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Geological Society of America

Special Paper 383
2004

Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones

and backarc basins

W.P. Schellart*
G.S. Lister*
Australian Crustal Research Centre, School of Geosciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia

ABSTRACT

Four popular tectonic models are discussed that attempt to explain the formation of arc-
backarc systems. These systems develop in a convergent setting with shortening in the forearc
region, extension in the backarc region, and progressive out-bowing of the arc. The models
include the gravitational collapse model, the rollback model, the extrusion tectonics model,
and the orogen-parallel compression model. The rollback model can explain the progressive
development of most arcs, such as those found in the Western Pacific and the Mediterranean, in
combination with backarc extension. Slab rollback ultimately is a consequence of the negative
buoyancy of the slab. Collapse models can explain radial thrusting in the foreland and exten-
sional deformation in high-standing mountain belts, since these regions involve large potential
energy contrasts between mountain range and foreland. However, these models cannot explain
the development of Western Pacific and Mediterranean style arc-backarc systems. In such
settings, the extending region has a small potential energy, which cannot drive arc formation,
fore-arc shortening, and backarc extension. The extrusion tectonics model can explain strike-
slip structures such as those observed in the Eastern Alps, Anatolia, and East Asia, but fails to
explain backarc extension. The extrusion of a wedge cannot produce shortening at its leading
edge contemporaneously with extension in the middle of the wedge. The orogen-parallel com-
pression model cannot explain arc formation and backarc extension, since an orogen does not
behave elastically in the plane of the lithosphere at a length scale of ~≥1000 km.

Keywords: arc, backarc, gravitational collapse, slab rollback, extrusion tectonics, arc-
parallel compression.

INTRODUCTION shaped topographic features. In collision zones, the arc is usually

defined by the geometry of the orogen, while in subduction zones,
Arc Evolution and Backarc Extension the arc can be defined by the geometry of both the trench and the
volcanic arc. Present day examples of such arc-shaped features
A striking feature of Earth is that most active subduction are numerous (Fig. 1). Some examples from the Pacific region
zones and collision zones, as well as ancient convergent zones, are the Aleutian arc, the Kuril arc, the Japan arc, the Mariana
display large-scale (hundreds to thousands of kilometers) arc- arc, the Ryukyu arc, the New Hebrides arc, and the Tonga arc.
Examples from the Mediterranean region are the Betic-Rif arc,
*E-mails: wouter.schellart@anu.edu.au; gordon.lister@anu.edu.au; Current
address for both authors: Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian the Calabrian arc, the Carpathian arc, the Hellenic arc, and the
National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia. Cyprus arc. Other examples include the Sunda arc and the Banda
Schellart, W.P., and Lister, G.S., 2004, Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins, in Sussman, A.J., and Weil, A.B.,
eds., Orogenic Curvature: Integrating Paleomagnetic and Structural Analyses: Geological Society of America Special Paper 383, p. 237–258. For permission to
copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. © 2004 Geological Society of America.

237
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238 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 1. Simplified tectonic map of the world, indicating the location of several arc systems along convergent plate boundaries. Thick black lines
indicate convergent plate boundaries; thick gray lines indicate divergent or transform plate boundaries. 1—Sunda arc; 2—Banda arc; 3—New
Hebrides arc; 4—Kermadec arc; 5—Tonga arc; 6—Ruykyu arc; 7—Mariana arc; 8—Izu-Bonin arc; 9—Japan arc; 10—Kuril arc; 11—Aleu-
tian arc; 12—Trans Mexican arc; 13—North Andean arc; 14—South Shetland arc; 15—Scotia arc; 16—Lesser Antilles arc; 17—Betic-Rif arc;
18—Carpathian arc; 19—Calabrian arc; 20—Hellinic arc; 21—Cyprus arc; 22—Himalayan arc; 23—Andaman arc.

arc in Southeast Asia, the Lesser Antilles arc from the Caribbean concave upward shapes with shallowing dips from top to bottom,
Sea, and the Scotia arc, located in the Southern Atlantic. while the opposite is observed. Most subducting slabs become
One of the first people who tried to explain why these zones steeper with depth for depths down to ~500 km (Isacks and Bara-
are arc-shaped and not simply rectilinear from a plate tectonic zangi, 1977). Finally, the model implies that the slab dip should
perspective was Frank (1968). In Frank’s (1968) model, the cur- remain constant along the length of the arc, another requirement
vature of an arc is a mere consequence of Earth’s sphericity. In that is not met by numerous natural examples (e.g., Yokokura,
this model, subduction zones are viewed as dents on an elastic 1981). Based on these criteria, the model does not account for
sphere (compare with dents on a ping pong ball). The slab fol- arcuate subduction zones around the globe.
lows a path in the mantle, which is defined by a spherical seg- Frank’s (1968) so called “ping pong” model would also
ment with the same radius as Earth and intersecting with Earth, imply that arcs are incipient static features, wherein the subduc-
but with an opposite curvature (Fig. 2). The intersection between tion zone initially forms as an arc-shaped subduction zone and
the two spheres defines a small circle on Earth, along which a remains static. However, there are several lines of evidence from
subduction zone is aligned. This model implies a direct relation- different disciplines in geology that suggest that most arcs are not
ship between slab dip angle (α), central vertex angle (β), and arc initial static geometries but evolve through time from more rec-
radius (r) (modified from Tovish and Schubert, 1978): tilinear geometries. First of all, the wide range of arcuate shapes
with varying curvature angles and backarc geometries supports
α = β = 360(r/πR), (1) this idea. Second, paleomagnetic data for some arcs point to
comparable or different magnitudes of rotation along the arc and/
where R is Earth’s radius (≈6350 km), and the central vertex or opposite senses of rotation on either side of the arc. Examples
angle (β) is the angle of a cone, defined by Earth’s center and include the Betic-Rif arc and Calabrian arc (Lonergan and White,
a small circle at Earth’s surface (Fig. 2). Equation (1) predicts 1997), the Hellenic arc (Walcott and White, 1998), the Carpathian
that slab dip should increase with increasing central vertex angle. arc (Marton and Fodor, 1995), the Mariana arc (McCabe, 1984),
Thus, arcs with a small central vertex angle, such as the Mariana, the New Hebrides arc (Musgrave and Firth, 1999), the Japan arc
Scotia, Banda, and Hellenic arc, should have an extremely shal- (Otofuji et al., 1991), and the Ryukyu arc (Kamata and Kodama,
low slab dip, while this is generally not observed (Table 1). Fur- 1994). Third, evidence from GPS data along some arcs indicates
thermore, in Frank’s (1968) model, subducted slabs should have that different segments of an arc have different velocities and/or
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 239

