Total Training ae Integrated Trai providing quality aircraft mainten: Module 6 Materials and Hardware EASA Part-66 Aluminium Cast Iron Vs Licence Category B1 and B2 : Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comcea) femme) me erm) eam (mem | [mn me) se me(@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System & yas econ ane hth Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives’. We suggest that you take each chapter in-tum, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.co.uk membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.co.uk website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.co.uk website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. : Module 6 Preface manasa TTS Integrated Training System (rage 2 edo (© Copyright 2008Uta leans al ee ene Intentionally Blank # Module 6 Preface TTS integrated Training System Soom 2 eco, © Copynaht 2008,Total Training Support Integrated Training System 7 s Designed in association wih the unegpr.co uc question practoe ad Module 6 Chapters . Aircraft Materials - Ferrous . Aircraft Materials - Non-Ferrous .1. Aircraft Materials - Composite and Non-Metallic other than wood and fabric .2. Aircraft Materials - Wooden Structures .3. Aircraft Materials - Fabric Covering 4. Corrosion 5.1, Fasteners - Screw Threads 5.2. Fasteners - Bolts, studs and screws 5.3. Fasteners - Locking devices 5.4. Fasteners - Aircraft rivets 6. Pipes and Unions 7. Springs 8 Bearings 9. Transmissions 10. Control Cables 11. Electrical Cables and Connectors 1 2. 3. 3. 3. e Module 6 Preface Use alr dcoareis TTS tegatana Sytem omar {© Copyright 2008 ‘SRpage 2 he dosenté Total Training Support Integrated Training System es ‘lub66pr0.001uk question practice ale Intentionally Blank ee Module 6 Preface: nr “Ts lngrated Teaing Sytem sea {© Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training Syste i TTS Integrated Training System Module 6 Materials and Hardware 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous (ready esrAB) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Ep cn a Designed in association withthe ‘lub6pr0.co.uk question practice aid Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, 81 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 A amiliarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. «The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘+ The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 '* Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * _Anability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘© The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘© The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘* The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. ‘+The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures, LEVEL 3 '* A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘* capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowiedge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: ‘+ The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘© The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. ‘* The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. + The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. © The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. = Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous roan dca TTS itogratd Training Systm Same nc © Copyright 2008& Let! Training Support Table of Contents Integrated Training System Designed in assoctaiion with the ‘lub68pr0.00.uk question practice aid Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 5 Materials Testing 5 Properties of Materials 5 Tensile Testing 7 Compression Test 19 Hardness Tests 19 Impact Testing 23 Creep 25 Fatigue, 27 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous. 37 Introduction 37 Iron Production 37 ‘Steelmaking 39 Steel 42 Micro-structure of Steet 47 Heat Treatment of Stee! 53 Alloying Elements in Steel 59 Identification Tests, 6 3 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘reas a natentDesigned in association with the ‘lub6pro.co.uk question practice ald ® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Module 6.1 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference | Level Aircraft Materials - Ferrous 64 (a) 4 Characteristics, properties and identification of common alloy steels used in aircraft Heat treatment and application of alloy steels (b) a Testing of ferrous materials for hardness, tensile strength, fatigue strength and impact resistance 2 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ne ‘TTS Integrated Training System nooo ee some © Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System ° Design lon with the ‘dub66pr0.c0. Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Materials Testing Properties of Materials The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on sample pieces. The terminology, associated with these properties, is outlined in the following paragraphs. Brittleness The tendency of the metal to shatter, without significant deformation. It will shatter under a sudden, low stress but will resist a slowly-applied, higher load. Conductivity The ability of a metal to conduct heat, (thermal conductivity) and electricity. Silver and copper are excellent thermal and electrical conductors. Ductility The property of being able to be permanently extended by a tensile force. It is measured during a tensile, or stretching, test, when the amount of stretch (elongation), for a given applied load, provides an indication of a metal's ductility. ‘A ductile metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by tension before it fractures. While all ductile metals are malleable, it does not mean that malleable metals are ductile. Some metals although soft, are also weak in tension and tear apart while being stretched. The ductility of all metals increases as the temperature rises, because they are weaker at high temperatures. Elasticity The ability of a metal to retum to its original shape and size after the removal of any distorting force. The ‘Elastic Limit is the greatest force that can be applied without permanent distortion. Hardness The ability of a metal to resist wear and penetration. It is measured by pressing a hardened steel ball or diamond point into the metal's surface. The diameter or depth of the resulting indentation provides an indication of the metal's hardness. 5 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous roan de TTS integrated Training Sytem Spo lanoees ©Copyright 2008,Total Training Support Integrated Training System as e Q son ety er 1 n associabon vith the Malleability The ease with which the metal can be forged, rolled and extruded without fracture. Stresses, induced into the metal, by the forming processes, have to be subsequently relieved by heat- treatment. Hot metal is more malleable than cool metal. A malleable metal is one which can be deformed a great deal by compression before it shows signs of cracking. Malleable metals can be rolled, forged or extruded, since these are all processes where the metal is shaped under pressure. Malleability usually increase with temperature, so processes involving pressure are usually hot working processes i.e. they are carried out on heated pieces of metal. Plasticity The ability to retain a deformation after the load producing it has been removed. Plasticity is, in fact, the opposite of elasticity. Tenacity The property of a metal to resist deformation when subjected to a tensile load. It is proportional to the maximum stress required to cause the metal to fracture. Toughness The ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads. A metal's toughness is tested by impact with a swinging pendulum of known mass. Strength There are several different measurements of the strength of a metal, as may be seen from the following sub-paragraphs Tensile Strength The abilty to resist tension forces applied to the metal id Strength The ability to resist deformation. After the metal yields, it is said to have passed its yield point. Shear Strength The ability to resist side-cutting loads - such as those, imposed on the shank of a rivet, when the materials it is joining attempt to move apart in a direction normal to the longitudinal axis of the rivet. Bearing Strength The ability of a metal to withstand a crushing force. 