were burned;
women and children oftentimes became part of the punishment upon the men. Torture techniques
like water cure, rope cure and reconcentration camp were applied to the Filipinos. On the other
hand, if the Filipinos had their chance, they cut the ears of the American captives and the wounds
were seasoned with salt and chili. There were times that the Americans were buried alive.

The establishment of the civil government implied that peace in the colony has been
restored but this was not so. Continued resistance against the American colonizer was met with
brutal suppression. One of the most celebrated or heinous war or atrocities committed by the
Americans was the Balangiga Massacre which took place in September 1901. To pacify Samar, the
notorious General Jacob Smith was sent to Balangiga, Samar and implemented his pacification
campaign against Filipino guerilla resistance group headed by Gen. Vicente Lukban. As such, Samar
was transformed into a “howling wilderness.” Everyone was not spared from reprisal. Similar
tactics were employed against Filipinos in Batangas and Cavite headed by Miguel Malvar.
Anti-nationalist laws such as Sedition Law, flag Laws, Bugandage Act to suppress and dampen the
nationalist sentiments of Filipinos. Under the sedition law anyone found espousing independence
against US is punishable by long-term imprisonment or death penalty. Similar punishments will be
meted out to anyone who displays the Philippine flag or emblem under the Flag law from 1907 to
1919.( Constantino,R.1998)

The Reconcentration Act was passed in June 1903 to facilitate the apprehension of guerillas
hidden or protected by the people. This tactic caused a lot of sufferings to 300,000 population from
Bicol. Farms were neglected, food became scarce and diseases spread out due to overcrowding and
poor nourishment and poor sanitary conditions.

50
INSTRUMENTS OF PACIFICATION AND AMERICAN COLONIAL POLICIES

In order to fully understand the policies that suit their imperialist agenda, the Americans
commissioned thousands of researches to gather accurate information about the colony.
Specifically, their task is to determine the worth of the Philippines in terms of resources that can be
opened and exploited for American investors. It was also a strategy on how to win-over the
sympathy of the Filipino elite or ilustrado or inquilino class and the Filipino masses. Prominent of
these scholarly studies include the works of Emma Blair and Alexander Robertson’s 10-year work of
55 volumes about the “Phil. Islands,” John RM Taylor, a data-gatherer and head of the intelligence
army unit which studied the Filipino-American war, Barton and Dean Worcester’s Studies on the
people and culture of Cordillera, Saleeby’s work on the moro provinces and the ethnic people
which gave the US colonial administration relevant data in support of American’s effective
implementation of “divide and rule” tactic. Saleeby highlighted the differences instead of the
commonality of the national traditions of the Filipino. Cunningham and Le Roy studied the nature
and origin of friar-lands and the geologic and coastal structures of the Philippines.
(Veneracion.1997)

COOPTATION OF THE ELITES

The unity achieved by Filipinos in the struggle for independence especially in the early days
of the Katipunan was just a flitting one. The opposing and varying interests of the united front of
the revolutionaries were capitalized by the American colonizers through their effective use of
“divide & rule” tactics.

The allegiance and support of the Filipino elite or “Ilustrados,” the intellectual sector of the
Philippine society was secured by the Americans. They were made to believe and to accept the
necessity of American rule in exchange for the political and socio-economic favors of their class.
The leading Filipino collaborators and willing supporters of the Americans include: Pardo de Tavera,
Cayetano Arellano, Gregorio Araneta, Pedro Paterno, Felipe Buencamino, Benito Legarda, Mariano
Trias, most of them were once connected to the Malolos Congress of Aguinaldo. They were made
to believe that the American occupation would help the Philippines actualize political
independence and self-governance. Thus, ilustrados were encouraged also to form political parties
after the American system.(Veneracion. 1997)

Bates Treaty

As to the Moro elites, different approach or handling was used by the Americans. Fully
aware of the economic potential of Mindanao, the Americans encouraged the Moros to the idea of
secessionism, of setting up a Moro nation.

Early in US rule, Gen. John Bates negotiated with the Sultan of Sulu and his assistants, Datu
Attik, Datu Calbi and Datu Irakanian. On August 20, 1899, the Bates Treaty was signed indicating co-
existence of both parties. The terms of the treaty include: American’s occupation of Jolo, the Sultan
can continue to collect taxes in areas outside US territories, Sultan would receive monthly salaries
from US government in Mexican currency and the Sultan could continue engaging in domestic
trade within Sulu archipelago. With the treaty in place and with Jolo as base of operation, the

51
Americans were able to neutralize the Moro elites and were able to establish plantations and cattle
ranches in Mindanao.

EDUCATION AND CIVIL SERVICE

The Philippine education system under the Americans was very different from that
introduced by the Spaniards. Basic education during Spanish era undertaken primarily by the friars
was used as a tool in proselytizing Catholic religion. The education system implemented by the
Americans prohibited teaching religion in the public primary schools. Education was used by the
Americans as a tool to transform Filipinos’ consciousness and to suppress nationalist fervor which
was strongly manifested in 1896-1898 revolutions against Spaniards and later against the
Americans during Filipino-US War in 1899. The teaching of English was enforced as agent of our
Americanization.

The civil service became the vehicle for the education and formation of local elites
supportive of American colonial policies and tutelage. The education program was designed to
develop people supportive of the colonial government. Those Filipinos who passed civil service
examinations given in English got better pay. Governor-General William Howard Taft recognized
the value of the English language as an instrument to make Filipinos submissive to the colonial
ediology. ( Veneracion.1997; Cortes. 2005)

Thomasites and the Pensionado Program

The Americanization of the Filipinos started even before the outbreak of the Philippine-US
War. As part of their military strategy, the US government deployed hundreds of teacher-soldiers
throughout the archipelago who propagated the benefits of American culture and way of life, thus,
transforming an army of colonial-minded Filipinos. This mentality was deeply imbedded in the
minds of many Filipinos that United States was the “land of opportunity.”

From 1903 to 1914, many Filipinos were sent to US as government scholars under the
“Pensionado Program.” As scholars or “pensionados,” they were trained the art of public
administration. And upon their return to the Philippines, they became agents of colonial thinking
and US advocates.

Education and civil service as recognized by the American colonialists became the vehicle in
developing colonial-minded bureaucrats.

PEACE PROPAGANDA

Local elites, bureaucrats and women elites were used as peace propagandists. Women
from the upper class were used by the Americans in their peace campaign against Filipino rebels.
One prominent women’s group peace propagandist was the Liga Femenina de Paz headed by
Constancia Poblete.

52
SUFFRAGE AND ELECTION

Another instrument of pacification used to attract Filipino elites is to participate in the

electoral processes. However, only the upper class benefited from this policy. Only 2% of the total
population was allowed to join this exercise as can be gleaned from the criteria set for qualified
voters. Those with college education, who occupied position in the government and who can speak
Spanish or English are qualified to vote.

AMERICAN COLONIAL POLICIES:

The military government from 1898-1901 was a take off point for the
Americans to establish a civil government by the virtue of Spooner
Amendment. The Civil government was inaugurated in 1901 before the
formal end of Filipino-American war. It had sufficient popular support
from those whose convictions were friendly to the Americans. However,
in some provinces, the armed conflict continued for a year after the
appointment of William H. Taft as civil governor. Taft policy of Philippines
is for the Filipinos met stiff opposition from the Americans in Manila who
thought that the Philippines should be retained and exploited as colonial
possession. Francis B. Harisson has the same policy of Filipinizing the
Philippine government. Leonard Wood was known as anti-Filipino because he opposed the
independence missions and vetoed many bills that brought cabinet crises due to resignation of
many Filipino politicos. The good relationship of Filipinos and Americans only restored when Wood
was succeeded by Henry Stimson, Dwight Davis, Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and Frank Murphy.

TAFT’S POLICY “PHILIPPINES FOR THE FILIPINOS”

“Philippines for the Filipinos” was a shrewd ploy used by Governor-General William
Howard Taft. This policy endorsed by Taft in 1903 was widely interpreted as his endorsement of
Philippine independence. “Philippines for the Filipinos” or Taft’s policy called for the improvement
in the standard of living of the Filipinos and giving Filipinos the benefits of American education.
Thus, in real sense, this policy worked for the enhancement of American economic control and
dependency. It fell within the imperialist framework. Backstopped by American sponsored
education this policy will create new tastes and demands, a profitable market for American
products. Thus, this policy as perceived by Taft will be a good business for American capitalists.

COLONIAL GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL TUTELAGE

The initial step in the establishment of civil government in Philippines was undertaken by
theTaft Commission when it took over from the military governor in September 1900 the power to
make laws. The Taft Commission ensured the separation of the executive from the legislative
branch and functions. After nearly a year, on June 21, 1901, the Taft Commission was conferred the
executive authority over the pacified areas of Luzon and Visayas.

53
 The Spooner Amendment in 1901 empowered the US President instead of the military to
administer the Philippines via the Phil. Commission (Upper House) headed by the American
Governor-General as appointed by the US President until the Philippine government was set-up.
The Spooner Bill was hastened and stipulated the setting=up of a civil government in the
Philippines. Later it gave way to the enactment of an Organic Act for the colony called Philippines
Bill of 1902 otherwise known as the Cooper Act.

Cooper Act or organic bill provided for the establishment of Philippine Assembly as the
lower house or chamber of the bicameral legislature. Crucial to this organic act was the issue
concerning public land laws. Taft opened the country for exploitation by monopolies like the sugar
trust which wanted to establish large plantations.

The second Philippine Commission (known also as the Taft commission) enacted The
Municipal Code in January 31, 1901. This code placed the municipal government under 3 elected
officials. The Philippine commission also set in place a provincial government under a board
composed of a governor (only elected position), treasurer and a supervisor (appointive and held
solely by Americans). Only by 1916, that all three posts were Filipinized.

In 1907, after the enactment of the Cooper Bill, the first two national elections for the
Philippine Assembly were held. Two parties: Partido Progresista (which openly supportive to US
rule) and the Partido Nacionalista which called for immediate and absolute independence
contended for seats in the National Assembly. Sergio Osmeña was elected as house speaker and
Manuel L. Quezon as majority floor leader.

The founding of the National Assembly has never worked for genuine independence. Most
of its representatives were rich Filipinos or from principalia class who were supportive of the
American colonial policies. It became merely an organ for the collection of taxes and appropriation
of funds for the maintenance of the colonial government in the Philippines.

ECONOMIC POLICIES AND DEVELOPMENT

Transportation and Communication

The exploitation of the colony being the primary reason behind American colonization
involved the development of the import-export trade and investments that are extractive in
nature. Philippine Bill of 1902 or Organic Act allowed frontiers to open up and readied for
exploitation (i.e. rainforests, mining depots, untapped resources).

Infrastructures and road-building programs were financed heavily by Filipino taxpayers

andwere financed heavily by Filipino taxpayers and were designed to satisfy American needs.
Roads were built to support pacification campaigns of the military and to facilitate the collection of
agricultural crops and other raw materials for exports and to distribute imported goods from
United States. The construction of Kennon road to Baguio not only made Baguio as summer capital
and recreation outposts for American bureaucrats but allowed American mining corporation to
penetrate Benguet gold depots. Bicol Express which operated in 1930s connected Bicol to Dagupan
for the speedy marketing of US finished products. The development of logging industry was
attributed to these infrastructures and transport facilities.

54
Trade Policies

Before the American occupation, the Philippines has been trading with other countries
aside from Spain. With the onset of US colonial rule, it was in the position to help American traders
by enacting trade policies like lowering tax rates on US goods entering the Philippines. With the 10
year restrictions nearing expiry stipulated in the Treaty of Paris, in April 1909, the US colonial
government have finally eliminated competition and free trade come into full swing.

Trade policies such as Payne-Aldrich Act, Underwood-Simons Act, Tariff Act of 1901,
Philippine Bill of 1902 and Bell Trade Act of 1945 suggested inequality. Policies like Payne-Aldrich
and Underwood-Simons Act (for full and partial free trade) had detrimental effects on the local
industries in the Philippines. They have clauses which stipulated that US goods entering the
Philippines will be under “no quota, no duty or taxes while when Philippine goods to enter US soil
as strictly classified to only sugar and tobacco and are subjected to America’s restrictive policies,
quota system, high tariff duties and strict quality control.

Free trade with United States lessened the volume of trade Filipinos transacted with other
countries. From 1899 to 1908, Philippines’ biggest trade partners were only US and Great Britain.
From 1916-1925, Philippines all the more increased its relation with US and its trade with other
countries dropped.(Cortes.2005.440-443)

Land Policy

The American colonial government in the Philippines implemented a conservative land

policy. Basically, the Americans’ colonial government position was not to disturb the land-
ownership system established by the Spaniards. The Friar Lands Act was passed in 1904 October
enabling the government to buy big friar haciendas and to be parceled out to those who will apply
for them. However, this law did not consider large friars estates as public lands so there was no
limitation in land size than an individual or a corporation could actually purchase. In effect, the rich
were able to acquire additional lands since they were the only one capable to buy friar lands.
Policies intended to encourage the growth of a “class of small or middle farmers” were only
partially implemented and eventually benefitted big land-owners.(Veneracion.1997)

The Philippine Commission set-up simplified procedures for the landownership under the
Torrens System. Developed and adopted from Australia, this land-system extended the time frame
for land registration to two years. Thus, failure to apply for amortization is considered to have
waived rights on their lands. And this led to innumerable abuses. Landlords were able to legalize
their illegally acquired lands through fraudulent surveys and using Torrens titles.