Figure 2. Schematic diagrams illustrat-

ing the equal-sphere intersection model
of Frank (1968). A. Three-dimensional
cut-away view of Earth at an island arc
showing the descending slab (modified
from Tovish and Schubert, 1978). B.
Two-dimensional cross-sectional view
showing intersection of two spheres
with equal radii. With decreasing dis-
tance between the two spheres the cen-
tral vertex angle increases. α—slab dip
angle; β—central vertex angle; r—arc
radius; R—Earth’s radius.

TABLE 1. SLAB DIP ANGLE AS PREDICTED FROM FRANK’S (1968) MODEL AND AS OBSERVED IN NATURE
Arc Central vertex Arc radius Predicted slab dip Maximum observed slab Reference for
angle (r) angle dip angle observed slab dip
(β) (α) (α′) angle
Mariana arc 14° ~780 km 14° ~80–90° 1, 2
Banda arc 6° ~330 km 6° ~60–80° 3
Hellenic arc ~8° ~440 km 8° ~55° 4
Scotia arc 6° ~330 km 6° ~70° 2
Note: Slab dip angle as predicted from Frank’s (1968) equal sphere intersection model and maximum slab
dip angle as observed from seismology and tomography for several arc-backarc systems with a relatively small
central vertex angle. Clearly, observed slab dip angle is much greater than predicted slab dip angle. References:
1—Katsumata and Sykes (1969); 2—Yamaoka et al. (1986); 3—Widiyantoro and van der Hilst (1996) and
Hafkenscheid et al. (2001); 4—Spakman et al. (1988).

orientations compared to the “fixed” hinterland, suggesting that system evolution have been proposed. Examples include the
arcs are not static geometries but evolve through time (e.g., New Hebrides arc and Tonga arc (Hathway, 1993; Schellart
Tonga arc [Bevis et al., 1995], Hellenic arc [Kahle et al., 1998], et al., 2002a), the Scotia arc (Barker, 2001), the Calabrian arc
New Hebrides arc [Taylor et al., 1995]). Fourth, most arcs are (Faccenna et al., 1996; Rosenbaum et al., 2002a), the Cyprus arc
bordered by backarc regions on their concave side, which have (Payne and Robertson, 1995), the Japan arc (Jolivet et al., 1994),
often experienced extension and/or spreading for a long period and the Kuril arc (Schellart et al., 2003).
(i.e., backarc extension). This implies that the geometry of these It should be mentioned, however, that not all arc-shaped con-
arcs must have changed during such extension. By reconstructing vergent zones necessarily evolved from initially straighter geom-
the arc fragments back to their original position after removal of etries. For example, the arc-shaped northern Andean subduction
such extension, the arc fragments end up closer to the relatively zone (Fig. 1) is most likely a mere consequence of the incipient
stable hinterland. By applying such reconstructions, one can shape of the western border of the South American plate. If it
obtain the geometry of the system prior to backarc extension, had a dynamic origin, one would expect the backarc domain in
which would generally result in a more rectilinear convergent the western Amazon region to be a zone of extreme lithospheric
zone. Such reconstructions could be facilitated for arc-backarc extension in response to several thousand kilometers of westward
systems for which paleomagnetic data is available. migration of the arc. Such extension is not observed. It should
A natural example of a reconstruction is plotted in Figure 3, be added, though, that the arc shape of the Northern Andes has
showing the progressive development of the Hellenic arc, forma- been amplified somewhat due to a larger amount of Cenozoic
tion of the Aegean backarc basin, and opposite sense rotations on shortening in the Central Andes (Bolivian orocline) compared to
either side of the arc. Extension in the backarc region is contem- the Northern Andes. The Aleutian arc, located in the Northern
poraneous with rotation along the arc, with clockwise rotations Pacific, is another example. The arc is bordered to the north by
in the west and counterclockwise rotation in the east. The maxi- the Bering Sea backarc basin. This backarc basin is most likely a
mum amount of NNE-SSW extension in the overriding plate is trapped piece of oceanic lithosphere (Cooper et al., 1992), which
estimated to be ~355 km (Gautier et al., 1999). Such extension does not appear to possess any structures that could be related to
is absorbed by progressive out-bowing of the arc toward the the formation of the arcuate shape of the Aleutian arc. Magnetic
south-southwest. Numerous other reconstructions of arc-backarc lineations from the Bering Sea strike ~N-S and increase in age
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240 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 3. Evolution of the curvature of the Aegean arc from the Oligocene to the Present during subduction of the Ionian Sea (oceanic? litho-
sphere) underneath the Aegean region (continental lithosphere) (modified from Kissel and Laj, 1988; Walcott and White, 1998; Angelier et al.,
1982). A. Oligocene to Early Miocene. B. Middle to Late Miocene. C. Pliocene to Present. Curved arrows with numbers indicate sense and
amount of rotation. Straight arrows indicate direction of arc migration. The original subduction zone was approximately rectilinear and trending
~E-W. Cr—Crete; PT—Pliny Trench; Rh—Rhodos; ST—Strabo Trench.