6 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Uren tease ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘Sepage 2 ie gocument (© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System Tensile Testing Tensile testing is the most widely-used mechanical test. It involves applying a steadily increasing load to a test specimen, causing it to stretch until it eventually fractures. Accurate measurements are taken of the load and extension, and the results are used to determine the strength of the material. To ensure uniformity of test results, the test specimens used must conform to standard dimensions and finish as laid down by the appropriate Standards Authority (BSI, DIN, ISO etc). The cross-section of the specimen may be round or rectangular, but the relationship between the cross-sectional area and a specified "gauge length’, of each specimen, is constant. The gauge length, is that portion of the parallel part of the specimen, which is to be used for measuring the subsequent extension during and/or after the test. Tensile Stress (Strength) - Tensile strength in a material is obtained by measuring the maximum load, which the test piece is able to sustain, and dividing that figure by the original cross-sectional area (c.s.a.) of the specimen. The value derived from this simple calculation is called STRESS Load (N) Original c. Stress = (mm?) Note; The units of Stress may be quoted in the old British Imperial (and American) units of Ibffin’, tonf/in? (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as KN/m*, MN/m? and kPa or MPa. Example Asteel rod, with a diameter of 5 mm, is loaded in tension with a force of 400 N. Calculate the tensile stress. Stress - Load — oS =20-37Nimm? Area we Wx Exercise Calculate the tensile stress in a steel rod, with a cross-section of 10 mm x 4 mm, when it is subjected to a load of 100 N. Exercise Caloulate the cross-sectional area of a tie rod which, when subjected to a load of 2,100N, has a stress of 60 Nimm?. Note: When calculating stress in large structural members, it may be more convenient to measure load in Mega-Newtons (MN, or N°) and the area in square metres (m?). When using such units, the numerical value is identical to that if the calculation had been made using Newtons and mm”. ie: A Stress of 1 Nimm? = 1 MN/m? 7 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ander cena ‘TTS Integrated Training System Shon 2c Ove document © Copyright 2008@™ Total Training Support Integrated Training System Example A structural member, with a cross-sectional area of 0- 5m’, is subjected to a load of 10 MN. Calculate the stress in the member in; (a) MN/m? and (b) N/mm? Load 10 =e = 20MNim? (a) Stress = 77 _ im b) 41Nimm? =1MN/m? So Stress = 20 N/mm? Strain - As the load in the tensile test is increased from zero to a maximum value, the material extends in length. The amount of extension, produced by a given load, allows the amount of induced strain to be calculated. Strain is calculated by measuring the extension and dividing by the original length of the material Note: Both measurements must be in the same units, though, since Strain is a ratio of two lengths, it has no units. Extension Strain = ————____ Original Length Example ‘An aluminium test piece is marked with a 20 mm gauge length. It is subjected to tensile load until its length becomes 21.15 mm. Calculate the induced strain. Extension = 21-15-20 = 1.15mm Strain = —Extension__ _ 1:15 _ 9 9575 (no units) Original Length 20 Exercise A tie rod 1.5m long under a tensile load of 500 N extends by 12 mm. Calculate the strain. a Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous esas decemse TTS integrated Training System Srpage2cf Doe cooument (© Copyright 2008i) Total Training Support Integrated Training System cluvdpro co.uk question practice ad Load/Extension Diagrams Ifa gradually increasing tensile load is applied to a test piece while the load and extension are continuously measured, the results can be used to produce a Load/Extension diagram or graph (refer to figure 1.1). Obviously a number of different forms of graph may be obtained, depending on the material type and condition, but the example shows a Load/Extension diagram which typifies many metallic materials when stressed in tension. Figure 1.1: Load/Extension Diagram The graph can be considered as comprising two major regions. Between points 0 and A, the material is in the Elastic region (or phase), i.e. when the load is removed the material will return to its original size and shape. In this region, the extension is directly proportional to the applied load. This relationship is known as ‘Hooke's Law’, which states: Within the elastic region, elastic strain is directly proportional to the stress causing it. Point A is the Elastic Limit. Between this point and point B, the material continues to extend until the maximum load is reached (at point B). In this region the material is in the plastic phase. When the load is removed, the material does not return to its original size and shape, but will retain some extension. After point B, the cross-sectional area reduces and the material begins to ‘neck’. The material continues to extend under reduced load until it eventually fractures at point C. Aircraft structural designers’ interest in materials does not extend greatly beyond the elastic phase of materials. Production engineers, however, are greatly interested in material properties beyond this phase, since the forming capabilities of materials are dependent on their properties in the plastic phase. 9 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous rbot TTS Integrated Training System Soup oe sosmere {© Copyright 2008(@) Total Training Support It is normal to consider the relationship of Stress and Strain, rather than Force and Extension, as this makes it easier to compare metals regardless of the cross sectional area of the test piece, and regardless of the length of the test piece, nor how the test piece changes in cross section as it is stretched. Stress is the Force per unit area, Strain is the extension per unit length of test piece. ‘An examination of a Stress/Strain graph, obtained from the results of a tensile test on mild stee! (refer to figure 1.2), shows that considerable plastic extension occurs without any increase in load shortly after the elastic limit is reached. The onset of increasing extension, without a corresponding increase in load, at point ‘A’, is known as the ‘yield point’ and, if this level of stress is reached, the metal is said to have ‘yielded’. This is a characteristic of mild steel and a few other, relatively ductile, materials. Stress Strain Figure 1.2: Load/Extension Diagram for Mild Steel If, after passing the yield point, the load is further increased, it may be seen that mild steel is capable of withstanding this increase until the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) is reached (point ‘B’). Severe necking then occurs and the material will fracture at a reduced load. The unexpected ability of mild steel to accept more load after yielding is due to strain-hardening of the material. Work-hardening of many materials is often carried out to increase their strength. 10 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ener coma, “TTS hiograto Training System reece (© Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System eo ey aes the stress tensile strength limit of proportionality strain Figure 1.3: Typical stress-strain graph Ultimate tens strength (UTS) aa Offset Figure 1.4: Stress/Strain graph for Duralumin, showing the Yield point, Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS, Elastic and Plastic regions). 11 TTS Integrated Tralning System (© Copyright 2008 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ovr te sao¢ Total Training Support Integrated Training System : clubeaprecet question pa ‘As previously stated, various forms of load/extension curves may be constructed for other materials (refer to figure 1.5), and their slopes will depend on whether the materials are brittle, elastic or plastic. | = plastic /] Ean WD wen ‘om oa Figure 1.5: Load/Extension Graphs for Brittle, Elastic and Plastic Materials (a) represents a brittle material (e.g. glass) (b) represents a material with some elasticity and limited plasticity (e.g. high-carbon steel). (c) represents a material with some elasticity and good plasticity (e.g. soft aluminium). 2 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ea anueemens Ts tapate ani Sytm Saeu © Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System - : cdlub6pro.co.uk question practic aid ductile stress Figure 1.6: Stress-strain graphs for a brittle and a ductile material 2 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous sandr acon TIS integrates Training System Spann cee (© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System C Peony quay sera i n association with the ‘question practice aid Ductility After fracture of a specimen, following tensile testing, an indication of material ductility is arrived at, by establishing the amount of plastic deformation which occurred. The two indicators of ductility are: © Elongation Reduction in area (at the neck) Elongation is the more reliable, because it is easier to measure the extension of the gauge length than the reduction in area. The standard measure of ductility is to establish the percentage elongation after fracture. Percentage elongation —Final Extension __ 199 Original Gauge Length Example Ina tensile test, on a specimen with 150.5 mm gauge length, the length over the gauge marks at fracture were 176.1 mm. What was the percentage elongation? Elongation = FinalExtension 499 _ 176.1-150.5 499 _ 47,009% =17% Gauge Length 150-5 Proof Stress Many materials do not exhibit a yield point, so a substitute value must be employed. The value chosen is the ‘Proof Stress’, which is defined as: The tensile stress, which is just sufficient to produce a non-proportional elongation, equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge length. Usually a value of 0.1% or 0.2% is used for Proof Stress, and the Proof Stress is then referred to as the 0.1% Proof Stress or the 0.2% Proof Stress respectively. The Proof Stress may be acquired from the relevant Load/Extension graph (refer to figure 1.7) as follows: If the 0.2% Proof Stress is required, then 0.2% of the gauge length is marked on the extension axis. A line, parallel to the straight-line portion of the graph, is drawn until it intersects the non- linear portion of the curve. The corresponding load is then read from the graph. Proof Stress is calculated by dividing this load by the original cross-sectional area. 0.1% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one thousandth of the specimens original length. 