ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

OF GEOTHERMAL
UTILIZATION
Halldór Ármannsson
May 2013

30.4.2013 1
ENVIRONMENT - DEFINITION
The combination of elements whose
complex inter-relationships make up the
settings, the surroundings and the
conditions of life of the individual and of
society, as they are or as they are felt (EC)
A collective term for human beings, fauna,
flora and other life forms, soil, geological
formations, water, air, climate and
landscape, society, health, culture and
cultural artefacts, employment and
material assets (Icelandic Environmental
Impact Assessment Act)
30.4.2013 2
IMPACT
A change in the environmental conditions
affecting man, man’s use of the
environment, natural systems or resources
Means sharp blow. Some prefer:
Environmental effect
Key word: Significant, not defined. In the
end collective judgement of officers, elected
persons and the public
Mitigation: Actions designed to prevent,
decrease or ameliorate negative
environmental impact
30.4.2013 3
 Environmental Impact
Assessment Act (Iceland)
Definitions
 Environmental impact: the impact of the project
and resulting activities on the environment
 Significant environmental impact: substantial,
irrevocable environmental impact or substantial
damage to the environment, which cannot be
avoided or remedied through mitigating
measures
 Mitigating measures: measures to avoid, reduce
or offset negative environmental impacts
30.4.2013 4
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT

Brundtland report
Sustainable development: Development
that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
(World Commission on Environment and
Development 1987)

30.4.2013 5
SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF
ENERGY FROM AN INDIVIDUAL
GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM
For each geothermal system, and for each mode
of production, there exists a certain level of
maximum energy production, E0, below which it
will be possible to maintain constant energy
production for a very long time (100-300 years).
If the production rate is greater than E0 it
cannot be maintained for this length of time.
Geothermal energy production below or equal to
E0 is termed sustainable production, while
production greater than E0 is termed excessive
production (Axelsson et al. 2001)

30.4.2013 6
RENEWABLE ENERGY
SOURCE

The energy extracted from a renewable

energy source is always replaced in a
natural way by an additional amount of
energy, and the replacement takes place
on a similar time scale as that of
extraction (Stefánsson and Axelsson
2003)

30.4.2013 7
Stages of geothermal
development

Exploration
Drilling
Construction
Operation
Decommisioning
 GEOTHERMAL PRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Surface disturbances
Physical effects - fluid withdrawal
Noise
Thermal pollution
Chemical pollution
Protection
Social and economic effects
30.4.2013 9
SURFACE DISTURBANCES

Excavation
Construction
Roads
Landslides
Scenery
Changes in surface activity
Untidiness
30.4.2013 10
 MITIGATION

Small area of activity, Drillrigs disappear after

mostly underground use
Source usually exploited Abandoned or unused
near drillsite boreholes can be hidden
30.4.2013 11
Las Pailas Power Plant,
Costa Rica
Difficult to get a good view of the
power plant from the ground

GIS technology was used to find

location that minimized visual implact
and disturbance of sensitive habitat

Las Pailas, Costa Rica

Visibility of geothermal
versus wind energy

Miravalles, Costa Rica

Land use intensity of
different energy options
 Land use intensity
includes
 Area of power plant
 Area of mining or
harvesting
 Geothermal has the
second lowest land
use intensity after
nuclear energy

From McDonald et al. (2009)

UNTIDINESS
Abandoned bathing pool, West-Iceland

30.4.2013 15
FLUID WITHDRAWAL
EFFECTS

Subsidence
Lowering of groundwater table
Changes in surface manifestations
Steam pillows
Seismicity

30.4.2013 16
SUBSIDENCE IN
DIFFERENT GEOTHERMAL
AREAS
AREA TOTAL, TIME, PER
mm YEARS YEAR,
mm
Wairakei 7600 19 400

Svartsengi 130 12 11

Larderello 1850 63 29

30.4.2013 17
30.4.2013 18
30.4.2013 Total subsidence 1999-2008 19
Reversible impact

Drill pad abandoned in 2009

Photo taken in 2012
Las Pailas, Costa Rica
LOWERING OF WATER
TABLE
May cause the influx of corrosive water.
Can cause disappearance of springs and
fumaroles or change surface activity
Rotorua, NZ.1920 - 1985 about 750 wells
drilled. Tourist attractions disappearing.
Borehole closures and better management.
1985 withd. 1990 withd. 1990 reinj.
290-360 kg/s 118 -130 kg/s 31%
i.e. 20% of 1985 use in 1990