from west to east (Cooper et al., 1992). One would expect them Examples from the Mediterranean region include the Hellenic
to strike ~E-W and to increase in age from some former spread- arc, with extension in the Aegean Sea and shortening in the sur-
ing ridge located in the center of the basin if the Bering Sea were rounding outer Hellenic arc (McKenzie, 1978; Le Pichon, 1982),
the result of southward arc migration and backarc opening. In and the Alboran region, with extension in the Alboran Sea and
addition, the backarc basin is older (Cretaceous) than the arc shortening in the surrounding Betic-Rif arc (Platt and Vissers,
itself (Eocene to Present), indicating that the backarc basin can- 1989; Lonergan and White, 1997). Two other examples include
not have developed from southward migration of the Aleutian the Tyrrhenian domain, with extension in the Tyrrhenian Sea
arc. This arc is actually one of the few examples (if not the only and shortening in the Maghrebides-Calabria-Apennines region
one) that seems to fit Frank’s (1968) model, with a slab dip angle (Malinverno and Ryan, 1986), and the Pannonian region, with
close to the one predicted from its central vertex angle. extension in the Pannonian Basin and shortening in the surround-
The idea that many arc-shaped topographic features devel- ing Carpathian arc (Royden et al., 1983). Similar observations
oped from initially more rectilinear features has already been of contemporaneous shortening and extension have been made
proposed. Carey (1955) investigated numerous curved orogens for several orogenic systems, with shortening at the edge of the
and argued that these formed from initially more rectilinear oro- mountain range and extension in its interior. Examples include
gens. He applied the term orocline to these orogenic systems. the Altiplano in the Central Andes (Mercier, 1981), the Himala-
Later, Vogt (1973) applied the concept of progressive arc forma- yas (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975), and the Alps (Ratschbacher
tion to several Western Pacific style arc-shaped subduction zones. et al., 1989).
In this paper, we will discuss four tectonic models that attempt These discoveries are controversial in that shortening (σ1
to explain the formation of arc-backarc systems. We specifically horizontal) is active while extension (σ1 vertical) is active in
refer to arc-backarc systems to indicate any large-scale (hundreds relatively close proximity (tens to hundreds of kilometers). In
to thousands of kilometers) arc-shaped topographic feature (e.g., mountain belts, shortening in the foreland region is oriented
orogen, volcanic arc, trench) that is bordered on its concave side perpendicular to the axis of the orogen, and extension in the inte-
by an extensional backarc basin. rior of mountain belts is often oriented parallel to the axis of the
orogen (such as in the Eastern Alps and Tibet). In Pacific-style
Contemporaneous Shortening and Extension arc-backarc systems, shortening at the convex side of the arc is
oriented perpendicular to the arc and extension at the concave
Arc-backarc systems develop in an overall convergent tec- side of the arc is also generally oriented perpendicular to the
tonic setting, with shortening in the overriding plate close to arc. Exceptions include backarc basins, which developed due to
the subduction interface (fore-arc region) and extension on the asymmetric opening (Schellart et al., 2002b, 2003). In such set-
concave side of the arc (backarc region). Numerous examples tings, extension is often oriented at an oblique angle to the arc.
have been documented in the Western Pacific and Mediterranean
regions (Fig. 1). Arc-backarc systems from the Mediterranean Tectonic Models
region are especially interesting because they involve large
amounts of shortening in the overriding plate close to the sub- Different types of conceptual tectonic models have been
duction zone, synchronous with extension in the backarc region. proposed to explain the formation of arc-backarc systems, which
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 241