In Buenavista Estate in Bulacan, gangs of armed men deployed by powerful landlords

coerced the tenants to waive their claims in exchange for small amounts. Although the Americans
encouraged the cultivation of undeveloped lands, the homestead program failed also like the
earlier land policies.

Abuses on the Homestead program in Nueva Ecija remained unchecked by the colonial
government. Homesteaders who applied for the program they have cleared, developed and settled
were later claimed by hacenderos or faked landlords.(Veneracion.1997)

55
 The hacienda system introduced in late Spanish rule was strengthened under American
rule. Furthermore, the landed elite became allies of American colonizers as many were recruited
into colonial offices.

The vast landholdings of the hacenderos or caciques provided 14 Filipino elite the raw
materials which the Americans required. Thus, many were recruited into colonial offices and
became close and loyal allies of the Americans.

INDEPENDENCE MISSIONS AND THE COMMONWEALTH:

In November 1918 the Commission of Independence was created by the Philippine

Legislature for the purpose of studying all matters related to the negotiation and organization of
the Philippine independence. From 1919-1934 showed the evolution of US policies on Philippine
Independence. Finally, in 1933, the Os-Rox mission was able to get the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, an
act establishing a 10 year Commonwealth period to serve as a transition before the proclamation
of independence. The Act was rejected by the Filipino politicos headed by Manuel Quezon because
some of the provisions were not clear. Quezon left for US to secure better bill for independence
and he got the Tydings-Mc Duffie Act which was approved by the Philippine Legislature on May
1934.

The Filipinos framed the 1935 Constitution or also known as the Commonwealth
Constitution with Quezon as the president and Osmeña, the Vice President. Under the
Commonwealth Period, the Filipinos learned how to run a government of their own. There were
problems of course but Quezon was able to strengthen the National Security & Defense, Social
Justice Program and the Education.

The problems in economy were able to identify like import dependent, half controlled by
the alien, slow and uneven development, and low level of industrialization. The Filipinos made
solutions in encouraging some sectors to help the economic recovery, restructuring the social
structure and tied up trade relationship with the US. (Agoncillo.1990)

BALANCE SHEET OF AMERICAN OCCUPATION: PLUSES AND MINUSES

Education and democracy were among the greatest contributions of the US. They were the
proponent in establishing huge number of public schools in the Philippines. The introduction of
scientific program in public health and welfare was also a contribution of US. There were many
others like, trade commerce and industry, transportation and communication, individual freedoms,
political consciousness and awareness of the Filipinos in language and literature.

There were also negative results of American occupation that influenced the Filipinos to
become imitative.Filipinos lost their socio-cultural heritage and values due to the inculcation of
colonial mentality. The Filipinos also became too dependent on the Americans. Economic restraints
(economic dependency) ensued due to US good became necessity.

56
THE RESTIVENESS AND RESISTANCE CONTINUED:

Peace continued to elude the Philippines under the American colonial era. Reasons behind
the unrest and restiveness among Filipinos were due to injustices brought by massive land-
grabbing practices, poverty, high taxes, rampant, usurious practices, oppressive treatment of the
cacique.

The capture of Aguinaldo ended the Republic but not the resistance. In Batangas, Miguel
Malvar resorted to guerilla warfare and in Bicol, Simeon Ola continued the struggle. In Samar,
Vicente Lukban harassed and ambushed American soldiers until his capture in 1902. Macario Sakay
founded the Tagalog Republic and continued the resistance until he accepted the American offer of
amnesty that led to his execution.

READINGS:

• Agoncillo, T. Chap.1997 16-20

• Constanino,R. 1998. Chap. 15-16
• Cortes,et.al. 2005. The Filipino Saga, chaps 11, PP.233
• Corpuz, Onofre D. 2000. “The Philippine-American War:An Overview”, Paper presented to
the 2000 National Conference on the Filipino-American War: Trust and Betrayal
• Ileto, Reynaldo C. PASYON AT REBOLUSYON (POPULAR MOVEMENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES),
Chapters p.197-228
• KASAYSAYAN .2000. vol. 5-6
• Scott, William Henry. 1985. CRACKS IN THE PARCHMENT CURTAIN: OTHER ESSAYS IN
PHILIPPINE HISTORY, pp. 208-244, 266-284
• Veneracion, Jaime. 1997. AGOS NG DUGONG KAYUMANGGI. Chapter 10, pp. 59-64

57
 UnitVIII
JAPANESE OCCUPATION AND FASCIST RULE

Introduction:

When Japan invaded, occupied, and governed the Philippines, Filipinos once again
experienced untold sufferings and nightmares from the hands of their brutal and fierce Japanese
captors. The freedom and democracy they enjoyed during the American administration, was
suddenly lost. The new government established was operated through force and intimidation.
Those who did not cooperate were either be imprisoned, tortured, or killed. The Filipinos however,
did not lose their hope that someday they will be liberated.

The objectives of this module are as follows:

1. To be familiar about the policies of Japanese Occupation.

2. To know the experiences and struggles of the Filipinos under the Japanese
Occupation.

EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end ofthis module, students must be able to:

1. Familiarize themselves about the policies of Japanese Occupation.

2. Know the experiences and struggles of the Filipinos under the Japanese Occupation.

58
CONTENT

Arrival of the Japanese:

Germany, Italy and Japan formed the Tripartite Alliance known as Axis powers. Arrayed
against them were the Allied powers composed of Great Britain, France and US. The Japanese
invasion of the Philippines and the Japanese occupation of the countries of Southeast Asia were in
line with the blueprint plan on empire building of Tanaka Memorial which was submitted by former
Prime Minister Baron Tanaka to the Japanese Emperor Hirohito in 1927. Tanaka’s plan was
gradually modified by Premier General Araki in 1932, and Foreign Minister Arita and Premier
Fumimaro Konoye in 1940.

On December 8, 1941, World War II broke out in the Philippines at noon. It can be recalled
that prior to the coming of World War II. Philippines had entered into the preparation of its
independence signified by the presence of the Commonwealth government by the US authority
with much autonomy particularly on its local affairs. With this recognition from the Americans the
said independence will be claimed by the Filipinos supposedly to take effect sometime in 1946. And
from this standpoint the Filipinos saw US as a trusted ally. However, on the event of World War II a
day after the Japanese bombed the Pearl Harbor despite the peace negotiation in Washington.
They bombed Davao, Tuguegarao, Tarlac, Clark and Iba Fields; they also attacked Nichols Field
during midnight. USAFFE forces headed by General Douglas Mc Arthur fought the Japanese but
werenot enough. They retreated to Bataan and Corregidor after the capture of Manila. But on April
9, 1942, Edward King surrendered Bataan. On May 6, Jonathan Wainwright did the same to
Corregidor. These events were followed by a death march from Mariveles to Capas. Meanwhile,
Quezon left the Philippines for US and Mc Arthur for Australia but he pledged to the Filipino people
that “I shall return”.

Japanese Colonialism

General Masaharu Homma, commander of the Japanese Imperial Forces in the Philippines,
issued a proclamation declaring that the US sovereignty over the Philippines had completely
disappeared. He declared Martial law under a Japanese Military Administration. According to them,
they came here as liberators not oppressors. They incorporated the Philippines as part of the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Spheres or GEACPS. Many Filipinos like Laurel, Vargas, Aquino,
Delas Alas, etc., collaborated with the Japanese in exchange of position in the government, a
puppet government. There were also Filipinos who fought the new colonial masters through
guerilla warfare but were suppressed by the kempeitai. Thus, began the policies of attraction to the
Philippines. ( Constantino and Constantino..1978. 46)

As a backgrounder, Japan wasknown as the second largest trading-partner of the

Philippines. Imminently, Japan posted a big threat to the Filipinos fearing the chance that Japan
might take over the Philippines after United States left. The visible good relationship between the
Americans and the Filipinos was the reverse between the Japanese and Filipinos. Based from the
sensitivity of the highly intellectual Filipinos they felt a very alarming sensation that the presence of
the Japanese in the Philippines would be inimical to the harmonious and peaceful living of the
Filipinos. The presence of the large populace of Japanese immigrants in the country and the fast
growing number of businessmen saturated the Manila area like vendors, barbers, photographers,

59
gardeners are only some to mention. There was also a large number of Japanese who migrated in
Davao. Only some of the Filipinos who studied and have visited Japan tried to hide fear that
someday the Japanese will rule over the Philippines by overriding it with the good side of Japan.
Some even felt comfortable or secured as long as the American flag is still up all over the islands
hence the Japanese would not have the nerve to attack.

The outbreak of World War II occurred in France on September 1, 1939. It affected the
adversely the Philippines simply because traders never reached the Philippines because the
merchants and the ships were diverted to the Atlantic. The weapons that were ordered did not
arrive or would no longer be available. Thus Philippine revenues drastically dropped. Philippine
exports were also been cut due to the United States economic measures against Japan. And the
most adverse effect of it was the much disrupted Commonwealth’s timetable.

Although there was that feeling of security from most of the Filipinos between 1940-1941,
both the American and Commonwealth governments felt the need to prepare the Filipino civilians
for the devastations of the war in case it will be pursued. The Civilian Emergency Administration
(CEA) was organized on April 1941 however due to the lack of peacetime inertia it worked slowly so
much so that it lagged behind its civil defense preparations in Malaya, East Indies, Netherland.
However, they were able to do some practices as regard to air drills, evacuations and economic
mobilizations started at the middle part of 1941.

The services of the Philippine Army was called by the US and a joint US-Philippine
command was known as US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) was organized on preparation for
the forcible move of Japan who already occupied the southern portion of French Indo-China. The
return to active service of then retired Gen. Douglas McArthur was called for to lead the command.
Rigid refresher trainings were done by the reservists who were inducted into the US services.
Massive reinforcements from US were sent such as modern B-17 bombers, new tanks and
submarines. It was expected by Gen. McArthur that they will all be ready by March 1942.
( Constantino and Constantino.1978. 46)

The Defense of the Philippines during the Outbreak of War

At the height of the military preparations the war occurred. Filipinos expected that the war
will last only for couple of weeks and with a strong belief that they will be driven out of the
Philippine shores. The bombings of Japan in Baguio and Davao paved the way for the young
enlisted soldiers not only to fight for their country but moreso of its way of life. More decisive
attacks of the Japanese came whenClark Field was bombed on December 8, thereby destroying
most of McArthur’s air force through its fighters and bombers. From day one onward the Japanese
overtook the air force control over the Philippines. On December 10, Japanese practically bombed
and destroyed completely the US key naval base in Cavite that led US Asiatic Fleet leaving choice
but to evacuate the Manila Bay which served as their base of operations. Few days also US control
of the sea was also lost.

When Manila was bombed residents panic and evacuated, massive lootings, bank runs
occurred. The so called “peacetime” status of the Philippines vanished readily. Within the first few
days of the war the Japanese landed at Batan Island in Batanes group, Aparri and Vigan in Northern
Luzon, and Legaspi in southern Luzon took possessions over. By December 20, Davao in Mindanao
was then invaded by the Japanese. McArthur’s original plan to as a defense is to hold the enemies
at the beaches but due to lack of force or troops to cover the entire beaches he positioned his

60
Filipino troops along the beaches of Lingayen Gulf, Batangas and Quezon province. The main
landing of the Japanese happened on December 22 in Lingayen Gulf wherein Filipino forces are
only few. As expected, Filipino soldiers were forced to surrender because of their superior naval, air
and land forces. Atimonan and Mauban in Quezon province where the rest of the Japanese forces
landed. Many Filipino soldiers so gallantly fought but to no avail. Likewise, they were defeated.

With the defeat of McArthur’s defense plan, on Christmas eve in 1941, he ordered the
execution of War Plan Orange and declared Manila as an open city (it means that all military forces
and supplies would be removed from Manila). This War Plan Orange was the standard US Army
defense plan for the Philippines. The plan entails the withdrawals of all military forces in Luzon and
Bataan peninsula, fortress of Corregidor in order to block the mouth of Manila Bay as they await
reinforcements from the US. The Commonwealth government was also moved to Corregidor. With
no military forces in Manila there is no more reason for Japanese to bomb Manila further and make
further attacks and incur more destruction. However, this did not materialize as the Japanese
continued its attacks killing more people and much damaged.