0.2% Proof Stress will produce permanent set equivalent to one five hundredth of the original length. i Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous: Prep error states Tig Sytem Sea. © Copyright 2008@ Total Training Support wn a o = £ a 0 Integrated Training System in e Strain, % Figure 1.7: Acquiring the Proof Stress from a Load/Extension Graph Stiffness Within the elastic range of a material, if the Strain is compared to the Stress causing that extension, it will provide a measure of stifiness/rigidity or flexibility. stress 15 Stress (co) x Modulus, E foungs Modulus, Sian G) This value, which is of great importance to designers, is known as ‘the Modulus of Elasticity, or Young’s Modulus’, and is signified by use of the symbol E. Thus E = Stress divided by Strain and, since Strain has no units, the unit for ‘E’ is the same as Stress. i.e. Ibfiin’, tonfiin? (also PSI and TSI), or the European and SI units such as kN/m’, MN/m? and kPa or MPa. Figure 1.8: Young's Modulus is the gradient of the stress-strain graph before the yield point Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ee TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008i Integrated Training System tbbpro cok qveeton practice The actual numerical value is usually large, as it is a measure of the stress required to theoretically double the length of a specimen (if it did not break first). A typical value of E for steel would be 30 x 10° PSI. or 210,000 MN/m* The Tensile Test Machine Tensile testing machines vary both in design and capacity. Large machines capable of applying forces up to 1 MN are in use. The small Hounsfield tensiometer has a capacity of 20 KN. Figure 1.9: Hounsfield Tensiometer 16 ror dodo . Mi : Le ror does aa - Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous = {© Copyright 2008(@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System preing ty st eon signed ta auaoen aurrens (ort 7 RecoiL) 1 | oRuM ceanso Q] PN) [ro woaw eave os ronce seat ae ie | aass canary rose to cee ace } somincs iS cuncon team Leva [ } river | rUINOER ano misTOK Figure 1.10: Hounsfield Tensiometer components 7 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ean dec TTS integrated Tring Sytem Speen {© Copyrgnt 2008Pt ra Spt Integrated Tranng Syste & iotranm teria clubs6pro co. .uk question practice aid Summary of the Information Derived from the Tensile Test The following is the results from a tensile test of a steel specimen. Load-extension curves for steel ‘Symbols used Weeload W, elastic limit W, =yield load W, fracture load W,,=maximum load W, = proof load e=strain xsextension o=stress £= Young's modulus Tensile strength TS = ———_ Nem ‘ Sriginal area of trosvsection Yield stress YS =" ___ mm“) ‘Area of cross-section Proof stress PS =Stress for a specified strain (e.g. 0.1%), (Nmm*) Steg ee eee eee etree ‘Original gauge length (mm) Stress in elastic region ‘Corresponding strai Extension at failure ‘Original gauge length ‘Young's modulus E: (Nmm~*} Percentage elongation (Elong. %) 100% Original area of cross-section—Area at fracture Eee ae 0 100% Percentage reduction in area as 2 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Lesa dese TTS Integrated Training System SS {© Copyright 2008& Total Training Support Integrated Training ee clube cok question practe ie Compression Test Machines for compression testing are often the same as those used for tensile testing, but the test specimen is in the form of a short cylinder. The Load/Deflection graph in the elastic phase for ductile materials is similar to that in the tensile test. The value of *E’ is the same in compression as it is in tension. Compression testing is seldom used as an acceptance test for metallic or plastic materials (except for cast iron). Compression testing is generally restricted to building materials and research into the properties of new materials. Hardness Tests Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation, and by pressing a suitably shaped indenter into the surface of the material being tested, a comparison of hardness values can be made. Hardness values are normally required by the material specification, and tests are also carried out to check case hardening and hardening and tempering at the various stages of manufacture. The Brinell Test In this test a hardened steel ball is forced into the surface of a test piece by means of a suitable standard load. The diameter of the impression is then measured using a calibrated microscope an the Brinell Hardness Number (H) is found from: Load (P) Area of curved surface of the impression The Brinell test was devised by a Swedish researcher at the beginning of the 20th century. The test comprises forcing a hardened steel ball indentor into the surface of the sample using a standard load as shown in figure 1.8 The diameter/load ratio is selected to provide an impression of an acceptable diameter. The ball may be 10, 5 or 1mm in diameter, the load may be 3000, 750 or 30 kgf, The load, P, is related to the diameter, D by the relationship P/D and this ratio has been standardised for different metals in order that test results are accurate and reproducible. For steel the ratio is 30:1 - for example a 10mm ball can be used with a 3000kaf load or a 1mm ball with a 30kgf load. For aluminium alloys the ratio is 5:1. Figure 1.11: The Brinell Hardness Test indentor tie Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ren eat TTS integrated Teining Sytem ere & Copyngt 2008»\ Total Training Support Integrated Training System SD) ns ty at mise ee Designein association wih the caubogpr.coiic quenton practoe ald The Vickers Pyramid Hardness Test The Vickers hardness test is similar to the Brinell in that an impression is made by applying a load to an indenter. The hardness number is then obtained from measurement of the impression. The indenter is a diamond in the shape of a square based pyramid and the measurement is made across the diagonal of the impression. fulcrum rl diamond pyramid specimen indentor \ | ) timing ? mechanism load rigid specimen table Figure 1.12: The Vickers Pyramid tester An advantage of the Vickers hardness test is that hardness values for very hard materials are more accurate than the corresponding Brinell numbers. This is because a diamond does not deform under high pressure, as does a steel ball, and so the result will be more accurate. ae -<>: impression square based ~— pyramidal indenter sample —~ (a) Vickers indentation (b} measurement of impression diagonals Figure 1.13: The Vickers Pyramid indenter 20 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous eens denen, ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘Sepape 2c fe doce © copyight 2008Total Training Support ‘upéépro.co.uk The diagonal length of the square impression is measured by means of a microscope which has a variable slit built into the eyepiece. As illustrated in figure 1.13 (b) two diagonals, d; and dz , are measured, averaged and the surface area calculated then divided into the load applied. As with the Brinell test the diagonal measurement is converted to a hardness figure by referring to a set of tables. The hardness may be reported as Vickers Hardness number (VHN), Diamond Pyramid Number (DPN) or, most commonly, Hv,.where 'xx' represents the load used during the test. The width of the slip is adjusted so that its edges line up with the corners of the impression. The diagonal length of the impression is then obtained from a digital counter geared to the movement of the slip. The reading is converted to Vickers Pyramid Hardness Number (VPN) by reference to tables. The higher the number the harder the material. The specified time of contact between the indenter and the test piece in both Vickers and Brinell hardness tests is 15 seconds. The Rockwell Test The Rockwell Test was developed in the U.S.A. It is used mainly for the rapid routine testing of finished materials, the hardness number being indicated directly on a dial, no measurement of the diameter of the impression is required. Depth to which indenter is forced | | A 7 ZR _ Depth to which aw indenter is forced by major load Increment in depth dus to increment in load is the linear measurement that forms the basis of Rockwell hardness