NMiodule / Licence Category A, B1 and B3 Maintenance Practices 7.10 SpringsIssue 3 — January 2016 Intentionally Blank 10-2 Module 7.10 Springs Module 7.10 Springs Total Training Suppor Ltd © Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, 82 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 ‘+ A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. ‘Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘* The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘* The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 © Ageneral knowiedge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Anablity to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a general description ofthe subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. © The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. © The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 '* A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘* Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematios desoribing the subject. © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. ‘ola Training Support Ltd 10-3 . © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 - January 2046Issue 3 - January 2016 Intentionally Blank 10-4 Module 7.10 Springs Niodule 7.10 Springs ‘Tota Training Support Lid ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Table of Contents General 9 Types of Spring 44 Spring Materials 7 General 7 Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs. 7 Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs. 18 Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Flat Springs 18 Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs 19 Corrosion Protection 19 Composite Materials used for Springs 20 Spring Dimensions 21 Spring Characteristics 23 Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering 27 Spring Maintenance 29 General 29 Inspection and Testing of Springs 31 Glossary. 33 Total Tralrng Suppor Lid 405 paid gap oatnaypoor © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 SpringsModule 7.10 Springs > Intentionally Blank 10.6 “otal Training Support Lia Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7:10 Springs ©Copyight 2016)Noduie 7.10 Springs Module 7.10 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1324/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: Licence Categor Part 66 Objective Reference Module 7A 7B _ A | Bi | 62 | B3 tp2yT- 741 ‘Springs Inspection and testing of springs ‘Total Training Support Ltd 107 © Copyright 2016 ‘Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 ~ January 2016Issue 3 - January 2016 Intentionally Blank 10-8 Module 7.10 Springs. Module 7.10 Springs ‘Tota Training Support Lia 18 Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs General While springs are seemingly simple devices, they are an essential working part of most machines in one form or another. They use the property of elasticity, inherent in many materials, which allows them to absorb energy by distorting or deflecting when under load, store it in their loaded state, and then release it in a controlled manner as they retum to their original shape after the load has moderated (or has been removed). Early springs consisted of flat and curved sections of wood (and later metal), used in the suspension of carts and carriages The dawning of The Industrial Revolution led to the mechanisation of practically every facet of civilised life. Huge advances in transport, timekeeping, world-wide communication and inevitably military capabilities have also taken place, in all of which can be found mechanisms involving the principle of the spring. The subject of spring technology is vast and well beyond the scope of these notes, so it is sufficient for the student to appreciate the basic uses for springs in the aerospace environment and the functions that they fuffil. “Total Training Support Lid 10-9 ast ; © Copynght 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 ~ January 2016Module 7.10 Springs Intentionally Blank 10-10 Tota Training Support Lid fesue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs © Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs S&S Types of Spring The three basic forces, which may be exerted on, and applied by springs are: © Compression * Tension » Torsion These forces may act singly, in combinations of any two or all three. ‘TORSION Springs have evolved into various shapes and sizes (and degrees of stiffness), which have been dictated by the uses to which they have been put, and the loads they absorb, store and release. The more common forms are described here. Flat springs, while they were a development of flat, rectangular-sectioned strips of metal, they can actually be found in forms other than simply flat as, for instance, in the shape of the springs which control the contact breaker points in the magneto of an aircraft piston-type engine. Leaf springs are formed by layers of flat springs and while very early aircraft embodied leaf springs in their landing gear, this type of spring is more familiar in the automobile and railway industries. Spiral springs may be found in the form of spirally wound flat springs (known as motor or power springs) or as spirally wound wire, such as the hair springs of many types of instruments. They are used to store or absorb torsional forces. Tota Taning Suppor Ls 10-11 as © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs fssue 3 ~January 2016Niodule 7.10 Springs Helical Compression and Tension Springs are the most commonly found springs. They are made in a wide variety of materials and sizes and may be found in a seemingly endless number of applications. Compression springs are open wound to accommodate the axial movement. 40-12 “Total Training Suppor Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs © Copyright 2018Module 7.10 Springs CIRCULAR SECTION CONICAL COMPRESSION SPRINGS Tension springs may be open or close wound but usually have hooks or loops formed at their ends as attachment points. Both Compression and Tension springs may be made of circular, square or rectangular cross section wire. Helical springs are usually cylindrical in basic form, however Conical Compression springs may replace cylindrical compression springs when the space in the axial direction is limited. The spring coils fold into each other when the spring is completely compressed. A Conical Compression spring of rectangular cross section is referred to as a Volute spring, oto Tiinng Support Ltd 10-13 eS ©Copyright 2018 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 ~ January 2016Module 7.10 Springs BOUBLE CONICAL TENSION SPRING Helical Torsion Springs while being similarly wound to the cylindrical Compression and Tension springs, have specially shaped ends to permit a torque force to be applied, and transmitted, in a plane normal to the helix axis. HELICAL TORSION SPRING Torsion-bar springs are, basically, straight bars of metal, with splined, square or flanged ends, that can accept and transmit torsional forces. ‘TORSIONBAR 10-14 “Total Training Support Lic Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Disc (or Cone, Cupped or Belleville Washer) Springs are shaped like the cup washers used as locking devices. Often referred to as Belleville Springs or Washers, they are capable of exerting frictional or linear forces and can be multiplied in the same direction to increase the spring load or back to back to increase travel. Total Training Suppor Ltd 10-45 © Copyright 2018, Module 7.10 Springs ScereWiodule 7.10 Springs Intentionally Blank - 10-16 “Total Training Support Ld Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Scop 206)Module 7.10 Springs oe Spring Materials General The materials, used for the manufacture of springs, cover a very wide range of metallic and non-metallic (plastic and elastomer) substances. These notes will, however, be confined mainly to the discussion of metallic types, with a small consideration being given to some composite materials. There are numerous factors that can affect a choice of material for use in a spring. Perhaps the most important of these is the strength of the material: carbon spring steel is the strongest of the common spring materials, closely followed by Inconel and then stainless steel, But, of course, carbon steel will very quickly corrode, even in normal operation. Put it in salt water and it will be useless within a few weeks. Stainless steel may be used in these sort of conditions but it is slightly more expensive and not so strong. Inconel is a strong material and very corrosion resistant but it is also very expensive. it is usually only used in extremely corrosive environments or where reliability is crucial. ‘The operating temperature will also play a part in the choice of material. The maximum reliable operating temperature of a spring can be as low as 150°C for carbon spring steel, 300°C for stainless, but up to about 550°C for Inconel X750. The final choice of material may also depend on other factors such as appearance. Stainless steel or Inconel