30.4.2013 21
CHANGES IN WATER TABLE - ÞVOTTALAUGAR
(WASH POOLS), REYKJAVÍK, ICELAND

1945 1987
Reykjavík heating company started producing from field in 1960 and
water table was soon lowered by 5-10 m. In 1992 the wells were
rested due to maintenance and the water table rose again to the surface.
Production  pressure drop = 120 m water level but then remains stable.
Sustainable production
30.4.2013 22
Changes in steam flow:
Reykjanes 1997

Photo: Kristján Sæmundsson (1997)

Changes in steam flow:
Reykjanes 2010

Photo: Daði Þorbjörnsson (2010)

CO2 flux through soil at
Reykjanes
Year CO2 flux Steam flow
(ton/day) (kg/s)
2004 13.5
48.3
2005 13.2
47.6
2006 18.5
66.8
2007 18.7
67.5
2008 8.5
30.9
2009 20.3 73.3
2010 31.6 114.2
2011 40.0 144.1
Hydrothermal eruptions

 Occur where steam pressure near the surface exceeds

lithostatic load
 Rare events
 Have been reported in New Zealand, El Salvador and
Iceland
 Hydrothermal eruption killed several people in El
Salvador in 1990
Effects on vegetation
 Both adverse and positive effects reported
 Direct brine discharge causes damage to plants
 Thermal pollution also a problem
 H2S suspected to cause deterioration of moss near
power plants in Iceland
 Any activities in pristine tropical forests may have
significant negative impacts
Each individual tree becomes more important where diversity is
high
Clearings create opportunities for invasive species
 Changed land use around power plants has improved
condition of the local vegetation
El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica
Vegetation exposed to
vertical well testing
 Direct discharge of
geothermal brine can have
very negative effects on
vegetation
 See photos from N-Negros
Before Project, Philippines

 This practice is now largely

discontinued

After 9 days

Tuyor et al. (2005)

Improved vegetation due
to geothermal
development
Many power plants in Central America are
located in areas where the vegetation was
in a poor state before the development
Reasons for forest deterioration are
logging, grazing, cutting of firewood etc.
Preservation efforts by developers have
resulted in significant improvements in the
condition of the forest
Reforestation around Miravalles
Power Plant, Costa Rica

ICE land Private

land

Miravalles, Costa Rica

Effects on fauna
 Most mammals fairly unaffected
Except the largest ones
Noise may have temporary effects
 Aquatic life may be affected
Release of brine to waterways (chemical and thermal pollution)
Erosion has been reported to damage aquatic life
 Light pollution may attract insects from a large area
 Dust from construction work and access roads may kill
insects
 Disturbances in insect ecology have effects on species
(e.g. birds and bats that feed on insects)
 Decreased forest fragmentation has increased
biodiversity in Miravalles, Costa Rica
Effects on seismicity

Geothermal operations can induce

seismicity
May occur during drilling, hydrofracturing
and reinjection
May trigger earthquakes on existing faults
Largest known triggered earthquakes
between 3 and 4 M
May also induce small earthquakes in
seismically inactive areas by creating new
fractures
Reinjection and induced
seismicity: Global examples
Place Activity Maximu Triggered
m seismicity
magnitu
de
The Geysers, California Cold water injection 4.6 Yes
Cooper Basin, Australia Hydrofracturing, 3.7 No
EGS
Basel, Switzerland Hydrofracturing, 3.4 Yes
EGS
Húsmúli, Iceland Brine reinjection 3.8 Yes
Miravalles, Costa Rica Brine reinjection 3.8 Yes
Rosemanowes Quarry, UK Hydrofracturing, 3.1 No
EGS
Soultz-sous-Forêts, Hydrofracturing, 2.9 No
France EGS
30.4.2013 34
 NOISE -DRILLING

• Normally up to 90 dB
• May become 110 dB during
air drilling.
• Ear mufflers
• Drill rig engines inside sound
enclosures.
• Rubber mats inside rig
• Sound muffling cap covering
mast

30.4.2013 35
 NOISE: DISCHARGE

Unmuffled well 125 dB. Must be silenced

Silencer. Two phase wells cylinders
Ear mufflers when act as atmospheric separators. Rock
working close to mufflers with dry steam wells→85-90 dB
high-temperature Recent design. Blend rock mufflers
geothermal and drum silencers70 dB
boreholes
30.4.2013 36
Noise reduction with
distance