tester readings Figure 1.14: The Rockwell test machine and its indenter There are two types of Rockwell tests: a Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Loan cecoaze TTS integrate Training System Sosa th ae {© Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System © Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf. © Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kaf In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the characteristics of the material being tested. Principal of the Rockwell Test: 1, The indenter moves down into position on the part surface 2. A minor load is applied and a zero reference position is established 3. The major load is applied for a specified time period (dwell time) beyond zero 4, The major load is released leaving the minor load applied The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero reference position as a result of the application of the major load. Rockwell Scales There are several scales associated with the Rockwell test. The ‘B’ and ‘C' scales are most common. The ‘C’ scale is used for harder materials and uses a 150 kg load. The ‘B’ scale is used on softer materials and uses a 100 kg load. Scale units are identical but the ‘C’ scale zero coincides with the ‘B' scale 30. Hardness Comparisons Material BHN HV Rockwell Aluminium alloy 100 100 BS7 Mild steel 130 130 B73 Cutting tools 650 697 C60 Table 1.1: Comparative hardness values Hardness Testing on Aircraft It is not normal to use Brinell, Rockwell or Vickers testing methods on aircraft in the hangar. There are, however, portable Hardness Testers, which may be used to test for material hardness on items such as aircraft wheels, after an over-heat condition, because the over-heat condition may cause the wheel material to become soft or partially annealed. 22 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous nts cant TTS incre Tring System Sete ates Copy 2008,Total Training Support Integrated Training System 1d in assacialion withthe Q 6 Impact Testing Impact tests are used to indicate the toughness of a material and most importantly its ability to resist mechanical shock, to ensure that temper brittleness has not been introduced during heat treatments. Toughness is, broadly, a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item - a test piece or a bridge or a pressure vessel - to fracture and fail. The more energy that is required then the tougher the material. The area beneath a stress/strain curve produced from a tensile test is a measure of the toughness of the test piece under slow loading conditions. However, in the context of an impact test we are looking at notch toughness, a measure of the metal's resistance to brittle or fast fracture in the presence of a flaw or notch and fast loading conditions. There are two types of machine used for testing aircraft materials, both of which use a pendulum weight to fracture the specimen. The energy absorbed by the specimen is measured from the angle through which the pendulum swings after causing the fracture. The IZOD test is required by most of the British material specifications, but where the test piece must be tested at high or iow temperatures the CHARPY test is used. The test is carried out within the 6 seconds of removal of the test piece from the heating or cooling bath. Machines are available which carry out both the Izod and Charpy tests. = l4\ Charpy \ hammer position fn \zod hammer position ecgetun relent 1 Figure 1.15: The Charpy and Izod Impact test machines 23 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous oy eecmrent TTS Integrated Trang System (ipage oe seamen {© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System euvssprea un aston rates 3 Most materials show a drop in toughness with a reduction in temperature, though some materials (certain steels in particular) show a rapid drop in toughness as the temperature is progressively reduced. This temperature range is called the Transition Zone, and components, which are designed for use at low temperature, should be operated above the material's Transition Temperature. Nickel is one of the most effective alloying elements for lowering the Transition Temperature of steels Figure 1.16: Izod Impact test machine ie Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ener cera TTS Integrated Training System Sea eae {© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System cubs Creep Creep can be defined as the continuing deformation, with the passage of time, of materials. subjected to prolonged stress. This deformation is plastic and occurs even though the acting stress may be well below the yield stress of the material. At temperatures below 0.4T (where T is the melting point of the material in Kelvin), the creep rate is very low, but, at higher temperatures, it becomes more rapid. For this reason, creep is commonly regarded as being a high-temperature phenomenon, associated with super-heated steam plant and gas turbine technology. However, some of the soft, low-melting point materials will creep significantly at, or alittle above, ambient temperatures and some aircraft materials may creep when subjected to over-heat conditions. Creep in Metals When a metallic material is suitably stressed, it undergoes immediate elastic deformation. This is then followed by plastic strain, which occurs in three stages (refer to Fig. 9): © Primary Creep - begins at a relatively rapid rate, but then decreases with time as strain- hardening sets in. ‘* Secondary Creep - the rate of strain is fairly uniform and at its lowest value. © Tertiary Creep - the rate of strain increases rapidly, finally leading to rupture. This final stage coincides with gross necking of the component, prior to failure. The rate of creep is at a maximum in this phase. rupture 3 < at tertiary £ Ac = 5 g a ' 5 ' 2 |x—— secondary ——>| instantaneous deformation ' time t ty Figure 1.17: Stages of creep 7 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Urs aconge TTS rtogated Ting Sysom Sani © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System th the & Peta! Training Support Effect of Stress and Temperature on Creep Both stress and temperature have an effect on creep. At low temperature or very low stress, primary creep may occur, but this falls to a negligible value in the secondary stage, due to strain-hardening of the material. At higher stress and/or temperature, however, the rate of secondary creep will increase and lead to tertiary creep and inevitable failure. It is clear, from the foregoing, that short-time tensile tests do not give reliable information for the design of structures, which must carry static loads over long periods of time, at elevated temperatures. Strength data, determined from long- time creep tests (up to 10,000 hours), are therefore essential. Although actual design data are based on the long-time tests, short-time creep tests are sometimes used as acceptance tests. The Effect of Grain Size on Creep Since the creep mechanism is partly due to microscopic flow along the grain boundaries, creep resistance is improved by increased grain size, due to the reduced grain boundary region per unit volume. It is mainly for this reason that some modern, high-performance turbine blades are being made from directionally solidified (and, alternatively, improved single-crystal) castings. Creep in Plastics Plastics are also affected by creep and show similar, though not identical, behaviour to that described for metals. Since most plastics possess lower thermal properties than metals, the choice of plastic for important applications, particularly at elevated temperature, must take creep considerations into account. = Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous aero Ts hteate Trig Sytem Sere {© Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Fatigue An in-depth survey, in recent years, revealed that over 80 percent of failures of engineering components were caused by fatigue. Consequences of modern engineering have led to increases in operating stresses, temperatures and speeds. This is particularly so in aerospace and, in many instances, has made the fatigue characteristics of materials more significant than their ordinary, static strength properties. Engineers became aware that alternating stresses, of quite small amplitude, could cause failure in components, which were capable of safely carrying much greater, steady loads. This phenomenon of small, alternating loads causing failure was likened to a progressive weakening of the material, over a period of time and hence the attribution of the term ‘fatigue’. Very few constructional members are immune from it, and especially those operating in a dynamic environment. Experience in the aircraft industry has shown that the stress cycles, to which aircraft are subjected, may be very complex, with occasional high peaks, due to gust loading of aircraft wings. For satisfactory correlation with in-service behaviour, full-size or large-scale mock-ups must be tested in conditions as close as possible to those existing in service. Fatigue Testing An experiment, conducted in 1861, found that