will not corrode but after heat treatment they are not shiny as would be expected, Stainless steel goes a yellowish colour and Inconel goes dark brown. If a shiny finish is required then the material could be plated after manufacture in which case standard carbon spring steel may be more appropriate Steels used for Cold-Wound Springs Below a cross-sectional diameter of approximately 9.5 to 18.5 mm (0.375 in to 0.725 in) certain steels are drawn into wires and cold-wound to form the required shape. The wires are then usually, given some form of heat-treatment, to relieve the stresses imposed by the winding processes. Typical types of carbon- and alloy-steel are used for the manufacture of cold wound springs and include: Hard-drawn Spring Wire which is of a low-quality (and cheap) carbon steel. This wire has fine seams in its surface, and as such, would only be used in applications of low stress and low fatigue. * Oil-tempered Spring Wire which is of a better quality, high-carbon steel, though it may also contain surface discontinuities and would be found where long fatigue life is not required. © Music Wire which is a carbon-steel of high quality and is suitable for small-sized, helical springs in applications involving high fatigue stresses. ‘Total Training Support Ltd 10-17 i © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 ~ January 2016Module 7.10 Springs * Chrome-Vanadium Steel Wire which is a material that has been used for piston-type aero-engine valve springs and is, suitable for high temperature and high-stress conditions * Chrome-Silicon Steel Wire which when used in valve springs, has a higher fatigue life in the lower cycle ranges (10-100 kHz) than other wires * Stainless-Steel Spring Wire which as is obvious from its name, is used in conditions where high corrosion-resistance is the requirement. This grade of wire would also be utilised in applications where resistance to creep at elevated temperatures is desired. ‘Some grades of Stainless- Steel wires can be made to accept magnetism, where this characteristic is needed alongside the other qualities. Steels used for Hot-Wound Springs Above the cross-sectional diameters, previously mentioned, it is considered impractical to cold- wind and so, the larger diameter metals (bars or rods) are hot-wound and then also subjected to various stress relieving processes. Similar carbon- and alloy-steels to those already discussed are employed in the manufacture of hot-wound springs, with the necessary variations in their contents of carbon, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, and vanadium Steels used for Cold-Rolled, Fiat Springs These steels vary in composition, depending on their location, but are commonly based on carbon and manganese as the main constituent elements. They may be formed from oil- tempered steels (thin sections - clock-type springs) or from annealed steels which are subsequently heat treated. 10-18 “Tela Training Support Lia Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs © Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Non-Ferrous Metals used for Springs Based mainly on copper alloys, where corrosion resistance and good electrical conductivity is required, and on nickel alloys where the ability to work at elevated temperatures and resist corrosion is desirable, these alloys include: Spring Brass which is comparatively inexpensive, has good electrical conductivity, but is unsuitable for high-stress applications. Nickel Silver (also called German Silver) which has better characteristics than brass and is made from different percentages of copper, zinc and nickel. Phosphor Bronze which has a minimum percentage of 90% copper content and has excellent electrical conductivity. It is suitable for applications of higher stress levels than those of brass. Silicon Bronze which has similar characteristics to those of phosphor bronze but is less expensive to produce. Beryllium Copper which has similar conductivity (and corrosion resistance) qualities to those of copper with the addition of beryllium (2.0-2.5%) imparting greater hardness and other superior mechanical properties. High-Nickel Alloys which are the types more commonly found in aero engine applications and which fall under various, familiar, trade names such as: Monel * 'K! Monel (3% aluminium) Permanickel Inconel ® Inconel 'X' (2.5% Titanium) Another high-nickel alloy goes under the name of Ni-Span-C and contains almost 50% iron. All of these non-ferrous alloys can be found in the cold-rolled or drawn conditions for the manufacture of many types of springs. Corrosion Protection Depending on application, metallic springs may require corrosion protection. Protective coatings may be of plastic, zinc, nickel, chromium or tin. Toa Trang Support is 10-19 a © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs eee- Module 7.10 Springs Composite Materials used for Springs Some composite springs involve the joining of certain metals with elastomers to form the anti- vibration mountings (Metalastic Bushes and Housings) such as those found in aero-engine and auxiliary power unit (APU) installations. Others combine synthetic rubber strands, encased within a sheath of braided cotton, nylon or similar materials. They are usually referred to as 'Shock Absorbers’ or 'Shock Cords’ rather than ‘Springs’ and are more familiarly known by the generic name of ‘Bungee Cords’. Bungee Cords may be encountered on many light- and medium-sized aircraft while their use on heavier aircraft is not unknown. Springs of resin impregnated Aramid and Carbon fibre construction can be made but cost of production usually outweighs any weight saving achieved. + 10-20 “otal Training Support Lid tssue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs SOuoynN oteModule 7.10 Springs Spring Dimensions The close-coiled round wire helical compression spring is the type of spring most frequently encountered, and it alone is shown below. It is made from wire of diameter ‘d’ wound into a helix of mean diameter ‘D’, pitch ‘p’, and total number of turns ‘nt. This last is the number of wire coils prior to end treatment Outside coil diameter \ Mean coil:diameter Inside colt diameter Free length. section Ay Wite i tance: digmeler between ecils Ss Sx EZ SS eS cas SS plain squared ground squared or closed & ground active coils, n, n, ny-2 ny -1 n,-2 a t t t t freelength,L, n,ptd n,pt3d np n,pt2d solidlength,L. (n,+1)d (m,+l)d ond nd “otal Training Suppo Lid 40-24 ae ©Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 ~ January 2016Module 7.10 Springs Close-coiled requires a small helix angle, say a < 12°. The ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter is known as the spring index, C = Did. Portions of two springs which have the same mean coil diameter but different wire diameters and hence different indices are compared here. It is clear that low indices result in difficulty with spring manufacture and in stress concentrations induced by curvature. Springs in the range 5 < C < 10 are preferred, while indices less than 3 are generally YZ impracticable. Loads are transferred into a spring by means of platens, which are usually just flat surfaces bearing on the spring ends. Plain ends - when the wire is just cropped off to length - are suitable only for large index, light duty applications unless shaped platens or coil guides are employed, because each spring end contacts its platen at a point offset from the spring axis and this leads to bending of the spring and uncertain performance. Ground ends distribute the load into the spring more uniformly than do plain ends, but the contact region on a flat platen will be very much less than 360° which is ideal for concentricity of bearing surface and spring axis. One or more tums at the end of a spring may be wound with zero pitch, this is called a squared or closed end. Subsequent grinding produces a seating best suited for uniform load transfer, and so squared and ground ends are invariably specified when the duty is appreciable. Grinding the ends becomes difficult when the spring index exceeds 10, and is obviously inappropriate for small wire sizes - say under 0.5 mm. The active tums na are the coils which actually deform when the spring is loaded, as opposed to inactive turns at each end which are in contact with the platen and therefore do not deform though they may move bodily with the platen. The free length Lo of a compression spring is the spring's maximum length when lying freely prior to assembly into its operating position and hence prior to loading. The solid length Ls of a compression spring is its minimum length when the load is sufficiently large to close alll the gaps between the coils. The Table shows how na, Lo and Ls depend upon wire diameter, total turns, pitch and end treatment, however the Table's predictions should be viewed with caution - especially if there are less than seven turns - because of variability in the squaring andjor grinding operations. The springs illustrated here are right handed, but left hand lays are just as common. The lay usually has no bearing on performance, except when springs are nested inside one another in which case the two lays must differ to avoid interference. Springs with closed ends do not become entangled when jumbled in a container, which is sometimes an important consideration in assembly. 