are characterized by progressive arc formation from initially In this paper, the case for and against each tectonic model
more rectilinear features, shortening in the fore-arc region, and will be discussed, supported by some argumentation, empiri-
extension in the backarc region. Here, four popular models will cal (geological) data, and some analytical calculations. It will
be discussed. In the first model, plate interior body forces provide be argued that subduction rollback is the most likely candidate
the driving force (gravitational collapse model), and in the latter for the formation of arcs in conjunction with backarc extension
three models, plate boundary forces provide the driving force and can also play a significant role in extension in the interior of
(rollback model, extrusion tectonics model, and orogen-parallel mountain belts. The role of the buoyancy force in gravitational
compression model). collapse might be of significant importance in driving arc-shaped
spreading of the thrust front and extension of thickened crust in
Gravitational Collapse orogenic belts; however, in this scenario one has to take into
In this model, shortening and extension are initiated and account the strength of the surrounding foreland, which is often
driven by the potential energy difference between the extending neglected, if one wants to attribute the collapse only to the excess
region and the surrounding shortening region (Fig. 4A) (Sonder potential energy stored in the mountain belt. Extrusion tectonics
et al., 1987; Dewey, 1988; Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988; Eng- only seems to occur in orogens, which are laterally bounded by
land and Houseman, 1988, 1989; Platt and Vissers, 1989; Platt a zone that can retreat during the extrusion. It is not immediately
and England, 1994). This would result in a region of extension clear if this boundary is retreating on its own or is actively being
encircled by a region of shortening resulting from radial thrusting. pushed back by the extruding orogenic wedge. If the latter is
In this scenario, one would not expect any rotations to occur along true, this would contradict the presence of a zone of extension
segments of the arc because radial spreading would imply that in between the leading and trailing edge of the extruded wedge.
outward thrusting is always perpendicular to the strike of the arc. Finally, it will be argued that the orogen-parallel compression
model is not a sound physical mechanism to explain arc-backarc
Slab Rollback related structures.
In this model, deformation results from retreat of the sub-
ducting slab. Extension in the overriding plate is due to slab GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE MODEL
retreat, and shortening in the overriding plate close to the trench
is due to friction along the subduction interface and accretion of Introduction
material to the overriding plate (Fig. 4B) (Malinverno and Ryan,
1986; Lonergan and White, 1997). Arc formation results from the The gravitational collapse model has been mainly applied to
change in retreat velocity along the subduction zone and would presently high-standing mountain belts (Himalayas, Andes, Alps)
imply opposite sense rotations along the arc during progressive and regions that are thought to have been the sites of mountain
slab retreat. belts in the geological past (Alboran Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Pan-
nonian Basin, Aegean Sea). In this conceptual model, collapse of
Extrusion Tectonics a mountain belt is initiated and driven by the potential energy dif-
In this model, deformation occurs due to compression of ference between the mountain belt and the surrounding lowlands
the orogen perpendicular to its long axis, resulting in extrusion (Artyushkov, 1973; Fleitout and Froideveaux, 1982; Sonder et
of material in a direction parallel to the long axis of the orogen. al., 1987; Dewey, 1988; Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988; England
The sideways movement of continental fragments away from a and Houseman, 1988, 1989; Platt and Vissers, 1989; Platt and
continent-continent collision zone results in arc formation at the England, 1994). The difference in potential energy results in the
leading edge of the extruding fragments and backarc extension collapse of the mountainous region and shortening in the low-
behind the leading edge (Fig. 4C) (McKenzie, 1972; Jolivet et lands, leading to regions with extensional structures in the center,
al., 1990; Ratschbacher et al., 1991). Local block rotations would encircled by a radial pattern of shortening (Fig. 4A) (Dewey,
be expected to occur along the sides of the extruding wedges due 1988; Platt and Vissers, 1989; Platt and England, 1994).
to local shearing. Following the concept outlined above, the potential energy
difference is the driving force behind extension in the higher
Orogen-Parallel Compression regions and shortening in the surrounding regions. The origin
In this model, deformation occurs due to compression of the of this potential energy difference has been attributed either to a
orogen parallel to its long axis, resulting in outward bending of thickened crust only (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1978; Molnar and
the orogen in a direction perpendicular to its long axis. Outward Lyon-Caen, 1988; Dewey, 1988) or to a thickened crust in combi-
bending results in formation of a backarc region on the concave nation with convective removal of the lower lithospheric mantle
side of the orogen and shortening on the convex side (Fig. 4D) (Fleitout and Froideveaux, 1982; England and Houseman, 1989;
(Ghisetti and Vezzani, 1982; van der Linden, 1985; Mantovani et Platt and England, 1994; Houseman and Molnar, 1997). Protru-
al., 1997a, 1997b, 2000; Gelabert et al., 2002). Arc formation due sion of a cold lithospheric root in the asthenosphere should create
to the progressive bending of the initially more rectilinear orogen lateral temperature gradients that drive convection, which could
would imply opposite sense rotations on either side of the arc. remove at least the lower (weak) part of the thickened lithosphere
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242 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 4. Four possible mechanisms for the formation of arc-backarc systems, with progressive development of an arc, shortening in the fore-arc
region, and extension in the backarc region. A. Top view and cross section sequence illustrating gravitational collapse of a thickened lithosphere
(based on Platt and Vissers, 1989). B. Top view and cross section sequence illustrating slab rollback and backarc extension (based on Malinverno
and Ryan, 1986). C. Top view sequence of extrusion tectonics of continental wedges away from a continent-continent collision zone (modified
from McKenzie, 1972). D. Top view sequence showing arc formation due to orogen-parallel compression (modified from Mantovani et al., 2000).
Thick arrows indicate direction of convergence. Thin arrows indicate direction of arc-migration. Curved arrows indicate sense of rotation.
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 243