The USAFFE forces in Bataan tried to hold resistance from the Japanese attacks longer that
the Japanese expected to last. Filipino and American soldiers fought bravely to hold Bataan as they
wait for reinforcements from the US which never happened due to the severe damage on the
American Pacific Fleet during the bombings done by the Japanese in Pearl Harbor for they have full
control on both air and land forces. This was due to the massive control of the Japanese forces. As
foreseen by McArthur and Quezon that the Filipino-American forces would surrender eventually,
they were evacuated immediately from Corregidor to Australia. McArthur took hold on the defense
of Australia and promised to return, while Quezon was exiled in Washington DC as he headed the
Philippine Commonwealth government in exile.(Cortes.2005)

The defenders of Bataan still hold on protecting it from the Japanese forces as they wait for
the reinforcements which eventually did not arrive. Due to lack of food supplies and medicines they
were not able to defend Bataan against the unexpected attack of the Japanese on Good Friday of
April 3, 1942. They were forced to surrender to the Japanese on the 9 th day of April. The fatigued,
hungry and the sick defenders were forced to march out of Bataan which is known as the Death
March wherein numerous Filipino and American soldiers exterminated or brutally maltreated.
From San Fernando, Pampanga they were sent to Capas, Tarlac and imprisoned and again death
rate increased. The commander of the American forces at Corregidor was General Jonathan
Wainwright and other three forts also surrendered to the Japanese but it was declined by the
Japanese wanting more of the surrender of all Filipino-American troops in the entire Philippines.
This happened on the 7th day of May 1942. Filipinos on the otherhand had proven to the world of
their gallant capability to defend their country to the fullest as shown in Bataan and Corregidor,
had it not only for the severe lack of foods and medicines.

Life during the Japanese Occupation:

As soon as the Japanese took over Manila and declared

Martial Law, they outrightly established their Japanese Military
Administration. It signified that there were two forms of
government present in the Philippines, one is that of a de facto
government by the Japanese and that of a government in exile
headed by President Manuel L. Quezon. The latter instructed

61
prewar elite national leaders to follow orders of the Japanese having in mind that it would better
that way in order for them to stay put in their positions in the government rather for them to be
turned into a radical personalities like Artemio Ricarte a Philippine-American War general who
refused to be under US rule and decided to go on exile in Japan. His successor was Benigno Ramos
a charismatic leader of the Sakdal Party of the peasants. More personalities joined the flock to
cooperate with the Japanese military rulers even Quezon waited in Corregidor were: Jose P. Laurel,
Jose Yulo, and Carlo M. Recto.

President Quezon’s decision favored the Japanese administrative policy, leaving as much as
possible civil affairs due to the present administrative structures considering that the Philippines
earlier have a functional bureaucracy. General Masaharu Homma of he Japanese 14 th Army did not
subscribe to any radical social change. On January 23, 1942, Jorge B, Vargas was the chairman of
the Philippine Executive Commission which was responsible to take good care not of the Filipinos
but he Japanese. The Executive Commission took orders from the Military Administration and they
have limited legislative functions and to recommends only on various appointments on
government positions. Every action taken by the Commission must be duly approved by the
Japanese Military Administration. Japanese advisers were assigned to every government offices.

Philippine economy:

In every state of war, the economy almost ground to halt. All means of production were
rigidly under the Japanese control. Only few banks were allowed to operate under strict conditions.
The paper currency or Mickey Mouse money introduced by the Japanese provoked inflation. Foods,
medicines and other necessary commodities were in scarcity. Hunger and sickness cast a shadow
upon the country. These were due to the war that importation channels were cut off; the war also
disrupted productions in agriculture; Filipinos were also disinterested to plant and increase
production and supplies for the simple reason that the Japanese were only be the one benefitted
by capturing their farm produce. Means of transportation was only through the Manila Railroad
System so as to transport people and all goods to the cities.The Japanese Army and the Executive
Commission jointly constructed bridges, roads and communication lines ruined by war. All motor
vehicles were seized for use by the Japanese. Oil importation were also insufficient that forced
people to go back the traditional way of using “karitelas”.

People lived in constant state of fear and apprehension during the three years of Japanese
occupation, particularly in the areas where there were guerilla resistance. The educational and
religious institutions were also used as vehicles of Japanese Propaganda. Nippongo was made a
compulsory course in all schools. Japanese catholic priests were sent to the Philippines to help
promote the idea that Japan, being an Asian country, was a friend of all Asian peoples.

Major restructuring were done to centralize Japanese administration such as: reduction of
offices and provinces, salaries reduced and disbandment of political parties. The creation of
Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilpinas (Kalibapi) is a form of service that mobilizes Filipinos
for collaboration with the Japanese. And to strengthen further the control over the country the
Japanese created more districts and associations in the neighborhood were established so as to
control rationing of basic commodities and foods were done to closely monitor the existence of the
guerillas and in a way to refrain people from expressing their public opinion moreso if their
sentiments are anti- Japanese.

62
 The first Japanese Prime Minister who acknowledged the long-cry of the Filipinos for their
independence was Hideki Tojo with a proviso that Filipinos should understand the real meaning of
Japanese occupation and the need to cooperate with the Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
being its member. There were requisites stated by the Prime Minister for the Filipinos to subscribe
in order for them to achieve their long awaited independence. He conditions set were as follows:
(1) the Filipinos if they regained their true Asian spirit, (2) if they worked to achieved economic self-
sufficiency and, (3) if they have restored peace and order it will only by then such independence
will be obtained by the Filipino people. However, majority of the Filipinos doubted the sincerity of
Tojo’s offer because of its being impracticality. However, they just decided to get along with them
and waited till the new republic will be created then they will assert their rights and express their
needs.

The Second Republic of the Philippines

At long last the second republic’s constitution was drafted and inaugurated on October14,
1943 with an air of reluctance and forced people’s participation. Its first president was Jose P.
Laurel having said to acquire its “false independence”. In the sense that the republic signed an
agreement on alliance with the Japanese that they still will remain in the Philippines thereby giving
access for the Japanese nationals to manipulate our natural resources.

President Laurel, after sometimes did drastic move and changes in his administration such
as:1) removing Japanese advisers and other personnel at the Malacañang Palace, (2) restores peace
and order, (3) brought back the fragmented economy, (4) produce more supply of foodstuffs and,
(5) to hasten the distribution and sale of basic commodities. Among the targets of the Laurel
administration in its long-term goal namely: to have improvements on social conditions of the
people and uplift Filipinos’ moral consciousness.

The presence of the Japanese military forces gave bad effects as observed on the country’s
poor transportation and communication as effected on the massive presence of the guerillas,
bandits, calamities and even the lack of people’s initiative to support government programs
perhaps due to their fear because of the presence of the Japanese military forces who remained in
their power as it still holds majority of the provinces because they are still in control. To cite an
example, the Japanese did pressure the government to construct airfields for them.
(Cortes.2005.361-362)

Philippine Culture during the Japanese Rule

Drastically, the Japanese cleverly transformed Filipino culture into their plans of
transforming Philippine culture by spreading Japanese culture and language and for he Filipinos to
turn their back to the influence of Occidental culture, both radio and print media were strictly
under their control, short-waved radio communications were also reconditioned to prevent from
receiving broadcasts from allied countries. Elementary and High School education were introduced
wherein the use of Nippongo and Tagalog were mandatory even in some government agencies.
Eventually Nippongo was considered the national language. Studies which involved US,
Commonwealth government and democracy were limited. Through radio programs such as Radio
Taiso was put up in schools and offices which aired music and commands to be obeyed basically to
impart the kind of discipline the Japanese would like to enforce.

63
 Filipino culture was being sought that paved the way for writers and researches to delve on
its precolonial past, the Philippine Revolution and through their writings they opened the mind of
the Filipinos to go back to the rural areas where they came from and freely exercise their lifestyles
and it benefitted the writers to boost Philippine culture.

Philippine Resistance against Japan

Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by an active and successful

underground guerrilla activity that increased over the years far and wide all over the Philippines.
Opposing these guerrillas were a Japanese-formed Bureau of Constabulary (later taking the name
of the old Constabulary during the Second Republic),
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines - cite_note-McAAE-
22Kempetai, and the collaborators Makapilirecruited from the Ganap Party. (Cortes.2005.365)

The Philippine guerrilla movement continued to grow, in spite of Japanese campaigns

against them. Throughout Luzon and the southern islands, Filipinos joined various groups and
vowed to fight the Japanese. According to post war reports. there were around 260,000 people
who were actively supporting the guerrilla organizations established by the Americans’ USAFFE.
Various guerrilla forces formed throughout the archipelago, ranging from groups of U.S. Army
Forces Far East (USAFFE) forces under the command of Charles Parsons. The island of Mindanao,
being farthest from the center of Japanese occupation, had 38,000 guerrillas who were eventually
consolidated under the command of American civil engineer Colonel Wendell Fertig. But these
guerilla forces connected to the USAFFE became disunified and incapable of inflicting damage to
the Japanese rule after the fall of Bataan.

On the otherhand, the members of the anti-Japanese underground popular resistance

group not connected to the Americans were even more numerous. The most popular resistance
group in the Central Luzon area who fought relentlessly the Japanese forces for three years and
bore the grunt of their atrocities was the anti-American Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban
sa Hapon), or the People's Anti-Japanese Army, organized in early 1942 under the leaderships of
Luis Taruc, Silveria Guina and Castro Alejandrino. Taruc was a communist party member since
1939. The Huks armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over portions of Luzon.
However, guerrilla activities in Luzon were hampered due to the heavy Japanese presence and
infighting between the various groups, including Hukbalahap troops attacking American-led
guerrilla units.

Lack of equipments, difficult terrain and undeveloped infrastructure made coordination of

these groups nearly impossible. For several months in 1942, all contacts was lost with Philippine
resistance forces under the command of Gen. Douglas McArthur. By the end of the war, some 277
separate guerrilla units, made up of some 260,715 individuals, fought in the resistance movement.
Select units of the resistance would go on to be reorganized and equipped as units of the Philippine
Army and Constabulary.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Philippines
- cite_note-46

The Moro Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu took up arms and fought hard against the
Japanese invasion and helped defeat the Japanese occupation. Some of the Moros had been
fighting the Americans just weeks before the Japanese invaded the Philippines. By the end of the
Japanese occupation, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces.

64
READINGS:

1. Agoncillo, T. Chap. 21-22, pp. 387-426

2. Constanino,R. and Constantino, Leticia THE PHILIPPINES: THE CONTINUING PAST vol 2,
Chap. 1-6, pp. 1-150
3. Cortes, Rosario M. et.al. 2005. The Filipino Saga:History of Social Change,
Chapter 13, pp.355-372
4. FILIPINO HERITAGE, Chapter 4
5. GAJUDO, Nena, ALUNAN, Gina and MACABUAG, Susan(authors), SAJOR, Indai
(editor).2000. THE WOMEN OF MAPANIQUE:Untold Crimes Of War. Asian
Center for Women’s Human Rights
6. KASAYSAYAN vol. 6-7
7. Veneracion, Jaime. 1997. AGOS NG DUGONG KAYUMANGGI. Chapter 11, pp. 67-72

65
 Unit IX
NEOCOLONIAL PHILIPPINES
THE EXPERIENCE AND STRUGGLES OF THE FILIPINOS IN NATION BUILDING
FROM 1946 TO PRESENT

LESSON 1. POST WAR PROBLEMS

Though the Philippines was occupied by the Japanese Imperial Army for less than four
years, from 1942 to 1945, the short-lived occupation created great havoc to the Philippine society,
much to its economy. The incomeof the people dipped radically and means of livelihood were
reduced tremendously.
The economic problem was complimented with other post-war challenges that were faced
by the succeeding national leadership.

Neocolonialism more subtle form of

Postwar Conditions in thePhilippines
1. Literally reduced the Philippines into one of
the most devastated countries in
the world due to the “ blanket bombings”
of Manila by the American forces.
Manila was declared second to Warsaw
And Polandin terms of destructions brought
about by the blanket bombing of the city
by the Americans. Intramuros had been
in ruins, Philippine General Hospital and
UP were likewise destroyed. Legislative
building was cut into half.
(Veneracion, 1997,p.207 )
domination, in which one who exploits is
no longer identified by the name of
colonizer, but acts in the same way at
various levels involving political and
economic subordination.
It is the same system that
oppresses and exploits the people from
undeveloped and less developed nations
also oppresses and exploits the Filipino
citizen, using different motivation,
different indirect techniques of oppression
by way of economic subjugation without
outright territorial seizures, but always
with the same goal — to exploit.

2. Reconstruction of the post-war years permanently altered the geography of commerce and
culture. Makati & Quezon City replaced Escolta, Binondo and Intramuros as commercial
hubs in Spanish and early American occupation.