10-22 ‘Total Training Support Lia tssue 3 ~ January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs © Copyight 2016WNiedule 7.10 Springs Spring Characteristics Spring are normally specified by: * Material © Wire diameter or cross sectional area External diameter © Internal diameter « Free length e Solid length © Pitch End style - open, closed, ground, looped etc. © Spring Rate The Spring Rate or stiffness of a spring is the load required to produce a unit of deflection. if a Load/Defiection graph for a typical, helical-wound spring were to be plotted, a straight-line (or linear) load/deflection graph would be the result (see below). (Provided the spring was not loaded beyond its elastic limit and the effects of temperature and repeated loading were ignored.) This indicates that the deflection is directly proportional to the load, so if the load is doubled, then the deflection also doubles. otal Training Suppor Lid 10-23 a © Conyrght 2018 Module 7.10 Springs tssue 3 - January 2016Module 7.10 Springs LOAD LINEAR LOADIDEFLECTION GRAPH Non-linear load/deflection graphs can be produced by springs with unevenly spaced coils (see below, broken line). These Progressive or Variable Rate springs are of particular use in valves. Belleville springs share these particular characteristics and prove extremely useful in certain control and indicating functions. Another non-linear plot (refer to solid line) can be found when a thin, flat, circular disk is loaded to a large deflection. The individual characteristics of these different spring types are used to good effect in many aeronautical applications. Piston engine valve springs are made of heat treated spring steel and are usually duplicated and of different strengths to reduce valve bounce. When duplicated they are wound in opposite directions to prevent coil interlocking. 10-24 “Tota Training Support Lis Issue 3 ~ January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs 1 Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Spring Rate This is the change in load per unit of deflection, generally given in pounds per inch (Ibs/in). Youngs Modulus of wire material x wire diameter Spring Rate = ~@ number of active coils x mean coil diameter ‘Tota Training Support Lid 10-25 © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs ee coer:Issue 3 ~ January 2016 Intentionally Blank 10-26 Module 7.10 Springs Module 7.10 Springs “otal Training Support Lid ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Application of Springs in Aircraft Engineering There are many applications involving the use of springs in aircraft engineering and some examples are: ® Pressure Regulating/Limiting Devices: in Fuel, Hydraulic, Lubrication, and Pneumatic systems © Fail Safe’ or ‘Retum to Neutral Condition’ Devices: in Electrical Relays and Solenoids, and also in Electric, Hydraulic, Mechanical, or Pneumatic Actuators © Acceleration and Speed Control Devices: in Engine and Propeller control systems and in Power-Assisted Flight Controls and Wheel Braking systems Shock Absorbing Devices: in Landing Gear systems and as Anti-Vibration Mountings for delicate instruments and components which are subject to movement * Devices which are capable of applying a constant force (linear or rotary) in a desired direction, as in the holding closed of an aero engine valve spring for one example © Devices with the ability to accurately indicate (and control) the value of an applied force, as used in many instruments such as Ammeters, Voltmeters, Fuel Flow Meters and Tachometers provide typical examples. “otal Training Support Ltd 10.27 aa © Copyegt 2018 Module 7.10 Springs tssuie 3 - January 2016) oe Module 7.10 Springs) Intentionally Blank 10-28 ‘Total Training Support Lia Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.40 Springs “© Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Spring Maintenance General Most springs are contained inside units and assemblies and are not accessible during aircraft maintenance, these will be inspected, tested and if necessary replaced during component overhaul. Springs which are accessible generally require very litle maintenance. When visible, inspection must be carried out at the specified intervals for damage such as; © fretting against adjacent components, © distortion - crushing, bending and stretching, * overheating as evidenced by discolouration, © cracking and * corrosion. Spring Rate may be tested in-situ by measuring the load applied by, or need to overcome a spring loaded mechanism. For instance, a spring balance may be used on a door handle to measure the force required to operate the over-centre spring mechanism of a door latch system (although this will also measure stiffness and friction throughout the system). For disassembled springs Spring Rate may be assessed by measuring the length of the relaxed item then applying a specified load and measuring the compressed or extended length. Any defect found is cause for replacement. It is essential that only the correct spring is used as these parts are often vital to the operation of the system in which they are installed. For this reason replacement springs must be selected by part number with reference to the Illustrated Parts Catalogue. “Total Training Support Lis 1029 os © Copyright 2016 Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 — January 2016Module 7.10 Springs > 10-30 “Total Training Support Lia Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.10 Springs Inspection and Testing of Springs Springs will generally require little in the way of maintenance. Those that are in exposed areas can become corroded over time and those in areas of high temperature can, if they become overheated, lose their temper and cease to have the necessary mechanical compliance to satisfy the task for which they were designed. Corrosion, that occurs on static springs, can reduce the loads that the spring can carry, whilst if a spring that carries cyclic loads becomes corroded, then the combination of fatigue and corrosion can result in a serious loss of fatigue strength, Overheating, usually shown as blistering of the surface protection can, in extreme circumstances, show a change of colour of the metal due to the loss of temper. It must be assumed in this event that the spring is not suitable for the designed task. itis important that any exposed springs are carefully inspected for signs of either of the problems of corrosion and overheating. In some instances, springs have to be checked against figures or graphs to prove whether they are in a suitable condition to continue in service. Some checks have to be done out at prescribed intervals whilst others are done on an ‘opportunity basis’, such as when a brake unit a hydraulic actuator is dismantled for overhaul. The most common check done on coil springs is on its static measurement. The manufacturer will publish the exact dimension of the unloaded spring with some small tolerance, whilst the servicing technician will accurately measure the spring’s length and compare the two dimensions. Providing that the spring is within the published figures, then the spring is considered to be serviceable. To Tearing Sunpon t 1031 # Copy 2016 Module 7.10 Springs tneue 3 - January 2016Module 7.10 Springs The other check, usually completed in a workshop environment, is the load/deflection check. This check is done on the springs which are used in more critical services, such as piston engine valve springs. ‘A special test rig is used, to load the spring with either a compressive, tensile or a torsional loading and a meter on the rig will display the load versus deflection figures. A series of loads are subsequently applied to the spring and the relevant deflections noted. (On completion, the figures are compared to a graph, published by the spring manufacturer, to establish the serviceability of the spring. Ifa spring fails any of these checks it is simply replaced with a serviceable item. 10-32 “Total Training Support Ls Issue 3 January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs © Copyright 2016Wiodule 7.10 Springs Glossary Active Coils Those coils which are free to deflect under load. Angular relationship of ends The relative position of the plane of the hooks or loops of extension spring to each other. Buckling Bowing or lateral deflection of compression springs when compressed, related to the slenderness ration (L/D). Closed ends Ends of compression springs where the pitch of the end coils is reduced so that the end coils touch. Closed and ground ends As with closed ends, except that the end is ground to provide a flat plane. Close-wound Coiled with adjacent coils touching. Coils per inch Same as "Pitch" Deflection Motion of