Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student

Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

History of Mediterranean - Salient Trends and Perspectives

History of Mediterranean region is complex topic with multiple answers on its most defining
question: what is Mediterranean? The idea that Mediterranean region should be regarded as unity
is nothing new in modern world. It was perceived as one since the time of Roman Empire and
that defining narrative reemerged through time in different variations. What is often dismissed is
that the term Mediterranean changed its meaning over time, as did the perception of who was to
be considered part of that world. History of Mediterranean is defined by its characteristics and
specific paths compared to other regions that are often regarded as unity, such as Great Steppe of
Asia or Atlantic Ocean in more recent times. All of the aforementioned regions have had its fair
share of migrations and influences from bordering lands, challenging construct of unity. The idea
of Mediterranean history could be in fact compilation of layers of those challenges, which
defined space and history of the region. But it is not just “the other” that defines what is inside;
emphasis on this aspect would irreversible put internal movements in the back end of the story.
The other aspect of its “uniqueness” is geographical position – Mediterranean Sea borders three
continents and connects two oceans. Terrain has stayed the only immovable part of the history of
the region: Mediterranean Sea has been defined geographically by the borders of three continents
it connects, two oceans and one smaller mass of water through which it has been connected to
Great Steppe since the last Ice Age. The longevity of those transformations means that history of
Mediterranean is always influenced by it, making it the starting step of every civilization in the
region.

From Neolith to Ancient Mediterranean

Geological and climate formation of Mediterranean basin as we know it today happened

relatively recently, only six to seven thousand years ago. Last climate change distinguished
different zones around sea and pushed northern water systems towards the basin. What is now
known as Mediterranean climate, with hot summer and mild, rainy winters, formed around that
time. Mountain ranges surround it from East to West – Atlas range and mountain ranges of
Andalusia, through Pyrenees, Apennines and Alps in the North, following Dinaric Alps and
Rhodope, through mountains of Asia Minor and Syria. Being bordered by the Sahara desert from
the south, In order to step into the more timid climate of Mediterranean basin, human societies
had to overcome at least one of those obstacles. Movements of those organized societies began
Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student
Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

even before the end of Neolith, penetrating into the region from Middle East and plains of Asia
Minor. Although this period is conventionally regarded as prehistory, in the case of
Mediterranean division between history and prehistory should be omitted; there is no clear line
that could be used to demarcate the periods. Mediterranean societies entered the process of
transition multiple times from sixth to third millennia B.C. Transition of technology and
development of civilization traits such as agriculture, animal husbandry and metallurgy flowed
from east to west, where first civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia formed around valleys of
great rivers, Tigris, Euphrates and Nile. Influence of those regions changed not only societies of
Mediterranean shores, but also the landscape of the region. New plants and animals, introduced
by humans, have supplanted the native species and became dominant and became dominant due
to their role in human societies. Seafaring, on the other hand, introduced Sea and its endless
possibilities to the people that inhabited its coastlines. Being an inland sea brimming with islands
and peninsulas, Mediterranean Sea was navigable by ancient seafarers and merchants by tracking
the coastlines, and later on with the help of Sun and stars. Islands of the Eastern Mediterranean
such as Cyprus and Crete, alongside with the coastline of Levant, became mediums for the
transition of cultures and innovations deeper to the west of the sea shores. Minoan, Mycenaean
and Hittite civilization became dominant in the eastern part of the Mediterranean during the
second millennia B.C. developing advanced societies that relied on their sea communication,
writing systems introduced from the east and political structures centered around Palaces and its
bureaucratic organization. Especially in the case of Minoan civilization of Crete, structure was
relied on dominance at the sea and outposts on local islands. This was first thalassocracy, empire
mostly relied on its connections with the sea and the dominion over other local islands or coastal
harbors. No matter how strong these civilizations seemed, they were very exposed to external
influences and could not successfully respond to them. Minoan civilization collapsed after
natural disaster in 15th century, while Mycenaean and Hittite societies succumbed to another
wave of foreign invaders in what is today regarded as Bronze Age collapse.

Shifting the center of the sea – creating of Mediterranean unity

While the age of Palace-structured civilizations domination was coming to its end, next millennia
Mediterranean societies found different ways to dominate the sea. Phoenicians spread around the
sea shores from Levant to North Africa and southern Iberian Peninsula, settling colonies that
Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student
Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

acted more as independent cities than merchant/army outposts. In the northern parts of
Mediterranean, around the shores Aegean Sea, ancient Greek civilization formed on the basis of
Polis: city state political structure, adapting a lot of technological and social advancements from
Phoenicians, among which was new writing system. Through colonization Greek city states
connected northern shores of Black Sea with Mediterranean world, they expanded the area of the
Mediterranean world and introduced northern parts of Europe to southern societies. Being that
medium between north and west, east and south, societies of Mediterranean coastlines
experienced constant shifts of power from former hinterland areas soon to become centers of the
inland sea. Although Greek city states did follow that road, overcoming Persian threats from
Asia Minor and later on spreading its culture and ideas through conquest of Alexander the Great
and later on during the Hellenistic period, the biggest transformation from periphery to center of
the whole basin was the story of Rome and its republic. Defeating Etruscans and clashing with
Phoenician colony Carthage in the 2nd century B.C. Rome went from another city state in the far
west of Mediterranean center to the center of the Empire that united the whole region as was
never seen before. Conquest of the previous center, Alexandria in Egypt, made the city of Rome
the most influential in the Mediterranean, and the Sea became Mare Nostrum of the empire. With
unity came a lot of technological and social change; traveling by sea became easier and harder at
the same time, by virtue of advancements in navigation such as Astrolabe, and the rise of piracy
and island corsairs who plundered merchant ships more often than in previous times. Spreading
of law and religion became easier, both of which changed the history of Europe and the modern
world through it. But, by the end of the 4th century the unity of the empire could not been
sustained; although Eastern Roman Empire survived after the fall of Rome in 476 A.D. the
cohesion of the Mediterranean world was weakening and dividing once again.