(Houseman et al., 1981). Sudden removal could lead to a rapid where z is the depth below the surface (z = 0 is the surface of
increase in potential energy, which could trigger collapse of the the highest column), ρ(z) is the depth-dependent density, g is
lithosphere (Platt and England, 1994). the acceleration due to gravity, and subscripts T and R denote
Previous authors (Dewey, 1988; Platt and Vissers, 1989; thickened and reference columns, respectively. In Equation (2),
Platt and England, 1994; Liu and Shen, 1998) have mentioned ∆Ep has the dimensions of force per unit length (N/m). The first
that extension in the interior of a mountain belt is accommo- part on the right-hand side of Equation (2) refers to the thickened
dated by shortening in the surrounding lowlands, but have not column and the second part to the reference column. The first
considered the integrated strength of the surrounding litho- integration in Equation (2) is used to integrate the density over
sphere as a possible hindrance to collapse. Other authors do depth to obtain the pressure with depth, while the second integra-
not specifically mention that extension in one place needs to be tion integrates the depth-dependent pressure over depth to obtain
absorbed by shortening elsewhere (Sonder et al., 1987; Eng- the potential energy of the column.
land, 1987; Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988; England and House- The density of crust and lithospheric mantle can be assumed
man, 1988, 1989; Liu and Furlong, 1993; Mareschal, 1994; to be constant (e.g., Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988) or tempera-
Houseman and Molnar, 1997). As has been mentioned by Platt ture dependent (e.g., Fleitout and Froideveaux, 1982). For sim-
and England (1994), on a globe of constant radius, extension in plicity, the density has been assumed to be temperature indepen-
the thickened zone must be accommodated by shortening else- dent, since we want to calculate the maximum possible potential
where, unless there is a retreating boundary (such as in rollback energy difference between a thickened and reference lithosphere
of a subducting slab) that surrounds the thickened region and that could drive collapse. As will be discussed later, maximum
provides the space into which thickened lithosphere can extend. ∆Ep is reached at a stage when the cold lithospheric root that
Since shortening of the foreland requires energy, the integrated formed during orogenesis is convectively removed (e.g., Platt
strength (for shortening) of the foreland must be incorporated and England, 1994). In this scenario, ∆Ep between orogen and
in the calculations as well. foreland stems almost exclusively from the thickened crust.
In many numerical models simulating processes of litho- In Figure 5A, two lithospheric columns have been plotted
sphere thickening and subsequent collapse, a thin viscous sheet (T and R) for a temperature independent density of the litho-
approximation has been used to model the lithosphere (e.g., sphere. The reference crust has a thickness H, and the thickened
Sonder and England, 1986; England, 1987; England and House- crust has a thickness h + H + ∆H, where h is the difference in
man, 1986, 1988, 1989; Houseman and England, 1993). One topographic elevation between both columns and ∆H is the
problem with using the viscous sheet approximation is that the crustal root of the thickened column. Since the lithostatic pressure
lithosphere ends up having the same strength for both extension at depth z = h + H + ∆H is the same for both columns, integra-
and shortening. However, more realistic lithospheric strength tion is only necessary for z = 0 to zc = h + H + ∆H. The potential
profiles (Goetze and Evans, 1979; Brace and Kohlstedt, 1980; energy difference can be calculated by integrating Equation (2),
Kirby, 1983; Ranalli and Murphy, 1987; Stephenson and Cloet- which results in (Molnar and Lyon-Caen, 1988):
ingh, 1991) tell us that lithospheric strength for shortening can
be as much as three times greater than for extension. Therefore,
1 1
collapse in such models might not be opposed by surrounding ∆E p = ρcr gh2 + ρcrghH + ρcr gh∆ H , (3a)
lithosphere in an appropriate manner. 2 2
In the following five sections, we will discuss how potential
energy and integrated strength are usually calculated and brought where ρcr is the density of the crust. This ∆Ep has been graphi-
together to explain gravitational collapse. The potential flaws in cally illustrated in Figure 5B, where the lithostatic pressure for
these calculations are also discussed. both columns has been plotted. The area underneath each curve
represents the potential energy of each column. The difference
Potential Energy Calculations between the two areas is the ∆Ep between the two columns.
Rewriting ∆Ep in terms of h and H, with
To obtain the driving force for gravitational collapse, one
ρcr h
usually calculates the difference in potential energy (∆Ep) ∆H = (3b)
between a thickened column (T) of unit area and a reference ( m − ρcr )
ρ
column (R) of unit area. This is done by integrating the lithostatic results in
pressure difference between these columns from Earth’s surface 1 ρcr2 gh 2
to the isostatic compensation depth (zc) (Frank, 1972; Molnar and ∆E p = ρcr gh 2 + ρcr ghH + , (3c)
2 2(ρ m − ρcr )
Lyon-Caen, 1988; Stüwe and Barr, 2000):

zc z zc z where ρm is the density of the mantle. One can now plot h as

∆E p = ∫∫ [ρ( z)g] dzdz −
T ∫ ∫ [ρ(z)g] dzdz,
R
(2) well as the thickening factor (TF) against ∆Ep for a given H value,
0 0 0 0 where, TF can be expressed as
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244 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 5. A. Diagram showing reference crust with thick-

ness H and a thickened crust with a thickness h + H +
∆H, which are both in isostatic equilibrium. B. Vertical
pressure for thickened (T) and reference (R) column, and
the potential energy difference (∆Ep) between the two
columns (shaded gray region). C. Relationship between
thickening factor (TF), elevation (h) and ∆Ep for a refer-
ence crust with H = 30 km. TF < 1 indicates thinning and
TF > 1 indicates thickening.

of the brittle resistance of the upper lithosphere and the viscous

h + H + ∆H ρmh
TF = = 1+ . (3d) resistance of the lower lithosphere. The brittle strength of prefrac-
H (ρm − ρcr ) H tured rocks can be expressed by the following rock friction law
(Byerlee, 1968, 1978; Brace and Kohlstedt, 1980; Kirby, 1983):
This has been done in Figure 5C. Here one can observe that
∆Ep is quadratically dependent on h and therefore also on TF. In τ = µσn (µ = 0.85) (σn < 200 MPa), (4a)
this plot, we have chosen the reference crust to be 30 km thick,
which has subsequently been homogeneously thickened by a fac-
tor TF. Furthermore, total isostatic compensation is assumed at τ = µσn + C
the base of the thickened crust, ρcr = 2750 kg/m3 and ρm = 3300 (µ = 0.6, C = 60 MPa) (200 < σn ≤ 1700 MPa), (4b)
kg/m3. For example, if TF = 1 (no thickening), then h = 0 km, ∆H
= 0 km, and ∆Ep = 0 N/m. If TF = 2, this results in h = 5 km, ∆H = where τ is the shear stress, µ is the coefficient of internal friction,
25 km, and a total ∆Ep between T and R of ~6.1 × 1012 N/m. σn is the normal stress, and C is the cohesion. Equations (4a) and
(4b) can be rewritten in terms of principal stresses by using the
Integrated Strength following equations:
( K − 1) S
The integrated strength of the lithosphere is a factor that σ1 − σ 3 = ρgz(1 − λ ) + (extension) (5a)
K K
resists deformation. The integrated strength is a combination
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 245