a wrought iron girder, which could safely sustain a mass of 12 tons, broke when a mass of only 3 tons was raised and lowered on the girder some 3x10° times. Itwas also found that there was some mass, below 3 tons, which could be raised and lowered on to the beam, a colossal number (infinite) of times, without causing any problem. Some years later, a German engineer (Wohler), did work in this direction and eventually developed a useful fatigue-testing machine which bears his name and continues to be used in industry. The machine uses a test piece, which is rotated in a chuck and a force is applied at the free end, at right angles to the axis of rotation (refer to figure 1.18). The rotation thus produces a reversal of stress for every revolution of the test piece. ae Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous TTS integrated Training System © Copyrigt 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System ae Design ith the clubsépre co.uk queeban practice sid Co mae REV. COUNT. Figure 1.18: Fatigue testing machine Various other types of fatigue testing are also used e.g. cyclic-torsional, tension-compression etc. Exhaustive fatigue testing, with various materials, has resulted in a better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon and its implications from an engineering viewpoint. S-N Curves One of the most useful end-products, from fatigue testing, is an S-N curve, which shows, graphically, the relationship between the amount of stress (S), applied to a material, and the number of stress cycles (N), which can be tolerated before failure of the material. Using a typical S-N curve, for a steel material (refer to figure 1.19), it can be seen that, if the stress is reduced, the steel will endure a greater number of stress cycles. The graph also shows that a point is eventually reached where the curve becomes virtually horizontal, thus indicating that the material will endure an infinite number of cycles at a particular stress level. This limiting stress is called the ‘Fatigue Limit’ and, for steels, the fatigue limit is generally in the region of 40% to 60% of the value of the static, ultimate tensile strength (U.T.S.) ou Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ene TrS noted Taig Sytem Saat {© Copyright 2008© Total Training Support Integrated Training System t de S $y fatigue strength at Ny cycles fatigue limit eet 10 108 fatigue life 107 Ny 40° 10° 10° See cycles to failure N (logarithmic scale) Figure 1.19: A typical S-N curve Many non-ferrous metals, however, show a different characteristic from steel. In this instance there is no fatigue limit as such and it can be seen that these materials will fail if subjected to an appropriate number of stress reversals, even at very small stresses. When materials have no fatigue limit an endurance limit together with a corresponding number of cycles is quoted instead, It follows that components made from such materials must be designed with a specific life in mind and removed from service at the appropriate time. The service fati complete airframes or airframe members are typical examples of this philosophy. Non-metallic materials are also liable to failure by fatigue. As is the case with metals, the number of stress cycles, required to produce a fatigue failure, will increase as the maximum ‘stress in the loading cycle decreases. There is, however, generally no fatigue limit for these materials and some form of endurance limit must be applied. The importance of fatigue strength can be illustrated by the fact that, in a high- cycle fatigue mode, a mere 10% improvement in fatigue strength can result in a 100-times life improvement. 29 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous nantes TTS integrated Training System pw saseeess © Copyright 2008& Pere! Training Support Integrated Training System social Fatigue Failure As the fatigue characteristics of most materials are now known (or can be ascertained), it would seem reasonable to suppose that fatigue failure, due to lack of suitable allowances in design, should not occur. Nevertheless, fatigue cracking occurs frequently, and even the most sophisticated engineering product does not possess immunity from this mode of failure. Such failures are often due to unforeseen factors in design, environmental or operating conditions, material, and manufacturing processes. Two essential requirements for fatigue development in a material are: « An applied stress fluctuation of sufficient magnitude (with or without an applied steady stress). A sufficient number of cycles of that fluctuating stress. The stress fluctuations may be separated by considerable time intervals, as experienced in aircraft cabin pressurisation, during each take-off (e.g. daily), or they may have a relatively short time interval, such as encountered during the aerodynamic buffeting/vibration of a wing panel. The former example would be considered to be low-cycle fatigue and the latter to be high-cycle fatigue. In practice, the level of the fluctuating stress, and the number of cycles to cause cracking of a given material, are affected by many other variables, such as stress concentration points (stress raisers), residual internal stresses, corrosion, surface finish, material imperfections eto. Vibration - Vibration has already been quoted as being a cause of high-cycle fatigue and, because most dynamic structures are subjected to vibration, this is undoubtedly the most ‘common origin of fatigue. All objects have their own natural frequency at which they will freely vibrate (the resonant frequency). Large, heavy, flexible components vibrate at a low frequency, while small, light, stiff components vibrate at a high frequency. Resonant frequencies are undesirable (and in some cases could be disastrous), $0 it is important to ensure that, over their normal operating ranges, critical components are not vibrated at their natural frequencies and so avoid creating resonance. The resonant frequency, of a component, is governed by its mass and stifiness and, on certain critical parts, itis often necessary to do full-scale fatigue tests to confirm adequate fatigue life before putting the product into service. Fatigue Metallurgy Under the action of fatigue stresses, minute, local, plastic deformation on an atomic scale, takes place along slip planes within the material grains. If the fatigue stresses are continued, then micro cracks are formed within the grains, in the area of the highest local stress, (usually at or near the surface of the material). The micro cracks join together and propagate across the grain boundaries but not along them. 30 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ander cman TTS integrated Teng Sytem omiaisones (© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System an Designed in associafion with the _lubsspro.co.uk question practice aid A fatigue fracture generally develops in three stages (refer to figure 1.20): Initiation © Propagation (crack growth) © Ultimate (rapid) fracture. First initiation site Initiation Site Beach marks caused by arrests of growing cracks Area of final fracture Second initiation site Figure 1.20: Fatigue crack propagation Figure 1.21: Typical fatigue failure The resultant fractured surface often has a characteristic appearance of: Anarea, on which a series of curved, parallel, relatively smooth ridges are present and are centred around the starting point of the crack. These ridges are sometimes called conchoidal lines or ‘beach marks’ or ‘arrest lines’. © Arougher, typically crystalline section, which is the final rapid fracture when the cross- section is no longer capable of carrying its normal, steady load. 31 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous se ar cc TTS itogetedTeining Sytem Sem see © Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training ola GD eerie ee association wit the The arrest lines are, normally, formed when the loading is changed, or the loading is. intermittent. However, in addition to these characteristic and informative marks, there are similar, but much finer lines (called ‘striations’), which literally show the position of the crack front after each cycle. These striations are obviously of great importance to metallurgists and failure investigators when attempting to estimate the crack initiation and/or propagation life. The striations are often so fine and indistinct that electron beam microscopes are required to count them. In normal circumstances, a great deal of energy is required to ‘weaken’ the material sufficiently to initiate a fatigue crack, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find that the nucleation phase. takes a relatively long time. However, once the initial crack is formed, the extremely high stress concentration (present at the crack front) is sufficient to cause the crack to propagate relatively quickly, and gaining in speed as the crack front not only increases in size, but also reduces the component cross- sectional area. A point is eventually reached (known as the ‘critical crack length’) at which the remaining cross- section is sufficiently