66
 3. Resistance movements against American imperialism weakened due to social breakdown
and war of ideological alternatives

4. There had been a vacuum in social and political leadership. The traditional elites (landlords)
in pre-war fled and evacuated for fear of reprisals from the Japanese. Positively,
farmers/peasants for one could now decide what to do with their harvests without
interferences from their landlords.

5. Growth of insurgency problem was experienced. The Huks became the target of the US
forces because of their staunch struggle for genuine independence from colonial rule and
because they were seen as political threat & challenge to the neocolonial agenda of the
Americans.

Realignment of the ruling class-former guerilla leaders (USAFFEguerillas)were rewarded with

top provincial positions for supporting the American forces. (Veneracion, 1997 )

NEOCOLONIAL PROGRAM OF THE AMERICANS:

PARITY RIGHTS & BASES TREATY

Two arrangements in which the US maintain thePhilippines as its

“neocolony”.Under these arrangements, the Philippines will not have full
sovereign powers since the US could continue to enjoy military and
economic rights
.
Parity rights- placed the Americans on “ equal footing” with Filipinos by
allowingAmerican capitalists:
• to exploit our natural resources,
• can operate public utilities like electricity and
transportation and
• tied down the peso and dependent on US dollars.
(Veneracion, 1997,p.209)

A. ISSUE OF COLLABORATION

Sergio Osmeña who succeeded Quezon as President of the Philippine

Commonwealth faced the issue of collaboration with an open mind. But the
American government wanted him to deal with collaborationists firmly. In a
cablegram dated September 11, 1944 US Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes
reminded Osmeña: “I would call attention of your government to the probable
reluctance with which funds maybe appropriated for relief, rehabilitation and

67
support of the Commonwealth Government if it becomes generally believed that the Government
had failed diligently and firmly to convict and punish those guilty of collaboration.”

Nationalist historian Renato Constantino clarified the “narrow concept of collaboration.”

He said: “The charge of collaboration with its pejorative connotations must not be limited merely
to service to the Japanese aggressors. It must also include subservience to the other imperialist
power.”

B. ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION

The ravages of war had left their imprint on the economy of the country. Poverty, resulting
from widespread destruction of property, including work animal was rampant throughout the
country. Production was almost at standstill in the early months following liberation owing to lack
of capital to finance the rehabilitation of destroyed or partially destroyed machinery and other
equipment.

Various aid programs were launched and implemented during the first 25 years after the
country was declared “independent” by the US government. The Philippine Rehabilitation Act of
1946 pledged a total of $620 million. However, the rehabilitation funds actually disbursed did not
benefit the masses but propertied individuals and corporations.

TOPIC 2. THE THIRD PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

Manuel Acuña Roxas (1946-1948)

The first president of the independent third republic of the Philippines and
5th president of the Philippines. He was born on January 01, 1892 in Capiz. He took
Bachelor of Law in the University of the Philippines. And a known political leader
who came from middle class family. He belongs to the Liberal Party.

Philippine situation during the term of Manuel Acuña Roxas

Philippines was beset with voluminous problems brought about by World War II when
Manuel A. Roxas assumed his presidency. Agricultural farms and factories were ruined and
recession gravely affects the country’s commerce and industries.

Highlight of Events:

• On March 11, 1947 he granted the access of the United States in the disposal and usages
of the natural resources found in the Philippines by virtue of the so called “Parity Rights”

• By the time that President Roxas ruled the country, he faced two major controversies; first,
his failure to squashed graft and corruption in the government proven by the presence of
the Surplus War Property scandal, the Chinese immigration scandal and the school
supplies scandals; secondly, his failure to resolve insurgency problems brought by
HUKBALAHAP (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon).
• In cognizant to his accomplishments shortly after his induction to presidency, Manuel
Roxas gleaned back from the aftermath of war wherein cities and towns were burned,

68
 bridges and roads were blasted, commerce and industries were shattered and thousands of
innocent people were massacred. Postwar also ruined the educational system that were
paralyzed because of destroyed laboratories, equipment and school furniture and buildings
were destroyed. Thousands of books, invaluable works of the arts and historical relics and
family heirlooms plus hundreds of churches and temples were also burned. These
prompted president Roxas to order for the reconstruction of these damages which costs as
much as Php126.000.000.000.00. Due to these destructions, Roxas’ administration started
only with an annual deficit of 200,000,000.00Php with a very slim chance of having a viable
balance of budget to sustain the country for the succeeding years.

• Brought about by the way American gangsters do, there were rampant holdups, bank
robberies, burglaries and kidnapping incidents in Manila and some parts other cities.
Whereas, in the provinces of Central Luzon and in Southern Tagalog regions the
HUKBALAHAP terrorized towns and barangays.

• In 1946 President Roxas proclaimed the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933 on the entire
archipelago, although problems on agrarian reforms continued and even became worst in
some parts of the country. In view of the situation he enacted Republic Act No, 1946 better
known as the Tenant Act which allows for a 70-30 sharing agreements and it also regulates
share-tenancy contracts. This was done in order to remedy the peasants’ uprisings in
Central Luzon. Roxas administration also addressed the ailing problems on insurgencies
executed by HUKBALAHAP and Huks as evidenced by their numerous subversions. This
prompted him to issue a proclamation on March 6, 1948 outlawing Huks’ movements
headed by Luis Taruc due to their acts of terrorisms.

• The granting of full amnesty to all collaborators of the Philippines which covers also those
who awaits for their trials on of them was formerPresident Jose P. Laurel (1943-1945).
However, the amnesty proclamation did not cover those involved in heinous crimes such
as murder, rape and arson. In relation to this, the president’s move did help augment
problems on peace and order and divisiveness among its people. Better still it brought a
unifying effect towards the progress of the country.

Right after the speech of President Roxas in a rally at Plaza Miranda, a day before a
plebiscite to happen , Julio Guillen, a barber from Tondo, Manila, believed to be discontented,
threw a grenade at the platform after Roxas’ speech. Roxas almost lost the chance to survive from
that incident. He died in Clark Field, Pampanga on April 15,1948.

Elpidio Rivera Quirino (1890-1956)

He was the 6th president of the independent Republic of the Philippines

and second president of the Third Republic, a native of Vigan, Ilocos Sur, born on
November 16,1890. He obtained his degree in Bachelor of Law in University of the
Philippines. He passed the Bar Examination on the same year he graduated, March
15, 1915. He was known as a world leader.

69
Philippine situation during the term of Elpidio Rivera Quirino

Elpidio R. Quirino won the Vice-Presidency in 1946 election after the war and succeeded
former president Roxas who died on April 15, 1948 as president of the Philippine Republic, which
served as the 2 nd and last president of the Commonwealth but first president of the Third Republic.
Under the Liberal Party, he won the presidential race in 1949 which was believed to have fraud and
dishonest election, defeating a Nacionalista candidate, Jose P. Laurel.

Highlights of the events

Considering that Philippines was still in its stage of recovery, his administration aimed to
focus on the reconstructions by means of fastening tightly the country’s economy. To achieve it he
created organizations that will aid him in pursuit of his objectives in his administration, namely
ACCFA (Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Financing Administration) to aid farmers in selling their
farm products, PACSA (President’s Action Committee on Social Amelioration) to help families who
are financially well off, (LMAB) Labor Management Advisory Board it guides Quirino in labor
management, and the RBP ( Rural Bank of the Philippines) to help farmers to manage their
finances.

With all these arms he believed and was confident enough that these will lighten up the
sufferings of the general public, solve farmers’ problems in marketing their products, advices on
social matters such as labor and maximization on the use of rural areas will be provided for him to
steer the wheel towards economic progress of the country. Added to it, he revived the style of
former president Quezon’s radio broadcasting at Malacañang palace in order to reach out the
people and win the support of the public.

It is in his term also that full amnesty was given to the HUKBALAHAP members on June 21,
1948 which was the reverse during the term of former president Roxas. Quirino also collaborated
with Japan to achieve peace.

During his election campaign and inaugural address he set forth his promises to the people,
namely: repairing, restorations and reconstruction of building, and replaces systems being
implemented in the country thatwas devastated during the war. He also promised to solve societal
problems such as unemployment, housing and even intend to increase wages of the workers for
them to procure also their needs aside from their farm produce in order to decrease inflation rate.
There will be price control on all basic commodities to preempt overpricing of products in the
market. His first priority then was industrializing the country preferably using the talents, skills and
abilities of the people for the development of the Philippines. Indeed,Quirino believed on Filipinos’
ingenuity. Gleaning from Quirino’s famous quote that reads;

“ I have faith in the democratic process we

have established and in the capacity
of our people that perfect
themselves in it”

Some of his greatest accomplishments were as follows: more industrial ventures effected,
improvement on irrigation, roads were improved and most of all he opened the Banko Sentral ng
Pilipinas (BSP) so as to protect the country’s currencies.
70
Issues and controversies

On the height of his term of office, Quirino met the following issues and controversies:
• His administration was heavily attacked on his ambition for a second term in 1949. It has
been said that the elections won by him was the most corrupt. He was the first Philippine
president who was impeached. Grounds for Quirino’s impeachment were as follows:
misuse of public funds, allegedly due to his procurement of a very expensive “Golden
Orinola”, allowing immorality among the armed forces, and most of all by cohabiting with
the American government by being compliant to international economies.

• People suffered from starvation specifically those living in the Mountain province;
unresolved just compensation of employees and workers; farmlands were infested with
rats and other kinds of pests; farmers’ expectation to sell their products in good price did
not materialize due to inflation; housing problems, education and unemployment were
never resolved due to vast damages incurred during war. It could be attributed to the
graceful exit of the American businesses in the country.

• His failure to implement Agrarian Reform program

• He was the first Philippine president who underwent an impeachment trial allegedly due to
misused of public funds in procuring a very expensive Golden Orinola, allowing the
presence of immorality in the military, following the whims of the American government
that made him submissive to the dictum of international economies thereby not being
responsive to the needs of the masses.

• After his defeat in the succeeding elections, Quirino retired from government service and
went back to his hometown. He died at the age of 83 on October19, 1961 at the Veterans’
Memorial Hospital in Quezon City and buried in Manila North Cemetery.

Ramon Fierro Magsaysay (1953-1957)

Magsaysay was the 7th president of the Philippines and 3rd president of
the Third Republic was born on August 31,1907 in Iba, Zambales. He studied
Engineering at the University of the Philippines but obtained a degree in
Commerce at Jose Rizal College (1928-1932). At first he worked as a mechanic
then later became a shop superintendent During World War II, Magsaysay was a
soldier under the 31st Infantry Division of the Philippine army. As captain he was
engaged in clearing mop operation in Zambales coast to fight the Japanese prior
to the landing of the American forces. He belongs to the Nacionalista Party. He
served as congressman of Zambales in two terms (1946-1950) and was
appointed as Secretary of National Defense in 1950. He won the presidency in 1953 and took his
oath of office first to wear a Barong Tagalog. He was the first president to open the gate of
Malacañang Palace to the people because for him it is the “house of the people”.

71
Philippine situation during the term of Magsaysay

Philippines is under its recovery after the Japanese war and massive reconstruction of the
damages incurred from World War II when Ramon Magsaysay became the president. There were
three major problems that his administrationaddressesin his incumbency, to wit: 1) agrarian reform
2) HUKBALAHAP continued rebellion and, 3) insufficient funds to execute massive rehabilitation of
the country from the war.

Pledges during his election campaign and inaugural speech

• He ordered that all government officials and/or public servants shall only belong to the
people who elected and trusted them and not themselves, not to their party affiliation, and
not even to themselves but for the Filipino people who entrusted to them the authority to
govern with full honesty to uphold the Constitution.

• Demanded loyalty to the Constitution wherein Magsaysay himself adhere firmly to the
ideals and dictums of the Constitution so as to safeguard the sovereign people.

• Service to the people is the rule of Magsaysay’s government. That it will serve as their
guardians of freedom and protector of their dignity.

• That his government’s bill of duties are embodied with the Bill of Rights.

• Re-examination of the land tenure systems of the country will be well taken cared of from
injustices and oppression. The real meaning of the passage “ land for the landless” will be
well implemented by his administration

Laws and programs made under Magsaysay’s administration

In order to overcome with the resolutions of all problems inherited by his rule, Macapagal
arrived at creating the laws and programs needed for reforms, as enumerated below:

➢ On Agrarian Reform Programs

1. Republic Act No. 1160 of 1954 – Abolition of LASEDECO and replaced by the National
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration. It aims to effect distribution of land
to landless farmers and for the rebel returnees to have land, home of their own and
farm to cultivate in Palawan and Mindanao.
2. Republic Act No. 1199 (Agricultural Tenancy Act of 1954) – courts for Agrarian Relations
was created. It protects the relationship between the landowners and farmer-tenants;
their leasehold system and organize share-tenancy were organized.
3. Republic Act No. 1400 of 1955 – it is known as the Land Reform Act. To effect it the
Land Tenure Administration was created to supervise on the processing and
distribution of tenanted rice and corn lands of 200 hectares for individuals and 600
hectares allotted for corporations.
4. Republic Act No. 821 known as the Creation of Agricultural Credit Cooperative
Financing Administration. It provides low interest rates to the farmer-borrower
between 6 to 8% of their loans.