σ1 − σ3 = (K – 1)ρgz(1 – λ) + S (shortening) (5b) strength of rocks leads to the well known strength profiles for
lithospheric columns (Goetze and Evans, 1979; Brace and Kohl-
with stedt, 1980; Kirby, 1983; Ranalli and Murphy, 1987; Stephenson
2C sin 2θf 1 − cos 2θf and Cloetingh, 1991). The vertical integrated strength of the
S= K= lithosphere at a specific strain rate can then be calculated by
1 + cos 2θf 1 + cos 2θf integrating the differential stress over its depth range (Sonder and
England, 1986; Ranalli, 1987):
2θf = 90 + φ µ = tan φ, (5c) zl

Integrated Strength = ∫ (σ 1 − σ 3 )dz , (9)

where σ1 and σ3 are the maximum and minimum principal stress, 0

respectively, λ is the pore fluid factor, K is a parameter depend- where zl is the base of the lithosphere.
ing on the fracture angle, S is the fracture strength under uniaxial
compression and zero confining pressure, θf is the fracture angle, Evolutionary Scenario for Gravitational Collapse
and φ is the angle of internal friction. Combining Equation (4)
and (5) results in The possibility of gravitational collapse of a thickened
lithosphere is investigated for different stages in the thermal
σ1 − σ3 = 0.79ρgz(1 – λ) evolution of the thickened (T) and reference (R) lithosphere
σ1 − σ3 < 500 MPa (extension), (6ai) (Fig. 6). Let us consider a 120-km-thick lithosphere having an
original crustal thickness of 30 km, a crustal density of 2750
kg/m3 (granite), and a mantle density of 3300 kg/m3 (olivine)
σ1 − σ3 = 0.68ρgz(1 – λ) + 68 MPa (Fig. 6A). We assume a linear geotherm for the crust, with
σ1 − σ3 > 500 MPa (extension), (6aii) temperature increasing from T0 = 273 K at the surface to TMoho
at Moho depth (598 K, 673 K, 773 K, 873 K and 973 K), and
also a linear geotherm for the lithospheric mantle, with tem-
σ1 − σ3 = 3.68ρgz(1 – λ) perature increasing from TMoho to T1 = 1573 K at the base of the
σ1 − σ3 < 500 MPa (shortening), (6bi) lithosphere. The temperature in the asthenosphere is constant
at 1573 K. At some stage, the lithosphere is thickened homo-
geneously by a factor of two (Fig. 6B). During shortening,
σ1 − σ3 = 2.12ρgz(1 – λ) + 212 MPa thermal advection is assumed to dominate thermal relaxation.
σ1 − σ3 > 500 MPa (shortening). (6bii) This assumption is valid for strain rates of ~≥ 10−15 s−1, where
the lithosphere deforms almost isothermally (England, 1987).
The viscous strength of rocks, deforming at a specific strain After thickening, the lower 120 km of the lithospheric mantle
rate, can be calculated by the following power law (Kirby, 1983): of T is convectively removed before significant thermal relax-
ation has occurred (Fig. 6C). When total isostatic compensation
1
ε˙ n nRT
Q is assumed (at the base of the crust), this leads to an elevation h
σ1 − σ 2 = e , (7) = 5 km for T. In Figure 6D, T has reached thermal equilibrium.
A
For the lithospheric columns with a relatively high Moho tem-
perature, it can be observed in Figure 6D that T has a warmer
where ε̇ is the strain rate, A, n, and Q are material constants, T is geotherm than R due to the thicker crust. This will result in
the temperature in Kelvin, and R is the gas constant. Brace and lateral heat flow from T to R (Fig. 6E), which will result in
Kohlstedt (1980) have used Equation (7) for the viscous strength thermal weakening of R. Here, lateral heat flow is greatest for
of olivine with σ1 − σ3 < 200 MPa. For σ1 − σ3 > 200 MPa, they high initial Moho temperatures. This lateral heat flow may lead
used the following flow law for the viscous strength of olivine: to such a decrease in strength of R that it is not able to prevent
collapse in T (Fig. 6F).
 1
 Total integrated strengths for the thickened and reference
  RT  ε˙ D   2 
σ1 − σ 3 = σ D 1 −  ln    lithosphere and crust with different initial Moho temperatures
  QD  ε˙    have been plotted in Figure 7 during different stages in the
 
evolution of the system. For the brittle strength, Equation (6)
σ1 − σ3 > 200 MPa, (8) has been used, and for the viscous strength of granite (dry),
Equation (7) has been used. For the viscous strength of olivine,
where ε̇D is the pre-exponential constant for Dorn law creep, QD is Equations (7) and (8) have been used as a lower limit of the
the activation energy for Dorn law creep, and σD is the threshold strength of the lithospheric mantle. In all plots and calcula-
stress for Dorn law creep. Combining Equation (6) for the brittle tions, the pore fluid pressure was zero. A relatively low strain
strength of rocks and Equation (7) and/or (8) for the viscous rate of 10−16 s−1 (compared with the present E-W extensional
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246 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 6. Thermal evolution of a lithosphere experiencing shortening and thickening (T) and the reference lithosphere surrounding the thickened
lithosphere (R). Evolution is for two different initial geotherms with a different initial Moho temperature. A. Initial stage. B. Thickening by a
factor of two. C. Convective thinning. D. Thermal relaxation of T. E. Lateral heat flow from the lower crust of T to the upper mantle of R. F.
Extensional collapse in T and shortening in R. Integrated strengths of T and R for five different initial Moho temperatures have been plotted in
Figure 7A and 7B (entire lithosphere) and Figure 7C and 7D (crust only) for stages A, C, D and E.
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 247