Noise levels drop by 6 db as distance from

source is doubled
If noise is 110 db at source, the noise level
will be 65 db at a distance of 180 m
If noise is 110 db at source, the noise level
will be 45 db at a distance of 2 km
HEAT
Power production. Poor efficiency
Cascade, e.g. power production -> fish
farming
Direct disposal changes ecological
balance. Advantage in fish farming
Reinjection best solution to disposal of
excess heat
Evaporation most economic means of
dissipating heat from plant
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30.4.2013 39
 CHEMICAL PROBLEMS

Air pollution
Water pollution
Deposition from spray

30.4.2013 40
AIR POLLUTION
Major offenders: CO2, H2S
Minor offenders: CH4, Hg, Rn, NH3, B
CO2, CH4: Greenhouse gases
H2S: Toxic if conc. Smell chief concern.
Complaints area related. Removal based
on oxidation, e.g. Stretford and Claus
processes
Hg, Rn, NH3, B: Minor toxic gases, B
especially to plants
30.4.2013 41
Greenhouse gas emission from different sources

Coal

Oil

Natural gas

Hydropower

Geothermal

Iceland geoth.

Solar

Wind

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
25 50 75 10
0
12
5
15
0
g/kWh
30.4.2013 42
Natural CO2 emissions

Mainly through soil

In the areas studied a substantial increase
is expected upon production. In
Reykjanes it is estimated that natural
emissions before production of the
presently installed plant are about 16% of
the emissions predicted from the plant. In
Krafla the present natural emissions
exceed those from the plant
30.4.2013 43
30.4.2013 44
 A Conceptual Fixation Model
Injection well:
CO2 fully dissolved in
fresh water, pH 3-4

Impermeable tuff layers

pH increases Low pH:

3-4
Precipitation carbonates Dissolution of basalt release Ca2+other ions

•Reservoir will gradually clog up by precipitation of

secondary 30.4.2013
minerals 45
•Natural process in high temperature geothermal areas
EFFECT OF HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE ON HUMAN
BEINGS
mg/kg Effect
0.0005-0.03 Odour threshold
0.3 Distinct odour, may -> headaches
2-5 Odour intense and offensive
10-20 Eye, lung irritation. Limit for 8 hr
work
100 Can cause loss of smell
650-700 May cause sudden death
750 Rapid death likely
30.4.2013 46
 H2S: COMPLAINTS AND
REACTIONS
The Geysers: Fairly damp climate
Very little activity prior to
production which is 5-6000 tn/yr
from  150 km2. Extensive
cleaning demanded and effected
30.4.2013
Námafjall: Damp climate. Very
extensive prior to production which
is about 2200 tn/yr from  5 km2
No complaints
47
H2S Abatement
Reinjection: Hydrology and chemistry
studies needed. Long-term effects not known
 Chemical removal,
uncertainty regarding design (H2S
concentration may change with time)
Product (S or H2SO4) buried: Small
initial cost, expensive operation, excavation
work, potential local pollution problem
Products marketed: Profit unlikely, price
of sulfur and sulfuric acid very low
Bacteria: Inexpensive but uncertainty about
large concentrations of H2S
FATE OF H2S
Not stable thermodynamically. Neither is
elemental S which is well known to be
present in geothermal areas
SO2 stable product and H2S may be
converted possibly causing soil
acidification
Studies suggest H2S mostly washed out in
wet weather, main source of SO2 outside
pollution, but small amount H2S probably
converted in dry weather
30.4.2013 49
GEOTHERMAL
ALTERNATIVES
Iceland: Fishmeal factories using oil,
producing from 1 million tons of raw material,
replaced with geothermally driven plants: >
100.000 tons reduction in CO2 emission
Globe: Alumina factory using coal, producing
1 million tons of alumina, replaced with
geothermally driven plant: Ca. 1 million ton
reduction in CO2 emission
CDM: Clean Development Mechanism
30.4.2013 50
 Changes in gas content
Gas content can increase due to:
Steam pillow formation
Magmatic events
• Gas in steam reduces the efficiency of
the power plant
• Affects plant designs as more vacuum
pumps are required for condensers
• Contributes to GHG emissions

30.4.2013 51
Formation of steam pillow
in Svartsengi

30.4.2013 52
Gas changes in Krafla due to
magmatic activity

30.4.2013 53
Drilling fluid

Stored in sealed ponds on the platform

Measures taken to prevent release of fluid
and cuttings to the environment
Relatively benign additives
bentonite, calcium/sodium hydroxide,
lignosulfonate, carboxymethyl cellulose, soap,
barium sulfate
Reinjection or treatment after drilling
Toxic compounds in
geothermal brines