72
 5. Reparation Agreement – it refers to the agreement between Japan and the Philippines
to pay the latter with (US) $550,000,000.00 representing charges for the World War II
damages.
6. Bell Trade Act of 1946 based from the Laurel- Longley Agreement which aims to
eradicate US control over the peso exchange rate thus creating a realistic economic
relations between US and Philippines.
7. Agricultural Commodities Agreement with the US (1957) to lengthen the colonial
economic pattern of the nation.
8. Anti-subversive Law – this limits the citizens’ democratic rights of assembly, freedom of
speech and beliefs.

Highlights of events during his term

Some of his splendid accomplishments was the signing of the Manila Pact better known as
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). When he was two terms elected to the Philippine
House of Representatives as chairman of the House on National Defense Committee. President
Quirino appointed him as Defense Secretary to deal with the Huks headed by Luis Taruc for their
intention was to overthrow the government.

In doing so, Magsaysay first made reforms in the military such as: terminating the services
of some officers, emphasized mobility and adaptability of the armed forces in combat operations
to fight against the tactics of the Huk guerillas. Armed with his own expertise and experience in
combat fighting against the Japanese in World War II. Since then until 1953 he carried on with the
most effective moves to eliminate guerillas that poses no more threat to the government.
However, it also made him earn enemies in the government which made him resign on February
28, 1953 and eventually charged the Quirino government as corrupt and incompetent to address
the needs of the people.

Magsaysay who belongs to the Liberal Party, won the presidential election in 1953 for the
magnanimous support from the Nacionalista Party against Quirino. He vowed a reform in almost all
sectors of the society. Eventually, it earned a disgust to other members of Congress for they
believed that majority of the reforms best benefitted the elites. In his drive for agrarian reforms he
distributed to 4,500 indigenous families almost 90,000 hectares of land either for them to reside or
for farming purposes. He also utilized a scheme to have time to listen and resolve the grievances of
his people thereby maintaining the image of his administration as incorrupt in order to preserve
his popularity though he achieved it through a long process.

Foreign policies of Roxas, Quirino and Magsaysay

The basic principles of Philippine foreign policy laid down by President Roxas in 1946 were
never deviated from Quirino and Magsaysay. Considering the views of Magsaysay on foreign policy
was dictated by the inherent duty of self-preservation (Domingo, 1983).

The foreign policies under them was governed by:

1. Commitment to the United Nations. The Philippines is committed to the fullest possible
cooperation with the United Nations to promote the economic, social and cultural progress
of mankind and to maintain peace and security;

73
 2. Continued ties with the United States. The Philippines is committed with the fullest
possible collaboration with the United States on all matters that are essential to the
security of both;
3. Maintain friendly relations with our neighbors. The Philippines is supportive to the peoples
of Asia, and;
4. Devotion to world peace

It was a great shocked to the country when Magsaysay on board the presidential aircraft
together with other twenty four passengers, crashed on March 17, 1957, they were found all dead.
On March 31, 1957 around five million Filipinos attended the burial of president Magsaysay.
Recognizant of his splendid accomplishments as a leader of the state he was then given the title of
“Idol of the Masses” and as a living testimony in his honor, the Ramon Magsaysay Nobel Award was
converted into “Asia’s Nobel Prize” established in 1957 that signifies his integrity, courage and as a
good leader.

Carlos Polistico Garcia (1957-1961)

The 8th President of the Philippines and 4th President of the 3rd Republic was
born on November 4, 1896 at Talibon, Bohol. A Bachelor of Law graduate at
Philippine Law School in 1923. His political party was the Nacionalista Party.

Philippine situation during the term of Garcia

Philippines was still under its move towards recovery from the ruins of World War II.
Massive corruptions evolved during Magsaysay’s term which were inherited by Garcia. Many cases
of corruptions and economic challenges were found within the government offices as leftover from
the past administration.

In order for the Philippines to obtain US assistance for the reconstruction of damages
brought by World War II numerous requisites were posited by the US government such as: access
of Imported goods to the local markets without paying any tariffs and that of the exchange rate of
dollar to peso will remain as it is $1 = Php2 only.

Pledges of Garcia during election and inaugural speeches

To enumerate his plans, policies and programs, hereunder are some of it:
➢ Emphasis on national economic policies as to prioritization scheme
➢ Focus on the production to sustain the basic needs of the Filipino people
➢ Maximization on the utilization of the country’s natural resources to respond promptly to
the needs of the people
➢ Upgrade the machineries of the country’s agro-industrial tiers
➢ Low-cost housing will be offered, land redistribution and the government resettlement
programs will be enforced
➢ Approach on education for the youth should have more focus on sciences, industrial and
advance agricultural technologies

74
 ➢ Massive information drive to the barrios and rural areas to have proper orientation on
good health practices and sanitation

Highlights of events

Garcia was the advocator of Filipino First Policy, by virtue of the law approved during his
administration it paved the way for local entrepreneurs more than the foreigners. Thereby
Philippine made products receives more preference over that of imported goods. He much
preferred Philippines to be an industrialized country, self-reliant and would not be so parasitic with
foreign goods or products.

His administration bravely pushed on its Austerity Programs with the ultimate goal of
eradicating corruption and with emphasis on moral values among government leaders and
employees. He inculcated to their minds that corruption ruins the trust and confidence of the
people who voted for them.

It was also in his term that actions were taken to emphasize the cultural values brought
about by the colonization of many countries as such numerous awards were given to Filipino
artists, scientists, historians and historians. And yet the Bohlen-Serrano Agreement came into law
that shortened the 99 year lease of US bases in the Philippines renewable only every after five
years.

Foreign policy of President Garcia

When president Garcia was elected President in 1958, he enunciated the Filipino First
Policy which instigated three effects that strengthened Philippine sovereignty. These were: (1)
Philippine industrialization grew at a faster rate than at any time previously, (2) Renegotiation of
the bases resulted in the signing of a Memorandum of Agreement reducing the duration of the
lease from 99 years to 25 years, (3) The establishment of the Association of Southeast Asia, that
served as the precursor of the present ASEAN. During the term of Garcia, the spirit of Philippine
foreign policy has been transformed in the light of regional and world development (Monta,
et.al.,1999).

However, Garcia did not escape the scrutiny of the neighboring states for his anti-foreign
policies and adding to it was the rampant corruption within the Bureau of Internal Revenue where
he implemented his Austerity Program.

Diosdado Pangan Macapagal (1961-1965)

He was the 8th President of the Philippines and the 5th President of the
3rd Republic. He was born on September 28,1910 and a native of Lubao,
Pampanga. This acclaimed “poor boy from Lubao” is the second son among the
four children of Urbano Macapagal, his articles and poetry were written in
language of Pampanga. His mother, Romana Pangan Macapagal was a
schoolteacher who taught catechism. Their other source of income comes from
raising pigs in their backyard and from accepting boarders in their home. Being
poor did not hinders Diosdado Macapagal’s dream to excel in his studies for he

75
graduated valedictorian in his elementary school in Lubao and salutatorian at Pampanga Secondary
School as self-supporting student earning from his part time job in accounting.

While studying in law school he was a popular orator and debater. He finished his pre-
Law course at the University of the Philippines and continued his study at Philippine Law School in
1932. Coming from a poor family he could not sustain his educational needs and was forced to
discontinue his studies also because of his poor health condition. In two years he was able to raise
money and continue his studies at the University of Santo Tomas. To obtain a degree, a person in
the name of Honorio Ventura, a known philanthropist who was then the Secretary of Interior,
supported him and Macapagal then received his degree in Bachelor of Laws in 1936. He was a bar
topnotcher with the score of 89.95% in 1936. He also earned his Master of Law in 1941 and Doctor
of Civil Law in 1947 and Doctor of Philosophy in Economics in1957 from his alma mater.

Having the desire to be of service to the people he ran and won the presidency in 1961
defeating former president Garcia ( 55% against 45% margin of votes) with a promise to stop
corruption and of course with an appeal to the electorates as a common tao from the start. He
then took his oath of office on December 30, 1961.

Philippine situation during the term of Macapagal

The country is beset with numerous ailments like: uprisings against the government;
widespread poverty; graft and corruption throughout the country; lack of economic stability;
unemployment; peso devaluation; low living standards of the masses; foreigners have owned and
controlled more business in the country due to poor exchange rate which made them richer than
the Filipinos and the revocation of the 350 overnight appointees of Garcia.
Macapagal divulged the presence of uncooperative and negative legislature as it derailed
important government programs under his administration that neglects the people’s welfare
(Almase, A.D.D.2007).

Pledges of Macapagal during election and inaugural speeches

• Focus on socio-economic programs

• Will serve as president for both poor and the elites, minimizing the gap between the
privileged and underprivileged
• Malacañang palace will be opened to the people
• Implementation of the Agricultural Reform Code of 1963
• Abolishment of percentage sharing between farmers and landowners on rice and corn farm
produce
• Espoused values of morality and efficiency in line with his thrusts of eradicating corruption
and removal of economic control, both of which will restrict national progress
(Almase, A.D.D.2007)

Highlights of events during his term

Recognizant of his notable accomplishments were the major legislations he approved such
as:
• RA No. 3512 - this act created Fisheries Commission that defines the power, duties and
functions and the appropriation of funds thereof;

76
 • RA No, 3518 - that a created the Veterans Bank and for its other purposes;
• RA No. 3844 - which is an act to ordain the Agricultural Land Reform Code thereby
instituting land reform in the Philippines that includes the abolition of the tenancy and
channeling of capitals into industry. It also provides the necessary implementing agencies,
appropriate funds therefore and for other purposes;
• RA No. 4166 – it is an act changing the date of Philippine Independence day from July 4 to
June 12. This act also amends for the purpose of this act Section 29 of the Revised
Administrative Code; and
• RA No. 4180 - an act amending RA No. 602 known as the Minimum Wage Law, by raising
the minimum wage for certain workers as well as for other purposes.
• Among his foreign policies implemented on September 12, 1962 was the claim for eastern
north of Borneo (now known as Sabah), the title, the full sovereignty and dominion over
the territory were surrendered by the then reigning Sultan of Sulu HM Sultan Muhammad
Esmail E. Kiram I to the Republic of the Philippines, thus giving the government to take full
authority for its claim in international courts.

Almase (2007) also cited that Macapagal’s administration was characterized as progressive
with new ideas moving towards to prosperity. He boosted a government as instrument to which
people are really free, i.e. - free from the bondage of poverty, free to explore their potentials, free
to choose and criticize their officials and free from stifling economic controls.

In his term of office, Macapagal had met several problems that were not resolved, to wit:
low living standards of the masses, lack of economic stability, unemployment, Philippine peso
devaluation, access of foreigners in buying and controlling local businesses easily due to prevailing
exchange rate for they are richer than the Philippines and that of the 350 midnight appointments
that were not revoked.

Foreign policy of Macapagal

Upon assumption to office of Diosdado Macapagal, he continued the foreign policy

initiated by President Garcia, one of which is by changing the date of Philippine Independence from
July 4 to June 12 . It paved the way to formulate foreign policy detaching from that of the United
States. MAPHILINDO was organized to expedite the socio-economic linkages among neighboring
member-states.

Ferdinand Edralin Marcos (1965-1987)

The 10th President of the Philippines and as 6th and last President of the 3rd
Republic was Marcos. He was born on September 11, 1917 at Sarrat, Ilocos Norte .
During World War II, he was an officer of the Philippine Armed Forces and believed
to be the leader of the resistance movement of Filipino guerillas. However such
claim was denounced in the archives of US that he only did a minor part in the fight
against the Japanese during World War II.

Philippine situation during Marcos’ first term

77
 When the Philippines was granted its independence on July 04, 1946 then the Philippine
Congress was created. This paved the way for Marcos to enter the world of politics. He was twice
elected as representative to his district and served from 1949-1959. He served also as senator in
1959 until such time that he won as president of the country in 1965. Since Marcos was not
nominated as presidential candidate by the Liberal Party he opted to join the Nacionalista Party
and won the election and inaugurated on December 30, 1965. The first move he did as president,
which he opposed when he was then a senator was to send troops to Vietnam war.

Marcos’ Foreign Policy

The seven policy guidelines of Ferdinand E. Marcos was outlined into:

1. National Interest
2. Resistance to communists aggression
3. Reverence for the rule of law
4. Support for the United Nations
5. Friendship with peace-loving states
6. Increased regional cooperation
7. Economic development

In 1969, Marcos was reelected being the first Filipino president to serve the second term.
This term was characterized with rampant vote buying, massive crowd violence and fraud on
Marcos’ part. His second term was funded with $56million from the Philippine treasury. Notable
also was his campaign unrest better known as the First Quarter Storm wherein leftist took to the
streets to demonstrate against the government against both American and involvement in the
Philippine affairs and the existing apparent dictatorship of Marcos. Massive student
demonstrations demanding for educational reforms and even crashed a fire truck into the
Presidential Palace in 1970.