Figure 7. Evolution of the integrated strength of reference and thickened columns for different initial Moho temperatures during different stages
of evolution of the mountain belt. A. The thickened lithosphere (T) and the reference lithosphere (R). B. The sum of T and R. C. The thickened
crust (T) and the reference crust (R). D. The sum of T and R. Stages A, C, D, and E correspond to the stages of the same name in Figure 6. Also
plotted is the potential energy difference (∆Ep) between T and R, as calculated in the text.

strain rate of ~2 × 10−16 s−1 in the Tibetan Plateau [Molnar and Lithospheric Collapse and Crustal Collapse
Qidong, 1984; England, 1987] and the present extensional
strain rate in the Basin and Range of ~3.5 × 10−16 s−1 [Sonder In the lithospheric and crustal collapse models, it has gener-
et al., 1987]) has been used as a lower bound of geologically ally been assumed (e.g., Platt and England, 1994) that collapse
significant strain rates. Data for the material constants A, n, and will occur when the potential energy difference between a
Q have been obtained from Ranalli and Murphy (1987). Data thickened column and foreland column (Equation 3a) is larger
for the material constants σD, QD, and ε̇D have been obtained than the extensional integrated strength of the thickened column
from Sonder and England (1986). In the following section, we (Equation 9). This assumption can be expressed as follows:
consider collapse at lithospheric scale (e.g., Platt and England, z′

1994) and at crustal scale (e.g., Liu and Shen, 1998). The col- ∆E p > ∫ (σ 1 − σ 3 )T dz, (10)
lapse models follow the scenario outlined above. 0
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248 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

where z′ = zl for lithospheric scale collapse and z′ = zcr for the geotherms of T and R for the uppermost 30 km; thus, there is
crustal collapse. no lateral heat flow in this upper region, and therefore no thermal
In these equations, however, the strength of the surrounding weakening of the reference crust will take place.
foreland, which will resist collapse of the thickened region, has It should be noted that the calculations presented above are
been entirely neglected. Thus, it is more likely that the relations only applicable to a one-dimensional scenario for which RF = 1.
expressed above should be modified to incorporate this resistive For more realistic two-dimensional and three-dimensional sce-
factor, which is dependent on the strength of the surrounding narios, analogue or numerical modeling is required to determine
lithosphere: this particular value.
z′ z′

∆E p > ∫ (σ1 − σ 3 )T dz + RF ∫ (σ1 − σ 3 ) R dz,

0 0
(11) Discussion on Gravitational Collapse

where RF is an undefined parameter expressing the relative resis- Lonergan and White (1997) raised several objections to the
tance of the surrounding foreland to inhibit collapse, with 0 < RF gravitational collapse model as a driving mechanism for exten-
≤ 1. In a one-dimensional model, RF = 1, since there is a one to sion in an orogen and radial shortening in the foreland. First,
one comparison between the two columns. However, in two- and patterns of shortening surrounding regions of extension are never
three-dimensional models, RF will most likely be smaller than truly radial (a full 360° as in Fig. 4A). Second, it is not clear why
1, since the area that experiences potential energy loss (e.g., some regions continue to extend when the surface submerges
region of extension) will be larger than the area that will experi- beneath sea level (e.g., Alboran Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Aegean
ence potential energy gain (e.g., region of shortening). In Equa- Sea). Third, some of the areas bordering the regions, which sup-
tions (10) and (11), the integrated strengths for T and R are for posedly formed due to gravitational collapse, have experienced
extension and shortening, respectively. considerable rotations, as indicated by paleomagnetic data,
In Figure 7, the integrated strengths of T and R (Fig. 7A and which cannot be easily explained by radial spreading. Consider-
7C) and the sum of T and R (for RF = 1) (Fig. 7B and 7D) are able rotations will not occur during radial spreading, because the
given for the stages A, C, D, and E plotted in Figure 6 for five spreading vectors are perpendicular to the boundary and equal in
different initial geotherms. For lithospheric collapse, comparison magnitude along the boundary. This non-rotation during radial
of the values of the sums of the integrated strengths for both T spreading is supported by the modeling of McKenzie and Jack-
and R (for RF = 1) with the ∆Ep of 6.1 × 1012 N/m (calculated in son (1983), who show that the radial spreading of a circular or
the Potential Energy Calculations section) demonstrates that for elliptical blob does not generate any rigid body rotation.
a relatively cold geotherm with a low initial Moho temperature Other problems come from the supposedly short time span
(598 K, 673 K, and 773 K) gravitational collapse is not possible between thickening and collapse of the lithosphere. England
(Fig. 7B), at least for strain rates of ≥10−16 s−1. This is mainly due and Thompson (1984) argued that the thermal time constant
to the strength of the reference lithosphere, which is up to eight for reestablishment of a normal thermal gradient for a 125-
times too strong to let the excess potential energy be released. km-thick lithosphere, which is thickened by a factor of two, is
However, for a high initial Moho temperature (873 K, 973 K), ~240 m.y. This is much too long to explain collapse in moun-
the sum of the integrated strengths of T and R during stage E is tain belts, because it occurs millions to several tens of millions
of the same order as the ∆Ep (IS ≈ 7.7 × 1012 N/m [873 K]) and IS of years after lithospheric thickening has ceased (see Houseman
≈ 5.0 × 1012 N/m [973 K]), so that it may result in collapse of the and Molnar, 1997, and references therein). Platt and England
thickened lithosphere and shortening of the reference lithosphere (1994) argued that before considerable thermal relaxation by
(Fig. 7B). Furthermore, it can be concluded from Figure 7A that thermal diffusion can occur, the lower (mechanically weak part)
without incorporating the strength of R, collapse would look of the lithosphere is removed by convection, leading to a step
plausible in stage D for all of the initial geothermal gradients. in the thermal gradient at the boundary between the lithosphere
For crustal collapse, comparison of the values of the sums of and the asthenosphere (as in Fig. 6C). Calculations showed that
the integrated strengths for both T and R (for RF = 1) with the ∆Ep the time necessary to restore the thermal gradient by conduction
of 6.1 × 1012 N/m (calculated in the Potential Energy Calculations would still be ~60 m.y. for a 120-km-thick lithosphere. There-
section) shows that for a relatively cold geotherm with a low ini- fore, they argued that extensional collapse results very soon
tial Moho temperature (598 K and 673 K), gravitational collapse after convective thinning of the lithosphere, solely as a result
is not likely, because the sum of the integrated strengths is greater of an increase in potential energy of this lithosphere, and before
than the ∆Ep (Fig. 7D). However, for a relatively hot geotherm significant thermal weakening of the thickened lithosphere
with a high initial Moho temperature (873 K and 973 K), the sum can occur. However, calculations as presented in Figure 7
of the integrated strengths for stage D is smaller than the ∆Ep (IS have shown that gravitational collapse is not possible without
≈ 5.1 × 1012 N/m [873 K] and IS ≈ 4.6 × 1012 N/m [973 K]). This thermal relaxation of the thickened lithosphere (crust only) and
would result in collapse of the thickened crust and shortening in considerable thermal heating of the surrounding lithosphere
the reference crust (Fig. 7D). Note that after thermal relaxation (entire lithosphere), even for relatively hot initial geotherms
of the thickened column (Fig. 6D), there is no difference between and weak rheologies.
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 249