From Medieval to Modern Mediterranean

Old structures from ancient empires had to adapt to the new political landscape. Trade routes and
contacts between east and west didn’t die out completely because the strength of Eastern Roman
- Byzantine Empire, old maritime commerce was getting replaced by local merchants. Although
Muslim conquest did pushed away western merchants from profitable eastern shore trades,
during the early middle ages western Mediterranean societies could not offer a lot for exchange
of goods, meaning they were already cut off by the market itself. Slave trade and corsair looting
Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student
Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

remained one of the old institutions that still connected all Mediterranean shores. But the
appearance of Muslim conquerors proved fruitful in the expansion of new ideas around which
societies and movements formed. Although strong, caliphate could not fully conquer the northern
shores which spurred resistance of Christian states, who devoted their efforts in reconquering the
Iberian Peninsula. Religious pilgrim travels became more popular making new type of
connection between Mediterranean societies. Holding of the sacred places meant more than just
control of the image – it was also the way of reestablishing trading and communication between
two sides. Italian cities, most notably Venice, Genoa and Florence, highly profited from those
movements, managing to take advantage of old eastern powers of Byzantine and Caliphate.
Spreading their influence on the sea, they established new thalassocracy and overpower other
contestants in lucrative trades with Far East. But the hay day of trade in Mediterranean Sea was
coming to an end. Exploration of African coastline, discovery of the New World and trade routes
to Indian subcontinent meant Italian cities were slowly losing the grip on international trade they
acquired in previous centuries. Shift of power moved Mediterranean Sea from its previous
central position to the periphery of modern world, and, although through Renaissance culture
phenomenon it sustained some of its value, old inland sea became less and less important in the
politics of its once most important actors.

Modern and Contemporary Mediterranean

Less important in the grand scheme of global politics, Mediterranean Sea still kept some of its
value over the centuries after the discovery of the New World. Rise of Ottoman Empire, who
conquered most of the eastern shores, was challenged by the Venice, Spain and the rest of the
Holy league, and even stemmed at the battle of Lepanto in 1571. Although still fighting on
premise of religious ideas, by that point Islam was part of Mediterranean world for more than
millennia. New alliances were founded regardless of previous conflicts, as was the case between
Ottomans and the French. Christian communities, most notably in Balkans, were now living
under the dominion of Muslim sultans. Certain amount of adaptation and adjustment had to be
established so different confessions could coexist under the same domain. Some of them refused
to serve under the sultan and joined the constant fighting in the Adriatic Sea and over the islands
in the eastern Mediterranean. But for most, it was learning experience of how to survive and
Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student
Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

strive in the new environment. Regardless of constant problems, or in spite of them, inland sea
still served as an important space for communication between otherwise distant worlds.

Clashes of the 19th century and appearance of British Empire as new most important
protagonist of Mediterranean politics meant that, at least for a brief period of time,
Mediterranean Sea was once again center of attention of most dominant empires in the world.
Russian Empire was slowly approaching from the North Black Sea, chunking Ottoman power
during 18th and 19th century, until it was stopped by coalition in Crimean war. On the southern
side of basin, British conquest of Egypt and building of the Suez Canal meant that world trade
once again flew through Mediterranean waters. Orient became part of the obsession of the
western civilizations, quite often romanticized and misunderstood. By the end of the 19th century,
most of the south and eastern shores were colonized by British or French empire, encircling the
sea under its influence. 20th century brought two massive conflicts were the position of
Mediterranean was more often in the background of more important events in the other parts of
the world. One brief stint of unification idea was tried as fascist Italy dreamed of restoration of
the Roman Empire, in which it failed miserably. Besides of that, Mediterranean region was as
important factor in WWII as the northern parts of Europe, as some of the countries kept
themselves away from the conflict. In the postwar new world order, inland sea saw rise of
conflicts all over its southern and eastern shores. Palestinian – Jewish problem remained one of
the most significant focal points of the conflict in the eastern parts, as the southwestern
Mediterranean countries experienced rise of decolonization movement and later on Arabic
spring.

Today, Mediterranean Sea represents one of the most important trading hubs in the world. Being
connected to the Atlantic and Indian Ocean through Gibraltar strait and Suez Canal, it remains
important both for states European Union and the rest of the world it connects them with. But, it
also represents the failure of immigrant politics of the first world countries, massive disparity in
wealth distribution along its coastlines and area of clashes and crisis that cannot easily be
resolved. Despite its indisputable economic value, today Mediterranean Sea represents line of
division as much as connections between societies.
Rastko Stanojević – Graduate Student
Historiography II: Grand Debates in Mediterranean History – Second paper

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