reduced to cause a gross overloading situation, and a sudden fracture finally occurs. Itis not unusual for the crack initiation phase to take 90% of the time to failure, with the propagation phase only taking the remaining 10%. This is one of the major reasons for ‘operators of equipment being relatively unsuccessful in detecting fatigue cracks in components before a failure occurs. Fatigue Promoters As fatigue cracks initiate at locations of highest stress and lowest local strength, the nucleation site will be: * dictated largely by geometry and the general stress distribution « located at or near the surface or * centred on surface defects/imperfections, such as scratches, pits, inclusions, dislocations and the like Design Apart from general stressing, the geometry of a component has a considerable influence on its susceptibility to fatigue. A good designer will therefore minimise stress concentrations by: * avoiding rapid changes in section and using generous blend radii or chamfers to eliminate sharp comers Manufacture While the designer may specify adequate blend radii, the actual product may still be prone to fatigue failure if the manufacturing stage fails to achieve this sometimes-seemingly unimportant drawing requirement. os Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous: eens Ts teyated Tig Stem = © Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System bsp. Several other manufacturing-related causes of premature fatigue failure exist, the most common of which are: « Inherent material faults: e.g. cold shuts, pipe, porosity, slag inclusions etc, © Processing faults: e.g. bending, forging, grinding, shrinking, welding, etc. © Production faults: e.g. incorrect heat-treatment, inadequate surface protection, poor drilling procedures, undue force used during assembly, ete ¢ In-service damage: e.g. dents, impact marks, scratches, scores, tooling marks etc. Environment One of the most potent environmental promoters of fatigue occurs when the component is operating in a corrosive medium. Steel (normally), has a well-defined fatigue limit on the S-N curve but, if a fatigue test is conducted in a corrosive environment, not only does the general fatigue strength drop appreciably, but the curve also resembles the aluminium alloy curve (e.g. the fatigue failure stress continues to fall as the number of cycles increases). Other environmental effects such as fretting and corrosion pitting, erosion or elevated temperatures will also adversely affect fatigue strength. Fatigue Preventers If a component is prone to fatigue failure in service, then several methods of improvement are available, in the form of: © Quality. Correct and eliminate any failure-related manufacturing or processing shortcomings. © Material. Select a material with a significantly better fatigue strength, or corrosion- resistance or corrosion-protection if relevant. *° Geometry. a) Increase the size (c.s.a.) to reduce the general stress level or modify the local geometry to reduce the change in section (large radius). b) Modify the geometry to change the vibration frequency or introduce a damping feature, to reduce the vibration amplitudes. c) Improve the surface finish or put a compressive stress in the skin (e.g. shot peen or cold expand). Cold Expansion (Broaching) - Most fatigue failures occur whilst a material is subject to a tensile, alternating stress. If the most fatigue-prone areas, such as spar fastener holes, have a compression stress applied, they are significantly more resistant to fatigue failure. The fastener hole is initially checked for defects (using, usually, an Eddy Current NDT procedure) and the surface finish is further improved by reaming (and checked once again) A tapered mandrel is then pulled through the hole, resulting in a localized area of residual (compressive) stress which will provide a neutral or, at least, a significantly reduced level of fatigue in the area around the fastener hole. ka Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ‘oomnadty na cues TTS Integrated Training System Sroone 2 deamon © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Do's and Don'ts - Preventing Fatigue Failures Do Be careful not to damage the surface finish of a component by mishandling. Use the right tools for assembiing press-fit components etc. Maintain drawing sizes and tolerances. Keep the correct procedures (e.g. don't overheat when welding). ‘Avoid contact or near contact of components that might cause fretting when touching. DON'T © Leave off protective coverings - plastic end caps ete. Score the surface. Leave sharp corners or ragged holes. Force parts unnecessarily to make them fit. Work metal unless it is in the correct heat-treated state. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Obviously it is extremely important, that the level of fatigue, imposed on an aircraft structure (and associated components), be monitored and recorded so that the respective fatigue lives are not exceeded. Several methods have been developed to assist in the vital tasks involved with SHM Fatigue Meters Fatigue meters are used to check overall stress levels on aircraft and to monitor the fatigue history of the aircraft. Fatigue meters also allow a check to be made on the moment in time when the aircraft exceeds the design limits imposed on it. Strain Gauges Strain gauges may be used to monitor stress levels on specific aircraft structures. Strain gauges are thin-foil, electrical, resistor elements, bonded to the aircraft structure. Their resistance varies proportional to the applied stress loading Fatigue Fuses Fatigue fuses are metallic fuses, which are bonded to the structure and which fail at different fatigue stresses. The electrical current, flowing through the fuse, will vary and thus, provide an indication of the stress level. Intelligent Skins Development Modern developments in aircraft structures will allow the structures to be designed and built with a variety of sensors and systems embedded into the structure and skin. This would mainly be restricted to structures manufactured from composite materials. One major benefit of this is to allow the structure to monitor it's own loads and fatigue life. os Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ania me TS iota Trig Sytem Sean {© Copyright 2008® Total Training Suppor Integrated Training System ‘Smart Structures The generic heading ‘Smart Structures’ actually covers three areas of development: © Smart Structures. These are structures, which have sensors, actuators, signal-processing and adaptive control systems built in ¢ Smart Skins. These have radar and communications antennae embedded in, or beneath, the structural skin Intelligent Skins. Skin embedded with fibre optic sensors ‘Smart Structures perceived benefits include: © Seff-diagnostic in the monitoring of structural integrity Reduced life cycle costs © Reduced inspection costs * Potential weight saving/performance improvements derived from increased knowledge of composite material characteristics © From a military point of view — an improvement in ‘Stealth’ characteristics. fully monitored and self-diagnostic system could: * Assess structural integrity. Pinpoint structural damage. Process flight history. Composite laminates, containing embedded fibre optic sensors can be used for SHM, including fatigue monitoring and flight envelope exceedance monitoring and their advantages include: © Cover a greater area of structure * Not prone to electrical interference * Less vulnerable to damage when embedded in the plies Increased knowledge of structural loads aids designers cad Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous TTS integrated Tein Sytem © Copyrant 2008,Integrated Training System Designad in association with the club86pro.co.uk question practice ald Intentionally Blank 36 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Unser acre “TS integrated Training System Rossin mee {© Copyright 2008© Total Training Support Integrated Training System Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Introduction Iron is a very important metal in engineering. Little used in its pure form it is however the main constituent of steel. Iron ore (magnetite and hematite) is quarried or mined from the earth's crust and converted by a series of processes into pig iron. Any alloy containing iron as its main constituent is called a ferrous metal. The most common ferrous metal, in aircraft construction is steel, which is an alloy of iron with a controlled amount of carbon added. Iron Production Pig iron is produced by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The iron ore is first washed and then added to the blast furnace together with high quality coke, low in sulphur content and limestone, which combines with impurities and forms a slag. During charging, the double bell arrangement prevents gases escaping. These gases are later cleaned and used to heat the air entering the blast main, to about 800°C, reducing the amount of coke required by half. The oxygen in the air causes the coke to burn fiercely, generating heat and producing carbon monoxide gas which reduces the ore to metal Iron which is the heaviest product drips to the bottom of the furnace. The lighter slag floats on top of the iron. When the iron reaches the level of the slag tapping hole, the slag is run off. The iron is then tapped out from the bottom of the furnace. The molten pig iron may be cast into small moulds known as pigs. If the blast furnace is situated close to a steel works, the molten iron is conveyed direct to the steel making furnaces. Cast Iron Pig iron from the blast furnace is not refined enough for making castings. In a foundry the pig iron is re-melted together with broken pieces of pig iron, coke and some limestone (to absorb impurities) in a small blast furnace called a cupola. The molten iron, having a melting point of 1130°C, flows to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped directly into ladles or moulds. Cast iron is an important material for the following reasons: 1. Itis a cheap metal, since it can be produced by simple adjustments to the composition of ordinary pig iron. 2. Rigidity and strength under compression are good. 3. __Itis easy to machine. 