the spring ends or arms under the application or removal of an external load. Elastic limit Maximum stress to which a material may be subjected without permanent set. Endurance limit Maximum stress at which any given material may operate indefinitely without failure for a given minimum stress. Free angle Angle between the arms of a torsion spring when the spring is not loaded. Free length The overall length of a spring in the unloaded position. Frequency (natural) The lowest inherent rate of free vibration of a spring itself (usually in cycles per second) with ends restrained. “ola Training Support Lid 10-33 © Copyright 2018, Module 7.10 Springs Issue 3 - January 2016Module 7.10 Springs Hysteresis ‘The mechanical energy loss that always occurs under cyclical loading and unloading of a spring, proportional to the area difference between the loading and unloading load-deflection curves within the elastic range of a spring. Initial tension The force that tends to keep the coils of an extension spring closed and which must be overcome before the coil starts to open. Loops Coil-like wire shapes at the ends of extension springs that provide for attachment and force application. Mean coil diameter Outside wire diameter minus one wire diameter. Modulus in shear or torsion Coefficient of stiffness for extension and compression springs. Modulus in tension or bending Coefficient of stiffness used for forsion and flat springs. (Young's modulus). Open ends, not ground End of a compression spring with a constant pitch for each coil. Open ends ground "Opens ends, not ground’ followed by an end grinding operation. Permanent set A material that is deflected so far that its elastic properties have been exceeded and it does not retum to its original condition upon release of load is said to have taken a "permanent set”. Pitch The distance from centre to centre of the wire in adjacent active coils. Rate Changes in load per unit of defiection, generally given in pounds per inch (Ibs/n). Remove set The process of closing to a solid height a compression spring which has been coiled longer than the desired finished length, so as to increase the elastic limit. Set Permanent distortion which occurs when a spring is stressed beyond the elastic limit of the material. Slenderness ratio Ratio of spring length to mean coil diameter. 10-34 Total Training Support Lia Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.10 Springs ‘© Copyright 2016Nodule 7.10 Springs Solid height Length of a compression spring when under sufficient load to bring all coils into contact with adjacent coils, Spring index Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter. Stress range The difference in operating stresses at minimum and maximum loads. Squareness of ends Angular deviation between the axis of a compression spring and a normal to the plane of the other ends. Squareness under load As in squareness of ends, except with the spring under load. Torque A twisting action in torsion springs which tends to produce rotation, equal to the load multiplied by the distance (or moment arm) from the load to the axis of the spring body. Usually expressed in inch-oz, inch-pounds or in foot-pounds. Total number of coils Number of active coils plus the coils forming the ends. “otal Training Support Ltd 10-35 ee © Copyright 2016 Modulo 7.10 Springs fssue 3 — January 2016Module 7.10 Springs Intentionally Blank 10-38 “Total Training Support Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 110 Springs ‘copy 2016 —)Vioduie / Licence Category A, B1 and B3 Maintenance Practices 7.11 BearingsIssue 3 - January 2016 Moduie 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 112 ‘Total Training Support Lid Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copmight 2016Niodule 7.11 Bearings Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1. 203) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels, ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 14 + A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of tho subject * The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples + The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 '* Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspecis of the subject. * _ Anability to apply that knowledge. ‘Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘* The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures LEVEL 3 ‘+ Adetailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘* Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘©The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able fo use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. + The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. Tota Training Support Lis 11-8 _ © Copyigt 2018 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 — January 2016Issue 3 ~ January 2016 Wiodule 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 11-4 Module 7.14 Bearings “Tolal Training Support Lis © Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Table of Contents General 9 Types of Bearings 4 Ball Bearings 12 Radial Bearings 13 Angular-Contact Bearings : 13, ‘Thrust Bearings 13 Instrument Precision Bearings i 13, Roller Bearings 14 Other Bearing Typ: 16 Limit System 49 General 19 Fits, 19 Tolerances 19 Bearing Clearance and Classification 20 Handling and Cleaning of Bearings. 2 Handling as 21 Cleaning 241 Removal, Lubrication and Fitting 22 Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions. 23 Bearing Lubrication. General _ Lubricant Selection Grease Considerations Oil Considerations Solid Soft Film Lubricants Inspection of Bearings Safety Precautions, Points for inspection Feel Test Run Test Bearing Defects _ Storage “ota! Traling Support Lid 415 pau ane © Copynght 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 - JanuaryNodule 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 116 Total Training Support Ltd Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings So Module 7.11 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex Ill (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: = oe ane Licence Categor Objective Module 7A 7B ect Reference 7B) pa 1 B3 Bearings _ mi Trt2f- [2 Testing, cleaning and inspection of bearings; Lubrication requirements of bearings; Defects in bearings and their causes; ola Tting Support Lis 14-7 i‘ © Copyrine 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings foie 2 denna ate)Module 7.11 Bearings ) Intentionally Blank 11-8 Total Training Support Lid Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings © Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings General Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers, running in suitably shaped raceways. Both types of bearings are designed for operation under continuous rotary or oscillatory conditions, but, whilst ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, other types of roller bearings accept mainly radial loads. The following paragraphs amplify the uses of the various types of bearings, and examples are shown. Caged bearings are in general use for engine applications and in equipment with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100 rev/mm. Most other bearings on an aircraft are intended for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage; they are generally shielded and pre-packed with grease, but some have relubrication facilities. “ota Training Support Lid 11-9 i © Conyrint 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings eee ae eoteIssue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 14-10 “otal Tatning Support utd Module 7.14 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Niodule 7.11 Bearings Types of Bearings Bearings are, broadly, classified by the type of rolling element used in their construction. Ball bearings employ steel balls, which rotate in grooved raceways, whilst Roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered and spherical rollers running in suitably shaped raceways. Although these notes give information on the uses of the various types of ball and roller bearings, - together with general information on installation, maintenance and inspection, - the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) should be the final arbiter for specific installations. Ball bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, whilst the other types of roller bearings may accept only radial loads. Those bearings, which are contained in cages, are, in general, used for engine and gearbox applications with rotational speeds in excess of approximately 100 rpm. Most other bearings, on an aircraft or in an engine, are intended for oscillating or slow rotation conditions and do not have a cage. They are generally shielded or sealed and pre-packed with grease, although some have external lubrication facilities Contact ‘Seti Sia Raceway Cae ‘Thrust Face de ‘Groove wi | e a K wane ROW DOUBLEROW ANGULAR Hr ied See RGNiNg CONTACT RIGID, NEEDLE ae ROLLER ROLLER: jou ‘ROLLER: “Tota Training Support Lis 1141 Issue 3 - January 2016 © Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 BearingsBall Bearings Nodule 7.11 Bearings ‘These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel balls. This class of bearing relies on the motion of the balls to reduce friction between the inner race carried on the shaft of the machine and the outer race which is normally fitted inside a housing on the stationary part of the machine. The bearing may be constructed using single or double rows of balls, each row controlled by bronze or brass cage, but bearings which do not have a cage are often used. Ball bearings are designed for RADIAL or THRUST loads or a combination of both and are able to operate in either direction of rotation. Ball bearings can be of rigid or self- aligning type depending on the requirement, this being determined at the time of manufacture. OUTER RACE INNER RACE OUTSIDE gone DIAMETER | INNER RING BALL RACE BALL RACE OUTER RING Ball bearings may be divided into four main types that define the way in which the bearings are used. The main types of Ball bearings are: * Radial Bearings * Angular-Contact Bearings * Thrust Bearings * Instrument Precision Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2016 14-12 Total Training Support Lid Module 7.11 Bearings © Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Radial Bearings Radial bearings are the most common type of bearing and can be found in all types of transmission assemblies such as shafts, gears, control rods and end fittings. They are manufactured with either a single or double row of balls, rigid for normal applications and self- aligning for positions where accurate alignment cannot be maintained, such as in control rod ends. Angular-Contact Bearings Angular-Contact bearings are capable of accepting radial loads and axial loads in one direction only. The outer ring is recessed on one side to allow the ball and cage assembly to be installed, thus enabling more balls to be used and the cage to be in one piece. The axial load capacity depends on the contact angle. In applications where axial loads will always be in one direction, a single angular-contact bearing may be used but, where they vary in direction, an opposed pair of bearings may be used. Thrust Bearings Thrust bearings are designed for axial loading only. They will usually be found in use together with roller or radial ball bearings. The balls are retained in a cage and run on flat or grooved washers. These bearings are adversely affected by centrifugal force and so work best under high-load, low-speed situations. Instrument Precision Bearings Instrument Precision Bearings are manufactured to high accuracy and finish. They are generally of the radial bearing type and can be found in both instruments and communication equipment. “Total Training Support Ltd 11-13, a © Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 - January 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Roller Bearings These consist of an inner and outer race separated by hardened steel rollers instead of balls. Roller bearings are normally only used to support radial loads but can be designed to compensate for linear expansion of the shaft or housing, by ensuring that the inner and outer races are truly parallel. Location and control of the rollers is achieved by a groove cut in the inner or outer races which act as recesses for the rollers. This arrangement allows the rollers to take up lateral expansion of the shaft by allowing the rollers to slide across the surface during rotation. OUTER RING ROLLER INNER RING OUTSIDE DIAMETER ‘SEPARATOR Roller bearings may be divided into three main types that define their use. They are: * Cylindrical Roller Bearings © Spherical Roller Bearings + Tapered Roller Bearings Cylindrical Roller Bearings Cylindrical Roller bearings will accept greater radial loads than ball bearings of the same size. This is due to the greater contact area of the rolling elements and, if they have ribs on both rings, cylindrical roller bearings will also accept light, intermittent, axial loads. Normally the rollers have a length equal to their diameter, although some rollers have a length greater than their diameter to cater for special applications. 11-44 “Tota Training Support Lis pee eee Module 7.14 Bearings © Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Roller bearings, which have a length much greater than their diameter, are normally called needle roller bearings. These are designed for radial loads only and are best used in situations where the movement is oscillatory rather than rotary, such as in universal joints and control rod ends. Spherical Roller Bearings Spherical Roller bearings can be found with single or double rows of rollers, which run in a spherical raceway in the outer ring, thus enabling the bearing to accept a small degree of misalignment. These bearings will accept high radial loads and moderate axial loads. Taper Roller Bearings These bearings obtain their description from the shape of the inner race, this being in the shape of a cone. The tapered bearing consist of the coned shaped inner and a cup shaped outer race. The rollers are tapered and made from hardened steel. This class of bearing can support radial loads in one direction only. Because of this, this class of bearing will often be found to contain two individual rows of bearings, each row using the same inner and outer races, but with the rollers arranged with the tapers on the rollers in opposite directions, thus allowing the bearings to withstand radial loads in either direction. BEARING wiptH i+ STANDOUT cur LENGTH! OUTSIDE OLAMETER BORE Tapered Roller bearings are designed so that the axes of the rollers form an angle to the shaft axis. They are capable of accepting radial and axial loads simultaneously, in one direction only. tis common to find tapered roller bearings mounted in pairs - back to back - so that loads can be accepted in both directions. Tota Tialaing Suppor id 41-45 Zi ecepyrot more Module 7.11 Bearings tesue 3 - January 2016Miodule 7.11 Bearings Needle Roller Bearings These bearings consist of an inner and outer race separated by narrow trunnion ended rollers. This class of bearing ft normally used where space saving is an important factor as they are physically smaller in diameter than other classes of bearing but are longer and will support the same loading as an equivalent sized ball or roller bearing. This class of bearing are able to support only radial loads. ROLLERS: ee OUTSIDE DIAMETER Other Bearing Types and Features Self-Aligning Bearings Bearings which allow a limited movement of the shaft. So that the inner and outer races are not always exactly aligned with each other. The action is, of course, achieved without impairing the operation of the bearing and is a type common to ball and roller class of bearing. Single and Double Row Bearings These bearings employ either a single or double row of either ball or roller bearings. Balls and rollers are never mixed within the same bearing races. Sealed Bearings Some bearings will have a seal in the form of a circular plate fitted at one end of the bearing, this prevents the lubrication used in the bearing from escaping into other parts of the machinery and causing contamination. This type is called SEMI-SEALED If the basic idea of a seal is applied to both ends of the bearing and the bearing is primed with the correct amount and grade of lubricant during manufacture, then sealed, it is called a FULLY SEALED bearing. Foreign matter cannot enter this type of bearing, but the bearing cannot be lubricated or maintained other than to wipe the bearing clean and check it for roughness or wear by carrying out a hand rotation test. - 11-46 Teta Traling Support is Issue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings © Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings (6) Self Aligning Double Row Roller (d) Rigid Double Row Ball Bearing Bearing Cage types “Tota raring Support i 44-17 Sconynert 2018 putea Gentes Issue 3 - January 2016Niodule 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank : 11-48 Teta Train Suppo is tesue 3 — January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Limit System General For ease of manufacture and replacement it is essential that the components of similar mechanisms should be inter-changeable. For this reason limits are imposed on the manufacturing errors to ensure that any two mating parts are manufactured to the limits stated on the drawing. The limits are based on the tolerance and allowance applied to the dimensions of a manufactured part. The correct functioning of a component of any mechanism depends upon their size. A rotating part must have clearance in its bearing, too large a shaft or too small a hole can lead to damage and mechanical failure. Due to imperfections in workmanship, it is not possible to manufacture component parts to theoretically correct dimensions, but interchangeability of parts can be achieved if their dimensions are within certain limits, thus the need for a limits