Geothermal brines generally not acutely

toxic
Compounds of concern are
H2S (HS-), As, B, Pb, Zn, Hg
Undesirable in surface and ground waters
Long term release into surface waters or
ground waters is not advisable
Short term or accidental release not a
major concern
 CHEMICALS IN LIQUID
FRACTION

Means of disposal
Direct. May be hazardous to life. Possible
accumulation as well as quantity need watching
Ponds. Become sealed by silica and increase in
area to unacceptable size
Treatment. Processes designed have not yet been
found economic
Reinjection. Effective

30.4.2013 56
Monitoring of environmentally
sensitive components

Power plants in Krafla and Námafjall, NE

Iceland are close to Lake Mývatn
Separated geothermal liquid discharged
on surface (only limited re-injection)
Concentration of As in geothermal liquid
above environmental limits
Concentration of As in springs by the lake
is monitored
30.4.2013 57
30.4.2013 58
REINJECTION

Advantages
Stops most pollution
Avoids fluid depletion -> ensures longer
lifetime of reservoirs
Prevents temperature changes at surface
Hinders formation of large ponds
Difficulties
Blocking of wells and pores by deposition
Cooling of reservoir
30.4.2013 59
PROTECTION

Natural beauty
Uniqueness
Historical importance

30.4.2013 60
Effects on tourism

Geothermal development and tourism

coexist in many places
Development provides infrastructure
allowing access
Spa facilities popular world wide
Care must be taken not to disturb other
tourist attractions
Pristine nature
Natural hot springs
The Blue Lagoon, Iceland
 Extremely successful
enterprise
 400.000 visits each year
 500.000 arrivals to
Iceland
 Own cosmetics line
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
EFFECTS
Temporary rise in employment. May harm
traditional industries
Temporary rise in population. Increase in
service industries to cater for temporary
residents
Changes in land use.
Opening up of area for tourism.
Improved infrastructure (Roads, schools,
medical services, housing)
Relations
30.4.2013
with locals critical
63
 Schools
The Olkaria project has
built pre-unit and
primary schools;
children of staff and
locals admitted

• 4000 school children

guided through the
station per month

Olkaria, Kenya. From J. Were and M. Mangi, KenGen

 Health and water facilities
Health clinic for staff;
locals admitted
Organize annual health
camps

Health clinic

• Water supplied to locals

at 5 points at a cost ~
US$ 55,000/yr
Water supply point for livestock

Olkaria, Kenya. From J. Were and M. Mangi, KenGen

Baseline studies

Baseline studies are essential for

assessing environmental impacts of
utilization
Critical to have quantitative observations
Need to planned well ahead as they may
take a long time
Baseline studies

Environmental baseline studies may be

complimentary to other necessary studies
during exploration or production
Microseismicity, Surface activity, Ground
water, Subsidence
• In other cases environmental studies need to be
carried out independently
Flora, Fauna, Socioeconomic, Noise,
Landscape, Tourism
PROJECT
Impact on: natural, social and economic
conditions
Administration problem
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
A process whereby an assessment is
made of the environmental impact which
may be expected to result from the
activity or its alternative. EIR: report; EIS:
statement
30.4.2013 68
EIA

EIA team from wide range of disciplines,

e.g. engineers, scientists, sociologists,
economists, archaeologists, architechts
etc.
Screening: Decide whether EIA is needed
Scoping: Identification and selection of
alternatives
Compilation: Checklists, matrices,
networks, GIS
30.4.2013 69
NEED FOR EIA
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION: Where
weak, only basic EIA
OTHER LEGISLATION: Other laws may
call for action, e.g. on water and
geothermal resources, wildlife and forest
management, agriculture, occupational
safety, public health, local government,
cultural heritage
FINANCIERS: World Bank etc. strict
requirements
30.4.2013 70
EIR: MOST IMPORTANT
FEATURES

Need. Whose?
Benefits as well as disadvantages
Impacts. Not necessarily negative
Mitigation measures. Practical, also those
of non-monetary cost to environment
Monitoring programme. Otherwise
nothing ever known
Enforcement
30.4.2013 71
 GEOTHERMAL PROJECTS
Iceland: EIA needed for > 10MWe or 50
MWt
Alternatives: Fossil fuels, hydropower,
nuclear power, renewable energy sources
(solar, wind, tide etc.), no project
Established power plants may need EIA to
provide background information and
prepare for possible future expansion.
E.g. Orkustofnun project with largest
users
30.4.2013 72
Regulation list projects for
EIA