Followed by the revival of Filipino Communist Party that threatens the government. The
presence of the Muslim separatist movement in the south also came into picture demanding for
succession. In response to these threats, Marcos proclaimed Martial Law in the entire archipelago
on September 21, 1972, thereby issuing orders on curfew hours, lifting habeas corpus and jailed his
political opponents exemplified by former senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Wigberto Tañada, Jose
Diokno, Aquilino “Nene” Pimentel, Satur Ocampo are only few to mention.

Philippine situation during Marcos’ second term of office or re-election

By virtue of Martial Law, Marcos executed extraordinary powers for himself, he

manipulated the military to be his weapon against his political opponents vividly shows his ruthless
approach to opposition. In this period he also created several positions majority filled up by his
and Imelda’s relatives. To name some; Imelda served as Member of the Parliament (1978-1984);
Governor of Manila (1976-1986) and Minister of Human Settlement (1978-1986).

Marcos called for parliamentary elections under the banner of KBL (Kilusang Bagong
Lipunan) on April 7,1978. It preempted any member of the LABAN political party headed by
Benigno Aquino to win the race. Likewise, massive vote buying by Marcos loyalists were shown in
election monitors during elections.

78
 Democratic freedom was diminished due to abrupt changes on economic, industrial, and
massive infrastructures to further attract foreign tourists and investors in the country. The first
couple entertained international figures and leaders this brought to higher economic growth as
evidenced by one is to one ratio of exchange rate between peso to a dollar but it did not last.
Prices of commodities sold in the public market drastically increased in prices, people no longer
abide with the laws and summarily no longer endure his tyranny and overspending of the 1969
fiscal year budget. In short, all that economic booms dramatically went down due to suspicions of
too much corruptions that triggered unexpected uprisings to express their discontentment. This
was heightened when then Senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino Jr. was assassinated at the tarmac
boarded on China Airlines’ Flight 811. People believed it was orchestrated by Marcos himself. This
resulted to the desitance of OFW (Overseas Filipino Workers) to remit their income or assistance
to their respective families fearing it will not reach their families.

In order to overcome people’s discontentment, disgust and anguish, violations of human

rights, mercilessness killings, and overused of authority Marcos in order to camouflage his
administration’s abuses, lost of public trust and culpable violations of the Constitution, he staged
beauty contests like Miss Universe Contest in Manila and an engrande parade intended for the
commemoration for the history of the people. Drastic changes in the environment exemplified by
Imelda’s “Clean & Green Movement”; massive infrastructures mushroomed almost anywhere to
ensure employment, road constructions in the highway, connecting roads from Aparri to Davao and
Zamboanga; road widening , resettlement areas, bridges and other impact projects under the so
called Export Processing Zone.

These developments paved the way for foreign investors that even more hastened local
investors to recover from their loses from their farm produce. Fourteen hotels were constructed
intended for the coming of delegates from International Monetary Fund and World Bank expected
to attend the international convention. The turn of events showed that these hotels did not earn
profit as expected and were sold to foreigners even at a lower cost than to retain it. Marcos
declared new name of his administration known as “Bagong Lipunan” ( New Society) to mark the
changes he did for the people.

However, the truth will never be hidden for a lifetime. Later on it was clear to the people
that Marcos was unstoppable with his numerous foreign loans (World Bank & International
Monetary Fund) that financed all those infrastructure projects and behind the scene he made
more gains out of it on commission basis. These were coursed to his cronies. His former DPWH
Secretary, Baltazar Aquino who divulged all the machinations of Marcos on public funds when he
testified at Sandigang Bayan. Americans did the same proving on Marcos crony named Disini who
received his commission amounting to $42 million for the construction of the nuclear power plant
in Bataan and other deceiving big projects.

Marcos’ downfall begun on August 13, 1985 when 56 members of his Parliament called for
his impeachment on the grounds of graft and corruption and other high crimes. Because of this,
Marcos called for a snap election in 1986. His opponent was the wife of Benigno Aquino, Sr. ,
Corazon Cojuangco Aquino, a convent bred person. Marcos claimed he won by 8.6 million votes
but poll watchers found a 800,000 win by Aquino. People were prompted to staged a People Power
better known as the bloodless revolution held at EDSA (Epifanio Delos Santos Avenue) that quickly
drove the Marcoses into exile in Hawaii, thus Aquino reigned. COA reports showed that Marcos
embezzled billions of dollars from the Philippines while Imelda left over 2,000 pairs of shoes,

79
hundreds of ternos and jewelries in her closet when they flew to Hawaii. Ferdinand Marcos died in
Honolulu on September 28, 1989 bearing with him the reputation as one of Asia’s most corrupt and
tyrant leader. He died in Honolulu of kidney, heart and lungs ailments.

Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1986-1992 )

Following the ouster of Ferdinand E. Marcos, the first Philippine lady

president was the widow of Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr. Her full name is Ma.
Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco-Aquino, a known convent-bred woman. Born
on January 25, 1933 in the province of Tarlac. She came from a wealthy
political and banking family. Her father , Jose Cojuangco had been a
Congressman in Tarlac and her mother, Demetria Sumulong was the
daughter of Juan Sumulong, a senator during the American period and Vice-
Presidential teammate of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo (Cortez, R. et.al.,2000). At the age 13 she attended
school in Manila and finished her education in the United States, Philadelphia, and finally in New
York City. She earned her bachelor’s degree both in French and mathematics in 1953 at Mount St.
Vincent College. When she came back to the Philippines she decided to enroll in law school at the
Far Eastern University but were not able to finish it when she met and married Benigno “Ninoy”
Aquino, Jr., an ambitious young journalist and fast rising politician. He also came from a wealthy
family in Tarlac. They married in 1954 and raised five children, one son and four daughters.

The assassination of Benigno Aquino Jr. in 1983 contributed much to Corazon C. Aquino’s
political career by the clamor of the Filipino people as well as foreign political leaders to replace
Marcos who cheated and even manipulated the results of the snap election. Eventually he was
declared winner by the Batasan. It triggered a massive walk out from among the poll watchers that
time were the fifty oppositionists.

People Power Revolution

From this juncture, the CBCP (Catholic Bishop Conference of the Philippines) headed by
then Cardinal Sin called upon the people to be vigilant. People empowerment was mobilized and
responded to Cardinal Sin’s calling. The scenario was very inevitable civilians versus the military.
Thereafter, the first bloodless revolution happened in EDSA.

PDP-LABAN/UNIDO was Corazon C. Aquino’s political party. After being proclaimed as

winner of the snap election over Marcos, Corazon Aquino took her oath at Club Filipino assisted by
former Justice Hilario Davide, Jr .

Plans and Programs of Corazon C. Aquino

In order to effect reforms and good governance in her incumbency, Aquino laid down her
laws and programs, some of which are cited below:

• Restoration of democracy
• Declared a revolutionary government
• Abolished the legislature
• Formulate a new Constitution (1987 Constitution)
• Land Reform

80
 • Free secondary schooling
• Aquino encouraged the United States businessmen to increase its trading with the First
Philippine Fund Inc.
• Ratification of 1991 Treaty – allowing renewal of lease of US military bases in the
Philippines for tenyears
• Proclamation No. 1 – this was a call for all government officials who were presidential
appointees to tender their courtesy resignations so as to effect government reorganization
for her cabinet ministers under Administrative Order No.1
• Proclamation No. 3 – this was issued for the proclamation of Aquino’s revolutionary
government displacing the 1973 Constitution and Freedom Constitution was uphold
wherein legislative powers were centralized to her until a new Constitution will be drafted.
• Proclamation No. 9 – this was issued in order to create a constitutional commission
(ConCom) for the drafting of a new Constitution. She appointed former Justice Cecilia
Muñoz Palma as head with 48 members of ConCom.
• Executive Order No. 48 was issued creating an Ad Hoc special committee to ensure
transparency on proper disbursing , accounting and auditing of expenses incurred for the
drafting of the new Constitution.
• Administrative Code of 1987 – it prescribes the procedures, functions and powers of each
administrative offices under direct supervision and control of the Executive branch of the
government
• Executive Order No. 229 - provides the schemes in implementing the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program, issued on July 22, 1987

Pledges of Corazon C. Aquino during election and inaugural speech

• Erosion of our sense of nation
• Create jobs and livelihood
• Deliver social services
• Bring about peace and order
• Improve the lives of the all our people
• Mobilize the spirit of volunteerism especially among the youth, by documenting and
publicizing examples of selfless service to country and people by groups and individuals
working in and with the grassroots

Philippine situation during her term

Philippines was under a transitionary period after Marcos was ousted. Since Aquino’s
government is borne out of people power, she issued Proclamation No. 3 which established a
revolutionary government dissolving the 1973 Constitution created by Marcos during Martial Law.
She promulgated a provisional 1986 known as Freedom Constitution pending the ratification of a
new Constitution. By virtue of this, she performs both the powers and functions of the executive
and Legislative department until such time that a new Congress was created in 1987.

She also promulgated the new Family Code of 1987 which organized the legal code and
civil structures on the family relations, and the Administrative Code of 1987, which reorganized the
structure of the Executive Branch of the government. One of the landmarks of her administration
was the enactment of the Local Government Code of 1991, which devolved national government
powers to Local Government Units (LGU). With this code it enhanced the power of LGUs in
enhancing the local taxation measures and ensures them to have a share in national revenues.
81
 If Marcos dissolved Congress during his term, Corazon Aquino closed the Marcos-
dominated Batasang Pambansa to prevent Marcos loyalists-oppositions from undermining her
administration in its advocacy for reform and organized the membership of the Supreme Court in
restoring its independence.

By virtue of the powers vested in the Supreme Court it officially declared the
administration of Corazon Aquino of not merely a de facto government and also as the rightful
leader of the Philippines. It then aid in the fast tract in the restoration of a full constitutional
government and the writing of a new Constitution. With 48 members of the 1986 Constitutional
Commission or “Con-Com” headed by retired Justice Cecilia Muñoz Palma of the Supreme Court.
The draft of the new Constitution finished on October 1986. The 1987 Constitution addresses its
emphasis on the civil liberties, protection of its human rights and social justice were
overwhelmingly approved by the Filipino people. Following the ratification of the 1987
Constitution was the election of senators and congressman on the same year and the conduct of
local elections.

Highlights of Events:

Corazon C. Aquino will be most remembered by the Filipino people for it was in her term
that a ruthless leader was toppled down due to the first bloodless revolution in Asia, a simple
housewife who led the revolution and the woman who bravely went out to restore democracy. She
has been hailed as the modern-day Joan of Arc, for she brought back a democratic, republican
Constitutional rule in the Philippines. Her administration will also be remembered for its move on
decentralization of governmental powers. In terms of economics, she will be remembered for
trying hard to mobilize foreign investments in the Philippines through its liberalization and
deregulation failing the government- owned and controlled corporations (GOCCs) and other
entities. She also advocated a socially-oriented market economy in the Philippines through market
reforms and people empowerment.

Foreign Policies:

President Corazon C. Aquino have the following foreign policies she formulated, to wit:
1. Liberalization of our relations with socialist and communist countries, particularly
expanded cultural exchange and trade relations with the USSR, and foreign air agreements
with the European countries like Poland.
2. Delisting of restricted nationalities with only South Africa, North Korea and Yemen
remaining on the list.
3. Further normalization of our relations with Malaysia through continuous initiatives to
attain a peaceful resolution of the Sabah question.
4. Support for the United Nations by sending a medical team to Saudi Arabia at the height of
the Gulf war.
5. Expansion of ties with the Islamic world, with our country as one of 119 nations with
diplomatic relations with the State of Palestine
6. Reformulation of our Middle East policy, following the power realignment in that region,
which would aid not only our overseas workers deployed there but also to ease the
problem of secession and tensions with the Organization of Islamic conference, while
adequately protecting our interest in the importation of oil.

82
 7. Redefinition of our relations with the United States, as the Military Bases Agreement was
terminated; and the constitutional provisions on foreign military facilities was
implemented.
8. Emphasis on our commitment to the international community to uphold the human rights
through among others, the ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights and on the signing the International Covenant on the Rights of the Child.
9. Generation of broadened support for the Multilateral Aid Initiative under the Philippine
Assistance Program where developed nations have manifested their concern for the
continued strengthening of our burden of blazing the trail of democracy and development.

President Corazon C. Aquino was diagnosed with colon cancer, being a religious person it
was expected that series of healing masses were offered for her recovery, but she died on August
01, 2009 at Makati Medical Center.