system which defines how much bigger or smaller than the basic size a part can be made and still be considered acceptable. The limit system in use is the ISO system of limits, which is wholly metric and covers up to 3150mm. The actual numerical values of tolerances are listed in the form of engineering tables contained in the revised version of British Standard 1961, limits for Engineering. The limits system used in the manufacture of a particular ‘component should always be shown in the title block of the engineering drawing for the ‘component. Fits Defined as being the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of two parts of two parts which are to be assembled. By using various methods of assembly, some gentle - some extremely forceful, it is possible in engineering to obtain a fit whether or not the shaft is smaller than the hole. When the shaft is smaller, a clearance exists between the parts, therefore the assembly is relatively easy. When the reverse is true, an interference is said to occur and force of some kind is needed to compete the assembly. From these two basic situations, three types of fits emerge, Clearance, Transition and Interference: Clearance Fit. A fit which always has a positive clearance or, technically, where the tolerance zone of the hole is always above that of the shaft. * Transition Fit. A fit which can be either a clearance or interference fit or where the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft over lap. Interference Fit. A fit which always has interference, or where tolerance zones of the shaft, is always above that of the hole. Tolerances Itis the aim of modern engineering production methods to make parts swiftly and to an acceptable degree of accuracy. No engineering components can be made, or need to be made, exactly to size. By using high quality machine tools and a certain flexibility in dimensions, parts can be made at a tremendous rate and at the same time, guaranteed to be fully interchangeable. This can be done by adopting a system of limits which in practice, defines how much bigger or smaller than the basic size an item can be and yet still be considered acceptable. A tolerance can be unilateral or bilateral. A unilateral tolerance is one which permits a variation in one direction only, either above or below the basic size. A bilateral tolerance allows a variation either above or below basic size. ‘Total Trainng Suppor Ltd 11-49 + © Copynignt 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings fesue 3 - January 2016@ Module 7.11 Bearings Bearing Clearance and Classification The clearance inside a bearing is vital to the correct operation and long life of the bearing. There are 4 classes of clearance: * Group2 * Normal * Group 3 * Group 4 ‘The clearance refers to the clearance between the ball, roller or needle and the outer race and is identified by one of the two available methods: outer race clearance gap ball inner race Dot Method This method of marking the bearing uses a dot code (or zeros) to denote the clearance: (1) One dot indicates a range 0.00005" less than standard (Group 2 — not suited to high speed) (2) Two dots represent a standard clearance (Normal) (3) Three dots indicate a clearance 0.00005" greater than standard (Group 3 — Interference fit — high speed — axial loading). (4) Four dots indicate the largest clearance (Group 4 — For use where the bearing is expected to get hot). 11-20 ‘otal Training Support Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Handling and Cleaning of Bearings Handling Most bearings used for aircraft and aircraft components are costly because of high precision in their manufacture. Bearings must never be spun in an un-lubricated condition since dust, moisture or other foreign matter may contaminate the bearing and lead to slight damage to the races, balls or rollers, which will lead to increased wear rates and encourage corrosion. Bearings should also be handled using lint free gloves as the natural oils and dirt may cause contamination of the lubricant Cleaning Cleanliness is vital. Key points to cleanliness: Do not unpack bearing until required for use. Clean using Trichloroethane or white spirit only When cleaning use a brush not rag. Do not handle bearing unnecessarily. Do not rotate bearing at high speed unless lubricated, “otal Training Suppor Ltd 44-21 i 2 Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Removal, Lubrication and Fitting REMOVAL = Ga a CLEARANCE FIT INTERFERENCE FIT a een Remove using exractor and discard besring LUBRICATION SEALEDBEARING PRESSED STEEL RIVETED CAGE Not possible to reubieato Fil wih gras using Foplace at 600 hours a praccure greater ‘THESE ARE MATCHED PARTS AND LUBRICATION OF ANNULAR SPACES Fil wih grease by hand ‘ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE ticcaanacatae tanisis 4 full ot grease or fo the a ‘amount spectied in the 4 servicing schedule ToHOUSING Before fitting bearing clean @ il a S (hia i end housing and examine for burrs, wear, discolouration - CLEARANCE FIT 3 ensure bearing is a push fit in Press on by hand only tise Agbenyos GLOVER jousing : 11-22 ‘Tota! Training Support Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings © Copyright 2016 )Module 7.11 Bearings Effects of Bad Maintenance Practice or Adverse Working Conditions In order that the maintenance carried out on aircraft or aircraft components is of the highest possible standard, the following points must be remembered: Misalignment Bearings which are misaligned will have a reduced life. The balls or rollers will be unable to cope with this condition and will overheat and fail. A broken or distorted cage or signs of non-concentric wear on the race surfaces are signs that the bearing is incorrectly aligned. Ingress of Foreign Matter This will cause rapid wear of the bearings, because even small particles will prevent the correct rolling action of the balls or rollers and will cause scoring. Inadequate or Contaminated Lubricants This will cause rapid wear, overheating and stiffness in the bearing. These defects are usually detected by the lubricant being discolored and the bearings being stiff when operated by hand, or the balls, rollers or cages and races will show signs of excessive heat by discoloration Vibration This will cause indentations in the surface of the races and ball or roller, which will cause a roughness in running and result in rapid wear. Excessive Interference Fit Will place unbearable strain on the races which when combined with the heating effects and vibration can cause cracking and eventual disintegration of the bearing. Excessive Pre-Loading This will cause overheating of the ball or rollers and will lead to breakdown of the lubricant resulting in the tightening of the bearing, rapid wear and eventual disintegration of the bearing. “otal Training Support Lid 11-23 fea ©Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2046Issue 3 — January 2016 Niodule 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 11-24 Module 7.11 Bearings Total Training Support Lis {© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Bearing Lubrication General One of the major contributing factors to achieving reliability of bearings is proper lubrication. Bearings operate on very thin films of lubricant, which have to be maintained to ensure that design life is achieved. The ways of ensuring this, and to maximising bearing life, are to a) select the correct lubricant, b) apply it properly, and c) maintain it in a clean condition. Neglect or failure in any of these areas will seriously increase the risk of premature bearing failures and interfere with the trouble free running that is now of such crucial importance in ultra competitive global markets. The increased speeds and higher temperatures at which modern bearings routinely operate, combined with the demands placed upon them for improved accuracy and reliability, mean that the process of selecting a suitable bearing lubrication, today, is more critical than it has ever been. Properly selected a lubricant will: Reduce friction and wear by providing a hydrodynamic film of sufficient strength and thickness to support the load and separate the balls from the raceways, preventing metal-to-metal contact. Minimise cage wear by reducing sliding friction in cage pockets and land surfaces. Prevent oxidation/corrosion of the bearing rolling elements. Act as a barrier to contaminants. Serve as a heat transfer agent in some cases, conducting heat away from the bearing. Bearing lubricants fall into three main categories; Oils, Greases and Solid Dry Film Lubricants, which are usually limited to moderate speed and very light loading conditions. Greases, because of their convenience, are by far the most widely used of the three, and have been the focus of much development over the last decade. Lubricant Selection The selection of a particular type of bearing lubricant is generally governed by the operating conditions and limitations of a bearing system. Three of the most significant factors in selecting