4. It casts easily due to its fluidity when molten. 5. Its composition can be altered to make it stronger and tougher if required. 37 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous See emer TTS itegated Training System Sunes cee {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System clubs question & lett! Training Support The Composition of Cast Iron Ordinary cast iron contains the following elements: Carbon 3.0 to 4% Silicon 1.0 to 3.0% Manganese 0.5 to 1.0% Sulphur up to 0.1% (Induce Brittleness) Phosphorous up to 1.9% Also Chromium 0.5 - 1.00% for Stainless Steel Wrought Iron Probably the first form of iron used by man. It is very pure, containing 99.9% iron. It is made from oxidizing nearly all the carbon and other elements from pig iron in a furnace. Wrought iron is able to take large shock loads without permanent damage and was used for making chains and lifting hooks etc. It fibrous nature giving visible warning on the surface, if it is about to break. e Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous aan cence TTS integrated Training System See en ‘© Copyright 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training System ed in associaiion with the club68pro.co.uk question practice ald Steelmaking Steel is made from pig iron, but in modem steel making, large amounts of scrap steel can be used up if required. There are three methods of making steel. The Open Hearth Process, the Basic Oxygen Process and the Electric Furnace Process. Open Hearth Process In the Open Hearth Process, the heat required to melt the pig iron and scrap is obtained by burning a mixture of gas and air over the metal. The gas and air is pre-heated to a high temperature in regenerators. Sized coke 215140 t0 80mm Limestone Water cooled Foc refractory ling Iron ore Suter + Peliets or Lup Shg noteh Shg bile Injection nozae = Tiphole tron ladle Figure 1.22: Basic steel making process Lime is added to the charge, in order to form a basic slag and so remove the phosphorus which is present in most pig irons. The slag floats on the surface of the molten steel and is run off. Carbon is then added in the form of anthracite which dissolves in the molten steel. Finally the molten steel is transferred to a large ladle which in turn pours the steel into mould to produce ingots each of several tonnes mass = Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous rare ear TTS Integrated Training System seca © Copyright 2008é Total Training Support Integrated Training System ith the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking A typical basic oxygen furnace consists of a steel cased converter lined with dolomite holding up to 400 tonnes of metal. The charge consists of up to 40% of scrap steel, lime and molten pig iron 40 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 ‘Tap hole Fluxes C7 Fumes Refractory lined steel shell Oxygen lance Figure 1.23: Basic oxygen converter Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous toro ty he Salomorté Total Training Support Integrated Training System san Designs in aszoraon wih the cluegpro.coic question practoe ad Electrical Arc Steel Making An electrical arc furnace is shown. The heat required to melt the charge is produced by electric arcs struck between carbon electrodes and the steel. The impurities are oxidized from the charge by melting it under a covering of slag which absorbs the oxidized impurities and may then be run off by tilting the furnace. The charge consists of scrap, iron ore, blast furnace pig iron and limestone. The advantage of the electric furnace is that there is no gas, fumes or impurities which are present in fuel fed furnaces and which may allow impurities into the molten metal. Electrical furnaces are used to make high quality steels. NOTE: When the impurities are oxidized, they combine with oxygen and form an oxide which floats on top of the molten steel, together with the slag. Electrodes Spout Figure 1.24: Electric Arc furnace oo Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous canes deca TTS integrated Trining Sytem Smee (© Copyright 2008®& Total Training Support Integrated Training System cation with thy Steel Plain carbon steel are alloys of iron and up to 1.7% carbon. Most ordinary steels also contain up to 1.0% manganese, left over during the steel making process. The manganese helps reduce the sulphur content of the steel. Both sulphur and phosphorus are harmful impurities causing brittleness in steels. Most specifications allow no more than 0.06% of either of these elements. High quality steels would contain no more than 0.04% of each element. The manganese dissolves in the solid steel, slightly increasing its strength and hardness, The relative density of steel is 7.9. Steel is 2/3 the weight of lead, 3 times the weight of aluminum. Annealed steel with low carbon concentration (e.g. 0.2%) can have a tensile strength of 345 MPa (50,000 Ibffin’). Annealed high-carbon steel (0.4%) may have tensile strengths of almost 700 MPa (about 100,000 Ibffin’ ). Cold working, alloying and heat treatment can boost strength up to around 1000 MPa. General Plain carbon steel owes its properties to the presence of carbon. The effects of carbon in iron are best understood by first considering pure iron. Pure iron is very ductile, and has a tensile strength of 18 tons/sq.in (28 Hoar). The addition of carbon to the iron increases the tensile strength. hardness and brittleness, and at the same time decreases the ductility. The tensile strength of 0.8% carbon steel is a approximate 55 tons/sq.in (85 Hbar). The strength of steel will increase with carbon content but is limited to the amount of carbon which will remain combined with the iron after any normal heat treatment. Above 1.7% carbon, the excess carbon is in the form of free (uncombined) carbon or graphite, which has very low strength. The carbon content of plain carbon steel does not often exceed 1.5%. The internal structure of steel may be varied by heating and cooling. To produce certain properties in the steel, it is heat treated. It is not always possible to produce all the desired properties in the metal and a compromise has to be made. For ease of manufacture the metal may require to be soft. In use, great strength and considerable hardness may be required. Thus if'a steel is required to be hard and tough, the maximum degree of hardness and toughness cannot be obtained together. Maximum hardness makes the metal brittle and maximum toughness generally reduces hardness. The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys with a four- digit numerical index system. A small extract from the SAE classification system is shown in Table 2, where it can be seen, for example, that one common steel alloy is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows that it is a Plain Carbon-Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel (0.30%). a Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Ursa decease ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘apa 2th document {© Copyright 2008(@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System \ 2 clubspro-couk quesbonprectcs eid It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has a different classification system. 