Fidel Valdez Ramos (1992-1998)

Ramos ,was the 12th President of the Philippines and 2nd President of
the 5th Republic, member of the Lakas-NUCD-UMDP. He was born on March 18,
1928 in Lingayen, Pangasinan to Narciso Rueva Ramos, a lawyer and journalist
of Asingan, Pangasinan and Angela Marcos Valdez clans of Ilocos Norte.Fidel V.
Ramos took and topped the competitive examination for th lone Philippine slot
at the US Military Academy at West Point, New York in 1950 graduated within
the upper 10% of his class. The rigorous physical and intellectual requirements
at West Point developed in him habits of self-discipline, hard work and
thoroughness in his performance of tasks-qualities that would later form the
bedrock of his fitness to be the presidency of his country. He pursued his
Master’s Degree in Civil Engineering from the University of Illinois in 1951 before he return to the
Philippines. He rose from the rank, at first from Secretary of National Defense (1988-1991);
commanding general of Cebu third infantry division to chief of the command of Philippine
Constabulary when EDSA Revolution broke out. He orchestrated the psychological warfare against
his cousin, President Ferdinand E. Marcos, that brought Corazon C. Aquino to power. As a reward,
Aquino promoted him to the rank of AFP Chief of Staff (1986-1988) vice Juan Ponce Enrile and
subsequently endorsed him to presidential candidacy (Cortez, et.al. 2005).

It was in his term that the country experienced a period of political stability an rapid
economic growth and expansion.

Philippine situation during his term

Eventful days of Aquino’s administration was marked with numerous coup d’etat attempts,
rebellion and uprisings that caused destabilization of the government. Brought about by these
prevailing circumstances, the citizens were bewildered, threatened and were losing their trust to
the government.

Ramos faced the major problems left by the Aquino government, namely: on Asian
financial crisis and power crisis brought about by rampant brownouts and huge demand for
electrical supply that cannot be served due to depreciated power plants. The coming of Fidel V.
Ramos to the scene as incumbent president of the Philippines was believed to restore civil liberty
and the country’s stability.

83
 On the economic aspect, the lack of foreign investors during Aquino’s term weakened
because of massive coup attempts. Due to old power plants, Philippines suffered unpredictable
devaluation of peso.

Election and Inaugural promises

Ramos reiterated his promises as enumerated below :

• Restoration of civil order
• Make politics serve not the family, favored groups, or themselves but the nation
• Restore civility in political competition
• He will reach out to the factions of the political community to work out priorities and
agendas
• He will reach out to the rebels to give their up their armed struggles
• Request the Congress to convene and amend the Constitution
• Nurse the economy and make it grows; generate productive employment
• Dismantling protectionist barriers and providing correct incentive and support for the
industries
• Supply equal measure of agriculture
• To continue the reforms of Aquino

In order to sustain these promises, Ramos arrived at the following laws and programs:

➢ Republic Act No. 7638 (Charter of the Department of Energy).

This was signed and implemented to create the Department of Energy
➢ Republic Act No. 7648 (Electric Power Crisis) – It prescribes the measures that are
necessary and proper to effectively address the electric power crisis in our country
➢ First RP-US Visiting Forces Agreement – this will enable the US government to keep the
authority over their military personnel that are accused of committing crimes in the
Philippines .it exempts US military personnel of visa and passport regulations in the
Philippines, from being tried in Filipino religious or military courts, materials exported and
imported by the military from duties and taxes. This act also allows US vessels move from
US and aircrafts in the Philippines unrestrictedly.
➢ Republic Act No. 7832 –it refers to the Anti-Electricity and Electric Transmissions
Lines/Pilferage Act). It penalizes robbers and pilferage of electric lines and materials
➢ Republic Act No. 8042- known as the Migrant Workers Act that protects Filipino workers
abroad .
➢ Republic Act No. 8179 – this act allows foreign investments that supports RA No. 7042
which promotes foreign investments and prescribes the procedures and actions foreign
investors have to do when registering for a business in the Philippines.
➢ Deregulation and privatization of major industries.

Ramos administration also geared towards new visions on benefitting fishermen, farmers,
agricultural businesses, and hacienderos due to CARP program through these following programs
and actions:

• Philippines 2000
• Peace and stability
84
 • Economic growth and Development
• Energy and power generation
• Environmental protection
• Streamlined bureaucracy
• Agrarian Reform Program
• Restoration of death penalty

Highlights of events

The highlights of his political career as president was his Philippines 2000 Five Point
Program namely: 1st peace and stability, 2nd economic growth and sustainable development, 3rd
energy and power generation, 4th environmental protection and 5th the streamlining of the Ramos
bureaucracy, made peace negotiations with the rebels the NPA and MILF. Ramos helped in
acquiring peace agreement with the Muslims. He advocated massive drive for nationalism in
preparation for the country’s centennial anniversary. He also created the National Unification
Commission with Haydee Yorac as its Chairman. He granted amnesty to rebel military officers
known as Reform the Armed Forces Movement (RAM) led by Gringo Honasan who tried to ouster
Aquino with its numerous coup d’etat attempts. Before they were granted amnesty Ramos
required them to do 50 push-ups for the mutineers. Ramos administration brought economic
growth and stability.

Foreign policy of Ramos

Notable was his focus on the global linkages through building and strengthening
partnerships and exploring new ones. Based from the Technical Report on the Accomplishments of
the Ramos Administration, 1997).
1. Energizing the Economy. The World Trade Organization (WTO) reported that Philippine
export sector has been growing annually at an average of 17% for the 6 years.
2. Sustained increase in Foreign Investments. The openness and outward approach in
investment and business policies successfully built stability and created an environment
that encourages investment.
3. Maintained solid Export Growth Electronics and components contributed the biggest share
in Philippine exports.
4. Sustained inflows of Capital International reserves were maintained at a comfortable level-
equivalent to 24 months’ worth of import of goods and services.
5. Regional Strategic Position Partnerships for the 21 st Century. The Philippine maintained
solidarity with her neighbors in Southeast Asia. ASEAN remained a focus of Philippine
foreign relations.
6. Pursued Development Diplomacy. The government strengthened the case for diplomacy
by expanding Philippine diplomatic relations with old allies and raiding partners and
developing new friendships.
7. Participated Actively in International Organization and bodies. The Ramos Administration
vigorously pursued national interest and development objectives in the multilateral.
8. Promoted Welfare of OFWs. The Philippine government relentlessly pursued and protected
the interest of Filipino migrant workers particularly in Europe, Hong Kong, Singapore, and
the Middle East.

85
Joseph Ejercito Estrada (1998-2001)

The 13th President of the Philippines was of the LAMMP political party.
Estrada was born on April 19, 1937 in Tondo, Manila. He was the fifth of the
ten children of Emilio L. Ejercito who served as Manila’s Sanitary Engineer who
graduated from University of the Philippines and was the first Filipino to obtain
a Doctor of Philosophy in environmental engineering from the University of
Chicago. His mother was Maria Marcelo, was a former beauty queen of Spanish descent, had
studied music at the Colegio de Sta. Rosa. She was 90 years old at the time of Estrada’s ascendancy
to the presidency (Cortes,et.al.,2000). Estrada was kicked out from his primary studies at the
Ateneo de Manila University subsequently, he enrolled in an Engineering course at the Mapua
Institute of Technology in an effort to please his father, but dropped out to pursue his love for
acting with the screen name “Erap” given by his friend the late Fernando Poe, Jr.

He entered politics under LAMMP political party. As president he was inaugurated at the
Barasoain Church known as the cradle of the first Philippine Republic in Malolos, Bulacan on June
30,1998. He delivered his inaugural speech at the Quirino Grandstand in Luneta. At the height of
the Asian financial crisis and agricultural problems bought by poor weather conditions resulting to
an economic growth. He declared an “all-out-war” with the MILF and captured its headquarters
and other camps. Despite of all these, allegations cropped up that corruption is present in his
administration that paved the way for him to be impeached not on the ground for perjury but on
plunder and sentenced to reclusion perpetua. He was the first Filipino president who was
impeached and eventually convicted. His impeachment trial was the first time being witnessed by
the public due to its full media coverage both in radio and television. It all started with his
involvement and the existence of the bank accounts he used in receiving for his payoffs were also
revealed. Anti-Estrada protesters marched out to EDSA shrine at Epifanio delos Santos Avenue. In
2001 Estrada was ousted after the impeachment trial.

Promises during election and inaugural address

Estrada’s first focus was on the betterment of the economy by means of maintaining peace
and order in the country so as to stabilize Philippine economy. Typical for a politicians, he also
promised the poor that they will suffer no more for he uttered that problems on health, food,
shelter, clothing, education and source of income will be addressed properly by his administration.
Thus, he was tagged as “Erap para sa mahinirap” . He even boasted that he will give at once a
government that works.

Highlights of events

Estrada was charged with the following cases:

➢ plunder -it consists of four separate charges: the acceptance of Php545 million from
jueteng proceeds which is under the law is illegal gambling game; misappropriation of
Php130 million from tobacco excise taxes; received Php189.7 million representing his share
from the Belle Corporations (a real estate firm) and having large bank deposits under code
name “Jose Velarde “.

86
 ➢ Perjury – for understated assets in 1999 as reflected in his Statement of Assets and
Liabilities for illegal use of alias- Jose Velarde bank account; and the BW Resources – a
small gaming company.
➢ Impeachment Trial – this was the first time that was viewed by the public in full media
coverage

GLORIA MACAPAGAL ARROYO

From Lakas CMD/KAMPI emerged the 14th president of the Philippines

and 4th president of the Republic succeeding Estrada was his then Vice-
President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo born a Maria Gloria Macaraeg Macapagal.
In 1968 she earned her degree in economics from Assumption College as
magna cum laude.

Arroyo spearheaded a controversial plan to overhaul the Constitution to transforming the

present unitary and presidential republic with a unicameral legislature into a federal parliamentary
with a unicameral legislature. Her first term of office (2001-2004) finishing the unfinished term of
office of former president Estrada. Her administration suffered many coup attempts, one of which
was headed by Lt. Antonio Trillanes IV of the Philippine Navy because they see signs that Arroyo
have plan to declare for Martial Law. Arroyo made a promise that she will not seek another term
come 2004 presidential election, but she lied to the people. She won the 2004 presidential
election. She took her oath taking in Cebu City the first time that the president of the country took
her oath of office outside Luzon. Rumors surfaced in her first year as the newly elected president
for overwhelming cheating, rampant vote buying schemes during the election claiming over 1M
votes over her opponent the late Philippine actor, Fernando Poe Jr.

It was in her term that former president Estrada was granted Executive clemency based
from the recommendation of the Department of Justice after seven years of detention.

Foreign policy of Arroyo government

President Arroyo’s foreign relations and policy are as follows:

• Saving the lives of 33 overseas Filipino workers with death convictions
• Introduction of ePassport with a turnaround trip application time of less than two weeks.
• Passage of Veteran Bill, which extended US$198 million in additional benefits to Filipino
veterans.
• Forgoing of labor agreements with various countries to open up employment opportunities
for OFWs and to ensure that their rights and welfare are guaranteed.
• Raising of international awareness on the protection of the rights of migrant workers as an
imperative to global development through the booting by the Philippines in 2008 of the
Global Forum on Migration and Development.
• Passage of the Citizenship Retention and Reacquisition Act of 2003 allowing natural born
citizens who have acquired foreign citizenship to reacquire Filipino citizenship
• Passage of Overseas Absentee voting Act allowing overseas Filipino workers to exercise
their eight of vote for the first time in 2003

87
 • Enactment of a law establishing the Philippine baseline, determining the country’s
maritime boarders and bringing the country closer towards complying with the
Constitutional mandate of upholding sovereignty and protecting its territorial integrity
• Signing of the declaration of the Conduct in the south china sea (now called West
Philippine sea)
• Active involvement in the 2010 Non- Proliferation Treaty Review Conference and the
coming into force of the ASEAN Charter

Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III

From the Liberal Party, the 15thPresident of the Philippines and 5th
President of the 5th Republic is (2010-present) was born on February 8, 1960 in
Tarlac. Aquino is the 3 rd of 5 children of then Vice-Governor of Tarlac, Benigno
“Ninoy”Simeon Aquino, Sr. of Tarlac. He attended his elementary, secondary and
tertiary education from Ateneo de Manila University. In 1981 he earned his
Bachelor of Arts major in Economics. He was one of the students of former
Professor in Economics, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. He joined his family in their exile
in the United States. He returned in the Philippines in 1983 shortly after the assassination of his
father Senator Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr. He is the youngest elected president and the 4 th
youngest president after Emilio Aguinaldo, first bachelor president of the Philippines, first
president to make Bahay Pangarap his official residence although Malacañan Palace is the official
residence of the President of the Philippines .