a lubricant are: © The viscosity of the lubricant at operating temperature. The maximum and minimum allowable operating temperatures. «The speed at which the bearing will operate. Grease Considerations The primary advantage of grease over oil is that bearings can be pre-lubricated, eliminating the need for - and the cost of - an external lubrication system. Besides simplicity, grease lubrication also requires less maintenance and has less stringent sealing requirements than oil systems. Grease tends to remain in proximity to bearing components, metering its oil content to operating surfaces as needed. “Total Training Support Lid 11-28 # ©Copyright 2016, Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2016Moduie 7.11 Bearings The negatives with grease are that it does not conduct heat away from a bearing as efficiently as oil. In addition, grease can increase the initial torque within a bearing and cause running torque to be slightly higher. Finally, the speed limits for greases (expressed as a dN value, with dN being the bearing bore in mm multiplied by rpm) are generally lower than for oils due to the plastic nature of grease that tends to cause overheating at high speed. Oil Considerations While grease lubrication is inherently simpler than lubrication with oil, there are still applications where oil is the better choice. In high-speed spindle and turbine applications, for example oil is. supplied continuously and provides cooling as welll as lubrication. A further example is instrument bearings with extremely low values of starting and running torque. These require only a minimal, one-time lubrication, each bearing receiving just a few milligrams of oil - a single drop or less. The limiting speeds for oil-lubricated bearings are imposed by the bearing size and cage design, rather than by the lubricant. To illustrate this point, petroleum or di-ester-based oils can accommodate bearing speeds up to 1,500,000 dN or higher. In the case of silicone-based oils, the maximum speed rating drops to 200,000 dN. Similarly, when computing life for bearings lubricated with silicone-based oils, the Basic Load Rating (C) should be reduced by two-thirds (C/3). In addition, to ensure long life at high speeds, the lubrication system should provide for retention, circulation, filtration and possibly cooling of the oil ce 11-26 ott Teinng Support tte Leseoshtateritertdtactad Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Solid Soft Film Lubricants Solid Soft films are primarily used to provide solid lubrication for bearings in extreme applications where traditional fluid lubricants would be rendered ineffective. They offer the advantages that their friction is independent of temperature (from cryogenic to extreme high temperature applications), and they do not evaporate or creep in terrestrial vacuum or space environments. The solid soft film lubricant can either be applied directly to the surface or transferred by rubbing contact from a sacrificial source such as a seff-lubricating bearing cage. The processes have been used successfully in a variety of extreme aerospace applications. Total Training Support Ltd 11-27 © Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings lesue 3 - January 2016Module 7.11 Bearings > Intentionally Blank a 14-28 Total Training Support Lid feeue Oa tenmery ante Module 7.11 Bearings @Conwight 2016)NModuie 7.11 Bearings Inspection of Bearings Safety Precautions The cleaning of bearings for inspection normally involves the use of solvents, so the appropriate PPE should be worn. This will include respiratory, eye and skin protection by using breathing masks, goggles and inspection gloves. The moisture from the human hand may contaminate a bearing surface, as easily as the lubricant can cause damage to the skin through dermatitis. Points for inspection 1. Adarkening colour of the grease will indicate the presents of metallic particles in suspension in the grease. 2. Rotate bearing by hand and check for roughness, after thoroughly cleaning and lubricate with oil 3. Ensure that the two halves of the cage are still riveted securely together. 4, Examine the cage for hairline cracks across the rivet holes and the sham comers at the sides of the ball pockets. 5. Examine both edges of each ball pocket for wear, this will be indicated by shiny edges with uptumed lips. 6. Serviceable balls have a shiny polished appearance, whereas a dull leaden appearance indicates excessive wear. 7. Examine both races for signs of serious scratching and fretting corrosion which has the red appearance of rust. “Total Training Support Lt 11-29 © Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2016ow Module 7.11 Bearings Feel Test A bearing is tested for roughness by turning the bearing slowly and hand feeling and listening for any defect. Remember - the bearing must NOT be spun in an unlubricated state. Run Test Running smoothness may be checked by mounting it on a shaft and rotating at 500 - 1,000 rpm and applying alternate axial and radial loads in either direction. Bearing Defects Fault What to look for Wom races Excessive clearance radially/axially, flaking of raceway groove. Worn balls/rollers Excessive axial/radial clearances, misshapen rolling elements. Creep Shiny marks on outside of outer race caused by incorrect interference fit in housing Shiny marks on inside of inner race caused by incorrect interference fit on shaft. Worn cage Soft metal dust in and around the bearing, Inspect for loose rivets. Overheating Look for bluing of elements and raceways. Brinelling Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing. Roughness will be present on a spin test of an assembled bearing. Caused by ‘skidding’ of the rolling elements due to sudden increases in speed under high load (whee! bearings on landing for example). False Brinelling _ Indentation of raceways may be seen or felt in a dismantled bearing. Caused by vibration transmitted through the bearing when the machine is stationary (in transit for example). Corrosion Pitting of elements and raceways Chipping Roughness and clicking on spin test. Spalling The separation/flaking of the surface layer of the raceway caused by thermal or mechanical stresses. 11-30 ‘otal Training Support Ltd tssue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Normal Fatigue Normal fatigue failure is often shown as a fracture of the running surface, with subsequent removal of small particles of metal and is commonly called spalling it occurs on both rolling elements and raceways, and is always accompanied by an increase in vibration. Moderately spalled areas show the bearing has reached the end of its normal service life. Excessive Loads Excessive loading of a bearing is usually the same as normal fatigue, but the rolling elements wear path is usually heavier. There is also increased evidence of overheating with a widespread and deeper fatigue or spalled area. This often causes premature bearing failure. Spalled Area Ball Path Damage due to excessive loads Installation and Misalignment Installation damage is usually the result of an impact that occurs when a bearing is fitted incorrectly, This may be due to a sharp strike from a drift or pressing the wrong raceway when mounting the bearing. Misalignment damage can be seen on the raceway of the non-rotating ring because the rolling element wear path is not parallel to the raceway edge. Excessive misalignment can cause high temperatures as well as heavy wear of the cage. Loose Fit A bearing should always be mounted onto a shaft or housing with an interference fit. If the raceway becomes loose then it will rotate on these surfaces and cause fretting. This fretting will remove metal particles, which oxidise and leave a distinctive brown colour. It usually occurs when the bearing outer raceway rotates inside a worn housing. The external surface of the raceway will be scored and discoloured as a result of a loose fitting bearing. Total Training Support Lid 11-31 = © Copyaght 2010 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 - January 2016- Module 7.11 Bearings Loose fit damage Brinelling — True and False Brinelling marks on a bearing raceway resemble the indentations that result from a Brinell Hardness Test. They are described as being either True Brinell or False Brinell marks. Brinelling is caused when a load is applied to a ball bearing that exceeds the elastic limits of the steel and the raceways are permanently deformed. Brinelling creates measurable dents at each ball location similar to the deformation caused by a Brinell Hardness Tester. This type of damage can occur quite easily if proper care is not taken. High energy impacts (from hammers and smash-ups), improper bearing handling and incorrect spindle assembly can all damage bearings. Remember that we are talking about bearings with raceways with roundness measured in millionths of an inch. You might not even realize the damage has occurred except for increases in vibration and non-repetitive run-out. False brinelling is not related to excessive