A regulation with the environmental act

states which projects are compulsory for
an EIA
Other projects, which may or may not be
subjected to an assessment, depending
on their magnitude, are listed in Annex 2
of the regulation

30.4.2013 73
Geothermal related
projects listed in Annex 2:
Drilling of production wells and
exploratory wells in high enthalpy fields
Plants for production of electricity, steam
and hot water, hydro plants with installed
capacity of 100 kW or more or geothermal
exploitation of 2500 kW or more

30.4.2013 74
Environmental
Management Plan (EMP)

Mitigating measures. Conditions of

approval
Monitoring programme
Verification. Compliance schedule.
Unannounced spot checks
Reporting of violations. Corrective action
Monitoring report

30.4.2013 75
 STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL
ASSESSMENT (SEA)

Set of processes, documents and analyses

that help the public administration reach
its environemental policy goals
Scientific data, territory data, data on
environmental issues, local and national
policies, information about international
laws and regulations
Intended to be used at the planning stage
30.4.2013 76
Case history. Bjarnarflag
Power Plant (proposed)

HISTORY
1995/1996. First (40 MWe ) and second
(2×20 MWe ,132 kV ) EIA. Shelved due to
negative reaction
1999-2000. EIA for 40 MWe and 132 kV
power line to Krafla. Further assessment
required according to 1994 Act
2003-2004. EIA for 90 MWe and 132 kV
power line to Krafla according to 2000 Act
2006: Drilling of first new well
30.4.2013 77
SUMMARY
Geothermal energy is a relatively clean
energy source
Its environmental impact is to a large
extent foreseeable and mitigation
measures can be effected
Undesirable emission of gas to the
atmosphere can be reduced by replacing
fossil fuel burning by geothermal energy
Environmental impact can be minimized
by cascading uses and reinjection
30.4.2013 78
REYKJAVÍK. BEFORE AND AFTER
GEOTHERMAL SPACE HEATING

1930 1990
District heating in Reykjavík started in 1930. By 1970 nearly all
Houses in Reykjavík were receiving hot water for heating and sales
began to nearby municipalities. Today Reykjavík Energy serves about
150.000 people or 99.9% of the population of Reykjavík and five
neighbouring communities.
30.4.2013 79
UTILIZATION PROBLEMS

Scaling
Corrosion
Depletion of reservoir fluids
Tarnishing of external equipment

30.4.2013 80
SCALING: METHODOLOGY

Collection of scales
Coupons in pipeline
Analysis of scales: Microscopy, XRD, XRF,
SEM, EPM, wet chemical
Collection and analysis of downhole and
wellhead water samples
Simulation: Laboratory/computer

30.4.2013 81
 MOST COMMON SCALES I

Calcite: Usually in
Silica: Low temperature,
flashing zone. Plot log
surface equipment or
(Q/K). Can be controlled
reinjection wells. Bench scale
by pressure; abated
studies give deposition and
by drilling out or use of
settling rates
inhibitors
30.4.2013 82
 MOST COMMON SCALES II

Sulphides: volcanic gas: pyrite

saline systems: galena,
sphalerite and others. Drilled out.
Inhibitors tested but more work needed
Iron silicates/oxides: saline and
volcanic gas high temperature systems.
Controlled by high wellhead pressure,
inhibited by acid

30.4.2013 83
 MOST COMMON SCALES III
Magnesium silicates:
heating of cold
groundwater, mixing
of cold groundwater
and geothermal water.
Avoid mixing and
keep pH low

30.4.2013 84
CORROSION
Dissolution (oxidation) of iron,
deterioration of concrete, asbestos etc.
H+, Cl-, H2S, NH3, CO2 take part in
reduction half-reactions
Low temperature: O2 major hazard
Protective oxide, silicate or carbonate
films
Modes: Uniform, pitting, gaskets, stress,
erosion
Abatement: Material choice, inhibition
30.4.2013 85
 CORROSION EXAMPLES

CORROSION: Two examples from

Krafla
1). Pipe from acid stream from well
KG-4
2) Wellhead KG-12 after
condensation of acid droplets
30.4.2013 86
 KRAFLA: PRACTICAL PROBLEM
AND SOLUTION

Krafla: Erosion of turbine Krafla: Insulation. Solution to

after wellhead corrosion wellhead corrosion problem

30.4.2013 87