Aquino is the 4th generation politician; his great grandfather, Servillano “Mianong” Aquino,
served as delegate of Malolos Congress; his grandfather, Benigno Aquino, Sr. served as Speaker of
the House of Representatives of the Philippines (1943-1944); and his parents were President
Corazon “Cory” Cojuangco Aquino and Senator benign “Ninoy” Aquino, Jr. Prior to his being the
president of the country, “PNoy or Noynoy” fondly called by friends and allays, held various
positions in the Liberal Party as Secretary General and Vice-President for Luzon; Chairman of the
Liberal Party.

Under President Arroyo’s term, PNoy served as Acting Secretary of the Department of
Interior and Local Government (June 30, 2010 to July 9, 2010); Deputy Speaker of the House
(November 8, 2004 to February 21, 2006) and Senator of the Philippines (June30, 2007 to June
30,2010). He took his oath of office on June 30, 2010 at the Quirino Grandstand, Rizal Park, Manila.

Among his notable accomplishments in his political career, to mention some, are the
following: Senate Bill No 2035 which is the Preservation of Public Infrastructures, seeking to raise
standards in the construction of all public infrastructures by penalizing contractors ofdefective
infrastructures. The bill also requires the Bureau of Maintenance under the Department of Public
Works and Highways (BPWH) to conduct periodic inspections of public infrastructures.

Foreign policy of Aquino’s administration

Benigno Simeon Aquino III laid down his foreign policy and international relations, to wit:

• Declaration of 2012-2013 as Philippine china years of Friendly Exchange.

88
 • Reaffirmation of commitment to abide by the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the
South China sea signed by China and the ASEAN- member countries.
• Agreement with China to expand bilateral trade and to improve the trade structure,
promote vigorous exchange of investments and explore new areas of economic
cooperation in the fields of renewable energy, shipping and ports.
• Strengthening of the Philippine – US Mutual Defense Treaty and launching of the
Partnership for Growth.
• Improvement of bilateral relations with South Korea and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
• Strengthening of linkages with Indonesia through the holding of the Philippine-Indonesia
Joint commissions for Bilateral Cooperation.

Rodrigo Roa Duterte

(2016-2022)

Former President Rodrigo R. Duterte was elected into office after May 2016 elected
as the 16th President of the Philippines succeeding the late Benigno Aquino III. He
was the first president to be elected from Mindanao and the oldest to be elected.
His term ended on June 30, 2022 with the election into office of Ferdinand
“Bongbong” Marcos Jr.

Five Major Achievements

1.Significant poverty reduction and economic inclusion

Significant or a 6.8 percentage –point reduction in Poverty was reduced to a significant 6.8
percent from 23.5 % to 16.7 % of the population when he began his presidency . In 2019, 6.2
million Filipinos increased their earnings to $2 a day. Three major policy reforms – the Rice
Tariffication Law removed rice monopolies thereby allowing importations that brought down rice
prices;Rice is 15 % of consumer basket; the TRAIN or Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion
Law January 2018 ( which exempted from income taxes from the earnings of those with income
250,000 a year- which comprised the bulk of low income earners. The third policy reform-Universal
Health Care Act, a socialist act copied by countries like Thailand but which is being undermined by
massive corruption at the state health insurance agency, PHILHEALTH.

2.The Campaign against illegal drugs

Almost two of every three Filipinos believe that the number of drug users in their area has
been reduced since Duterte came into power in 2016. Tokhang has resulted in some 7,000
druglords and addicts were eliminated in just two years twice the number the late Ferdinand
Marcos was accused of killing in 20 years of Martial Rule. The Duterte administration was accused
by Human Rights watchers of killing 27,000.
89
3.Sanctioning of abusive utilities

The Duterte administration sought to scrap long-term contracts secured in 1997 of two water
concessionaires, The Maynilad Water of the First Pacific Ltd group of Antoni Salim of Indonesia
and Filipino CEO Manuel V. Pangilinan and the Manila Water Company of the Ayala family and
the Singapore government - unless they accepted new contract with better terms to the Philippine
government. The two water companies gave up P11 billion in arbitral awards- refund from
unapproved rate increases. Ayala Manila Water sold 25vpercent of its shares to tycoon Enrique
Razon for P10 billion thus, taking over the water utility concession.

4. Break up of some oligrachies

The resultant effect of the closure of a long –running major tv station, ABS-CBN on May 5,
2020 broke one of the oldest oligrach of the Lopez family, owner of the said broadcast network.
This closure led to the displacement of over 11,000 employees during the pandemic period.
The property tycoon Roberto V. Ongpin, the Ayala family and Manuel Pangilinan ofPLDT were not
spared from Duterte’s vitriolic attacks.
Ongpin divested from one of his listed companies, Pangilinan’s Maynilad Water and the
Ayala’s Manila Water waived their claims to arbital award of more than P11 billion in water fees.

5.Savvy fiscal management

The Philippines achieved its highest credit rating under Duterte’s administration, The triple B+
in April 2020. The Japan Credit Rating (JCR) upgraded the Philippine rating to A- with a stable
outlook. But the upgrade came at the time when the Philippines had experienced its deepset
recession due to long-term severe lockdown that shut down the economy for seven months, which
shot down 70 % of businesses which laid off 20 million workers and instantly impoverished half of
the Philippine population.

The Major Failures of the Duterte Administration

1.The Greatest Depression

The Philippine economy sank to its lowest level in second quarter of 2020 lowring the GDP by
16.5 %, the lowest and worst recession in history. BizNewsAsia estimated the GDP contraction to
30 %, and recorded P1.5 trillion loss in economic production due to prolonged lockdowns of 7
months. As such, the Duterte Administration has the worst economic performance and worst in
Asia. The economic collapse had made him the worst president in terms of economic
performace.And this is due to the next failure.

90
2. Pandemic mismanagement

Duterte imposed one of the earliest lockdown in the world, the longest and most strict
lockdown in the world that failed to contain the pandemic. When the President imposed the
lockdown on March 15,2020, there were only two confirmed cases just ten (10) days before that.
The Philippines is the pandemic epicenter in the 11-nation ASEAN with a total of 248,947 cases.
The lockdownhelped avert an estimated 1.3 to 3.5 million infections according to researches from
other universities. The lockdown enabled the Philippines to reinforce the health system and build
up capacity to do widespread testing in our communities. However, infections worsen without
lockdown.

Finance Secretary Carlos Domingues said that, “ without lockdown, the rate of infections
and deaths could have been much worse. Data suggest a little over 1 % of all COVID 19 cases in the
country are severe or critical. Our mortality rate is 2.5 people per hundred thousand. Based on
recent data, the EU member states average 32 deaths per hundred thousand. The UK is at 70,
Spain at 61, Sweden at 57 and the US at 52 people per hundred thousand.

3. Unprecedented human rights violations

What has made Duterte a strong president, the vicious illegal drug campaign has given him
one of his major failures---massive human rights violations. Human Rights Watch say Duterte had
more than 27,000 killed in the guise of eliminating the pervasive illegal drug cruse. Killings were
carried out in vigilante-style killings perpetuated by police officers themselves or by hired killers.
Authorities admitted 7,000 deaths during the campaign. Any number above that are classified as
homicide under investigations.

Aside from the drug war killings, the Huma Rights Watch has also noted the politically
motivated detention of his most prominent critic, Senator Leila De Lima, the removal in May 2018
of Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno, the revocation of amnesty given to Sneator Antonio
Trillanes IV who led mutinees in 2002 and 2007 and the passage of a new Anti-Terror Act (ATA).

Recently there had been sensational killings of political activists and defenders of human
rights. Reports in 2019, Human Rights Watchs stated that state security forces and government
backed paramilitaries continue to harass, threaten, arbitrary arrest an din some instances attack
and kille political activists, environmentalists, community leaders and journalists.

In May 2019 election, two top allies of the president made it into the Senate elections
which solidified Duterte’s power base. Long time aide Christopher Go and Davao’s former police
chief Ronaldo dela Rosa who initially spearheaded the “drug war” were elected to the Senate.
Dela Rosa was name to head the Senate Committee in charged with the investigation of police
matters and the drug war.

91
4. Failure to contain the communist insurgency and the Muslim Separatist movement

The killings of political activitists and alleged NPA leaders have failed to dent the 52- year old
communist insurgency. Muslim terrorists are on the warpath marked by a new phemonen- suicide
bombers.

5. Cuddling of the Police and the Military

Duterte has employed more generals from the miliarty and the police than any other
president before him. More than 45 star rank officers occupy cabinet and civilian positions in the
government. Despite the overwhelming dominance of generals, the Duterte administration has
not proved itseld any more competent nore any less corrupt than past administrations.

Whenthe chief of the national capital’s police force was caught on social media having a
breakfast birthday party with more than 50 guests despite strict lockdown prohibiting gatherings
of 10 or more people in one place at the same time, Duterte refused to fire the erring general.
(source: https://biznewsasia.com/dutertes-achievements-and-failures/)
https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/iq/235976-duterte-promise-checklist-major-
accomplishments-failures/

READINGS:

• Almase, Ananda Devi Domingo.2006

• Agoncillo, T. Chapters 23-30, 99. 427-586
• Cortes,et .al. The Filipino Saga, chaps 14-17, PP.373-486
• Gripaldo, Eden M., et. Al. 2003. Kasaysayan ng Filipinas at mga Institusyong
Filipino.Sentro Ng Wikang Filipino, UP Diliman. Chap.7-8, p.279-358
• Veneracion, Jaime B. Agos ng Dugong Kayumanggi, Kabanata 9-11, p.207-249

92
 EXERCISE 2: PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

Name:___________________________Course/Sec_________ Date ________________

Identify the class origin, ancestry, past positions and main policy pursued by past Philippine
presidents of the Philippines. Determine also their stand on crucial issues on land reform and
establish if they are favored by the American government.

PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, on On On West On
Reform Environment Gender Import Phil.Sea National
Liberaliza (Foreign Security
Issues
tion Policy

Emilio Aguinaldo
(1899-1901 )
Cavite

Manuel Quezon
(1935-1943 )
QuezonProvince

Jose P. Laurel
(1943-1945 )
Batangas

93
 PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, on On On West On
Reform Environment Gender Import Phil.Sea National
Liberaliza (Foreign Security
Issues
tion Policy
Sergio Osmeña
(1946-46)
Cebu

Manuel A. Roxas
( 1946 -48)
Capiz

Elpidio Quirino
(1948-1952 )
Ilocos Sur

94
 PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, Gender On Import On West On
Reform Environm Issues Liberalizatio Phil.Sea National
n (Foreign Security
ent
Policy

Ramon
Magsaysay
(1953-1957)
Zambales

Carlos P. Garcia
(1957-1961 )
Ilocos

Diosdado
Macapagal
(1961-1965 )
Pampanga

95
 PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, Gender On On West On
Reform Environment Issues Import Phil.Sea National
Liberaliza (Foreign Security
tion Policy
Ferdinand
E.Marcos
(1965-1986 )
Ilocos Norte

Corazon C.
Aquino
(1986-1992 )
Tarlac

Fidel V. Ramos
(1992-1998)
Pangasinan

96
 PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, on On On West On
Reform Environment Gender Import Phil.Sea National
Issues Liberaliz (Foreign Security
ation Policy
Joseph Ejercito
(1998-2001)
Laguna

Gloria M. Arroyo
(2001- 2010)
Pampanga

Benigno C.
Aquino Jr.
( 2010- 2016 )
Tarlac

97
 PRESIDENTIAL PARADE

President Class Past Policy Stand on Stand on Stand on Stand Stand Stand
Positions Pursued Land Mining, Gender On Import On West On
Reform Environm Issues Liberalizat Phil.Sea National
ion
ent (Foreign Security
Policy
Rodrigo Roa
Duterte
(2016-2022)
Davao

Ferdinand R.
Marcos Jr.
(2022-present)
Manila

98
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Oliva Borja Parico is an Associate Professor of the Department of Social

Sciences, Central Luzon State University and obtained her Bachelor of Arts
in History at UP Diliman in 1982 and Master of Arts in Public
Administration in 1995 at UP-San Fernando , Pampanga. She is the
College Extension Coordinator since 1990 to date, did extensive fieldworks
and taught History and Social Science subjects for more than two decades.
She is also an affiliate faculty and researcher of the Institute for Climate
Change and Environmental Management.

Benedict Francisco Reyes is an Assistant Professor of the Department of

Social Sciences, Central Luzon State University, had earned his Bachelor of
Arts in Social Sciences in 1997 at CLSU 1982, Master of Arts in History at
the University of Sto. Tomas in 2005. He was the Department Chair in
2007-2008.He taught History subjects such as Philippine History, Filipino
Nationalism, History of Southeast Asia and other Social Science subjects for
17 years.

99
BELLEDESMA LIBUNAO VILLAVER holds a Master of Arts in Management from Central Luzon
Polytechnic College and Master of Arts in Public Administration from the University of the
Philippines – Diliman. She is currently connected with the Department of Social Sciences, College of
Arts & Sciences, Central Luzon State University. Prof. Villaver has been teaching Social Science,
Political Science and History subjects.

100