19x Carbon Steels 10xx Plain Carbon Steels Dex Nickel Steels Bxxx Nickel-Chromium Steels 40x Molybdenum Steels Aix Chrome-Molybdenum Steels Bxxx Chromium Steels xxx Chrome-Vanadium Steels Table1.2: Extract from the SAE Classification for Steel Alloys 43 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous eee eee ‘TTS Integrated Training System Seager {© Copyright 2008& Let! Training Suppo Properties | Worked by| g/Stt, Uses Remarks Brittle weak, Casts easily Machine Properties Cast Iron fairly sot | Casting ana [Wea"S to good |e are unaffected by heat (up 104.7% — |(veryhard [ote ot surface, Surface tables |S'ghtly self and impurities) |surface if 9 N'Y | resists ‘ston rings. |lUbricating owing chilled”) crushing. a 98 to graphite carbon Ree oeetie, _[Allmethods |Easily Cores of | Cannot be oe Pekar’, [except — |magnetised |dynamos, hardened by impurities) ee on [casting leasily welded lifting chains |quenching Ductile, less Mild steel _| malleable, Easily forged, [BOuS: UES. ReRereaey (low carbon) _ | stronger, welded, EH oe fence \auencniag: (up to 0.3% — |harderand |All methods | machined or eect ‘srength {for surface jand ie ea unifor peli to Jor hardness is |hardening see impurities) ian weve Ps not required _|“Case Hardening” Rather : ‘stronger and Medium harder but ‘Shafts, rods, carbon steel Jiess ductile |All methods |Not quite So Hoots, tubes. (0.3% t0 0.6% | ors (rarely cast) [225i worked |rathor reel malleable as mild steel | stronger parts pt than mild steel Strong, less ductile, bel carbon | Hardness Can be made See and Forging and | very hard Cutting tools |3 Cae 2 ‘d few [toughness cutting /without undue |of all kinds. ci and impurities) depend of brittleness ee heat treatment Tablet.3: Types of Steel, their Properties and Uses 44 TTS Intogratod Training {© Copyright 2008 Systom Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ovat ye sateenIntegrated Training System Properties and Uses of Common Steels Metal Properties Uses Cast Iron Cee eee ee Vile Machine beds, frames and (up to 4.5% carbon) crushing. Good anti-friction properties, self lubricating. Good vibration damping qualities. details. General castings, bearings. Wrought Iron (0.02% carbon) Ductile, malleable, fairly strong, soft, easily magnetized, easily welded. Cores of dynamos, lifting chains, crane hooks. Mild Steel (Low carbon) Ductile, less malleable, stronger and harder than wrought iron. Easily forged, welded, machined or stamped to shape. Machines bolts and nuts. General workshop machined components, structural girders, forgings, car body panels. Medium Carbon Steel Higher strength than mild steel! and responds to heat treatment to further increase its toughness and hardness Leaf springs, wire ropes, hammer heads, hacksaw frames, cold chisels, wood saws, axles, crankshaft forgings. High Carbon Steel More costly than med. carbon steel. Mainly used where its properties of hardness and toughness after heat treatment can be exploited. Cutting tools, such as files, drills, knives, wood chisels, etc. Coil springs. Alloy Steels By adding other metals in sufficient quantity, the properties of carbon steel can be altered. ‘Adding chromium gives greater hardness for the manufacture of ball bearings. Adding nickel gives greater strength and toughness and resistance to fatigue. Adding tungsten it retains its hardness at high temperatures. Table 1.4: Uses of common steels 45 TTS Intograted Training System © Copyright 2008 ‘Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ovary ne saterertIntegrated Training System Total Training Support Designed in associaiton wth the trong ye arene re clubéépro.couk question pracles aid ro0olso s pela 0. soofse 300/50} 8 Q 8 8 8 CHARPY IMPACT VALUE (J) BRINELL. HARDNESS ELONGATION (9%) 8 3 8 8 3 Oia nescr [7° TENSILE STRENGTH (N/mm?) 8 8 8 o 200}10 oe 3: OdsegeOeicer, OF aera 12 a ,CARBON (°%) L BOSH ae zy MoTOR-CAR CONN, eou1es RODS “hisets BROMCHES Rivets AXLES SHEAR. knives NaiLs SHAFTS BLADES a Wine Gears sove TiNeLare’ screw “HAND its RAZORS Screws Drivers TOOLS Pare SAWS RS RAILS ORs Figure 1.25 The affect of carbon content on properties and uses of steel a Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous sarc TTS Integrated Training System Sroge 2th dcamert © Copyright 2008(1 Total Training Sug & Teta! Training Support Micro-structure of Steel The constituents of carbon steel are pure iron (ferrite), and a chemical compound of carbon in iron called iron carbide (cementite). In low carbon steel, these constituents, when viewed through a microscope, appear as a laminated structure (pearlite), surrounded by free ferrite. With increasing carbon content, the proportion of pearlite to ferrite increases until, with a 0.8% carbon content, the steel is entirely pearlite. Above 0.8% carbon content, a microscopic examination shows pearlite surrounded by free cementite. Ferrite is soft, ductile and not very strong. Pearlite is strong and tough, but soft enough to be worked. Cementite is very hard and brittle. As the carbon content is increased up to 0.8% the steel gets tougher and stronger. When the carbon content exceeds 0.8%, increasing cementite content, the steel becomes very hard and more brittle. When steel is heated, the following changes will occur to the microstructure: The temperature at which the change starts (lower critical point) is the same for all steels and is about 723°C. At this temperature, the pearlite disappears and the ferrite and cementite of which it is composed, dissolves and forms a solid solution known as austenite which is non-magnetic. The finishing point of the transformation (the upper critical point) varies according to the steel! In steel containing 0.8% carbon (wholly pearlite) there is only one critical point. The whole transformation takes place at about 723°C. Therefore, steel containing lower or higher carbon content than 0.8% must be subjected to increase in temperature (upper critical point) to bring the free ferrite or cementite into solid solution. When steel is allowed to cool slowly these changes occur in the reverse order. 47 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous Sean deca TTS Integrated Training System Shean em deiner {© Copyright 2008init Integrated Trainin stem Qn Training Support 9) i ig Sy: =m Figure 1.26: The Iron-Carbon phase equilibrium diagram 48 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous eran dea TTS Integrated Training System secrete {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System ignod in essociabon withthe club8pro.co.uk question practice aid 2°] White - Ferrite Dark - Pearlite Magnified X150 LT i Figure 1.27: Microstructure of steel - magnified = Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous ear meee T1Snegrted Taig Sytem ao. © Copyrant 2008Total Training Support Integrated Training Syst alo The amount of carbon present in steel has a major effect on the mechanical properties. The form in which the carbon is present is also important. Slow-Cooled Steels Carbon can be present in these steels in the following forms: ‘© When the carbon is fully dissolved and, consequently, uniformly distributed in a solid solution, the metallurgical structure is called ferrite. At room temperature only a very small amount of carbon (0.006%) can be contained in solid solution, therefore this ferrite structure is almost pure iron. It is (not surprisingly) soft, weak and ductile. ¢ When 1 carbon atom chemically combines with 3 iron atoms the result is called cementite or iron carbide. \t is very hard and brittle. ¢ Cementite can be present either as free cementite or laminated with ferrite (in alternate layers) to produce a metallurgical structure called pearlite. As peariite is half cementite and half ferrite, it is not surprising to find that pearlite combines the properties of ferrite and cementite I.e. Whereas ferrite was too soft and weak - and cementite was basically strong but too hard and brittle - pearlite is strong without being brittle. The amount of carbon necessary to produce a totally pearlite structure is 0.83% but this material is a little too hard for general structural use. If the carbon content exceeds this value, the excess carbon forms carbon-rich cementite areas along the grain boundaries, and this is known as free cementite. Such high-carbon steels as already stated are very hard and strong but very brittle. Mild steel has a metallurgical structure comprising approximately one third pearlite and two thirds ferrite. Hesitation If'straight’ carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise in temperature occurs. However, at approximately 700°C, there is a reduction in the rate of temperature rise (a ‘hesitation’), even though the heating is continued (refer to figure 1.28). This hesitation starts at 700°C and finishes at up to 200°C higher (depending on the percentage of carbon present) and, eventually, the temperature rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to that which occurred before the hesitation 50 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous rear dec TTS integrated Training Sytem Smeeateaanen {© Copyright 2008Pen Ti Set GeseMsich eal ‘dub6pro.co.uk question practice aid TEMP DEG C Temp of material 900 j-- 700 | 5 TIME, Figure 1.28: Temperature-Time graph for steel heat-treatment The start of the hesitation is known as the ‘lower critical point’ and the end is called the ‘upper critical point’, and the phenomenon of the temperature response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in between the two critical points. 51 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous oe TTS Integrated Training System ‘Srpaga ee cosmen © Copyright 2008é Total Training Support Integrated Training System — ciub6epro.ceuk question prastee st Intentionally Blank 52 Module 6.1 Aircraft Materials - Ferrous User acomae TS integrated Training System Sees sees (© Copyright 2008