loads. False brinelling is caused by ambient vibration. Even a brand new bearing, sealed in a box on a shelf, is subject to false brinelling if itis exposed to environmental vibrations for an extended period. When a bearing is not operating it is subject to false brinelling in the box or in the machine. When a bearing is operating, there is an oil film between the rolling elements and the raceways. This is called elasto-hydro-dynamic (EHD) film. Most people can relate to hydroplaning. When you reach a certain speed on a wet road your tyres actually lit off the road (not good). But when a bearing operates with the proper lubrication and at the right speed the balls or rollers lift off the raceway slightly (this is good). This extremely thin film protects and lubricates the bearing while it is running. When the bearing is stopped there is no EHD film and there IS metal to metal contact. That is when false brinelling can quietly attack your bearings. The combination of metal to metal contact and vibration create a wear and corrosion pattern that mimics brinelling. fe 41-32 Toll Traiing Support tid fesue Seq ceruary 2010 Module 7.11 Bearings © Gopynght 2016Nioduie 7.11 Bearings The prevention is to rotate spindles routinely if they are not in use to reposition the rolling elements and lubrication. Take steps to reduce vibration or isolate machines from each other through properly designed mounting pads. Store bearings and spindles in a clean dry area free from vibration. False Brinelling (left) and True Brinelling (right) Overheating and Lubrication Failure Excessive heating of a bearing manifests itself as discoloration of the rings, rolling elements and cages from gold to blue. Excessive temperatures will usually be in excess of 400°C. In extreme cases the rolling elements and raceways will deform. A blue/black colour indicates an area close to the heat source and changes to a silver/gold discoloration the further you move away. Failure or lack of lubrication often has similar signs as overheating because good lubrication should cool the material and transfer away any heat produced during rotation. Restricted flow and excessive temperatures can also degrade the chemical composition of the oil, making it ineffective and increase wear rates. The outcome of either overheating or lubrication failure will always result in the eventual failure of the bearing. ‘Toll Training Suppodt Ltd 11-33 © Copytight 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings Issue 3 ~ January 2016= Module 7.11 Bearings Contamination and Corrosion Contamination is one of the leading causes of premature bearing failure. The symptoms are dents or scratches embedded in the bearing raceway and rolling elements, resulting in bearing vibration and wear. The contaminant would be an abrasive substance that gets into the bearing, such as sand, grit or dust. The principal sources are dirty tools, contaminated work areas, dirty hands and foreign matter in the lubricant or cleaning solutions. Corrosion is usually the result of a chemical attack on the bearing material by an incompatible fluid such as moisture. It manifests itself as either black pitting marks or red/brown rust coloured areas on the rolling elements, raceways, or cages. It usually results in increased vibration followed by wear. Corrosion damage 11-34 Total Training Support Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copyight 2016Niodule 7.11 Bearings Flaking or Sp: Fatigue fs the rosulf of shear stresses cyclically appearing immediately below the load carrying surface. After a time these stresses cause cracks which gradually extend up to the surface. As the rolling elements pass over the cracks fragments of material break away and this is known as fiaking or spalling. The flaking progressively increases in extent and eventually makes the bearing unserviceable. The life of a rolling bearing is defined as the number of revolutions the bearing can perform before incipient flaking occurs. This does not mean to say that the bearing cannot be used after then. Flaking is a relatively long, drawn-out process and makes its presence known by increasing noise and vibration levels in the bearing. Therefore, as a rule, there is plenty of time to prepare for a change of bearing. ‘Stages in flaking (spalling) Electric Current Damage When an electric current passes through a bearing, i.e. proceeds from one ring to the other via the rolling elements, damage will occur. At the contact surfaces the process is similar to electric arc welding. Such electric currents can be of a low level but last for considerable lengths of time (such as voltage leakage from a motor or generator) or be very high level for a short duration (such as that caused by a lightning strike of the aircraft), Equal amounts of damage can occur from both situations. The appearance of the damage is dark brown or greyish black fluting (corrugation) or craters in raceways and rollers. Balls have dark discolouration only. Sometimes zigzag burns in ball bearings raceways. Also, localised burns in raceways and on rolling elements. The material is heated to temperatures ranging from tempering to melting levels. This leads to the appearance of discoloured areas, varying in size, where the material has been tempered, re-hardened or melted. Small craters also form where the metal has melted. The passage of electric current frequently leads to the formation of fluting (corrugation) in bearing raceways. Rollers are also subject to fluting, while there is only dark discolouration of balls. It can be difficult to distinguish between electric current damage and vibration damage. A feature of the fluting caused by electric current is the dark bottom of the corrugations, as ‘opposed to the bright or rusty appearance at the bottom of the vibration induced fluting. Another distinguishing feature is the lack of damage to the rolling elements of bearings with raceway otal Training Support Ltd 11-35 i © Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings lesue 3 - January 2016op NModuie 7.11 Bearings {luting caused by vibrations. Both alternating and direct currents cause damage to bearings. Even low amperage currents are dangerous. Non-rotating bearings are much more resistant to electric current damage than bearings in rotation. The extent of the damage depends on a number of factors: current intensity, duration, bearing load, speed and lubricant. The only way of avoiding damage of this nature is to prevent any electric current from passing through the bearing. Left: Fluting caused by the passage of electric current, in the outer ring of a spherical roller bearing. Right: The outer ring of a seff-aligning ball bearing damaged by electric current, 11-36 “Tota Training Support Li Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings © Copyfight 2018Module 7.11 Bearings ‘Total Training Support Ltd 11-37 Issue 3 - 7 ‘© Copyright 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ieee 3 senuany ote!Wiodule 7.11 Bearings Intentionally Blank 11-38 ‘ola Training Support Lid Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.11 Bearings ‘© Copytight 2016Module 7.11 Bearings Storage If a bearing is to be used immediately after inspection, it should be lubricated with correct lubricant and installed. If there is liable to be a delay before installation, then the bearing should be coated in rust-preventing inhibiting oil, wrapped in greaseproof paper, boxed and labelled. The bearing should always be stored horizontally, in a clean dry atmosphere. ‘otal Training Support Ltd 11-39 is © Copyright 2016 Module 7-11 Bearings Issue 3 - January 2046Niodule 7.11 Bearings > } ) Intentionally Blank Issue 3 ~ January 20 14-40 ‘Total Training Support Lid vee Module 7.11 Bearings ©Copyright 2016 =)Niodule 7 Licence Category A, B1 and B3 Maintenance Practices 7.12 TransmissionsModule 7.12 Transmissions Intentionally Blank 12.2 Total Training Support Ud Issue 3 - January 2016 Module 7.12 Transmissions ‘© Copyright 2016Module 7.12 Transmissions Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide tights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + A emiliarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. © The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples, © The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 » Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Anability to apply that knowledge. ‘Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘* The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. '* The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. '* The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. ‘* The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 * A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. © Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. © The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. © The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. Tota Training Support Lid 123 i © Copyright 2016 Module 7.12 Transmissions tssue 3 — January 2016