According to England and Houseman (1989), there is no are some exceptions (Schellart et al., 2002b, 2003). Along the
obvious geological process that would accomplish a reduction in subduction boundary, shortening will be the dominant deforma-
strength of the lithosphere surrounding a mountain range. How- tion type, due to friction at the subduction zone interface and
ever, in a situation where the lithosphere has an initially high accretion of ocean sediments to the overriding plate (Malinverno
Moho temperature, the higher temperature of the thickened crust and Ryan, 1986). Furthermore, collapse is most likely to occur
after thermal readjustment, compared to the lower temperature at places where the lithosphere has a relatively high potential
of the upper mantle of the surrounding lithosphere, results in a energy and a relatively low integrated strength, such as a volca-
thermal gradient between the two regions (Fig. 6D). This gradi- nic arc (Molnar and Atwater, 1978; Dewey, 1980). The arcuate
ent results in lateral heat flow from the thickened lithosphere shape of arc-backarc systems can result from a number of fac-
toward the surrounding lithosphere, which leads to an increase in tors. These include buoyant ridges and plateaus on the subduct-
temperature of the upper mantle of the surrounding lithosphere ing plate, which will resist rollback and therefore correlate with
and finally to a reduction in strength of this lithosphere. The arc cusps (e.g., the Marcus-Necker ridge and Caroline ridge for
amount of heating of the reference lithosphere increases when the Mariana arc; Fig. 8). Another factor is mantle flow around the
the transition zone between orogen and lowland is relatively nar- slab edges to accommodate slab rollback, which will force the
row. Two-dimensional calculations from Gaudemer et al. (1988) slab and trench to attain a curved shape, convex toward the direc-
have shown that the increase in temperature of the subcrustal tion of retreat. This concept has been supported by numerous
lithosphere of the foreland due to lateral heat flow can be up to analogue experiments of lithospheric subduction in the mantle
~200 K for a 50-km-wide transition zone. For a 0-km-wide tran-
sition zone (e.g., vertical transition), the temperature increase can
be up to ~350 K.
To conclude, the gravitational collapse model might work
for orogenic regions with a thick crust and therefore high poten-
tial energy, such as the Tibetan Plateau and the Altiplano in the
Andes; however, plate boundary forces cannot be ruled out as
having an effect on extension in these regions. For example,
E-W extension in Tibet could also be influenced by the East
Asian active margin located to the east. Gravitational collapse
cannot account for Western Pacific and Mediterranean style arc-
backarc systems, since gravitational collapse, unaided by plate
boundary forces, will proceed only until a reduced elevation of
~3 km can no longer drive the extension (Dewey, 1988). At such
an elevation, ∆Ep has already reduced to half the value of ∆Ep
for an elevation of 5 km (see Fig. 5C). Most arc-backarc systems
around the world have a considerably lower average elevation,
the backarc region often being several kilometers below sea level.
In addition, a large number of these systems show considerable
paleomagnetic rotations, which cannot be easily explained by
radial collapse.

ROLLBACK MODEL

Introduction

In the rollback model, arc formation, arc migration, and Figure 8. Tectonic setting of the Philippine Sea region. Double arrows
backarc extension in the overriding plate are triggered by rollback illustrate separation between the Palau-Kyushu Ridge and Yap–West
of the adjacent subducting plate. Rollback leads to the formation Mariana–Izu-Bonin Ridge, and between the West Mariana Ridge and
Mariana Ridge. Since the amount of E-W separation is highly variable
of a potentially vacant region at the contact between the subduct- in the N-S direction, this implies that the opening up of the Parece-
ing and overriding plates (Elsasser, 1971). This potentially vacant Vela Basin and the Mariana Trough cannot have resulted from simple
region will be filled by the overriding plate, which collapses westward retreat of Philippine Sea plate. Otherwise, the width of the
toward the retreating hinge of the subducting plate (Fig. 4B) Parece-Vela Basin should be more constant, and the Mariana Trough
because it is not strong enough to sustain such a potentially should extend along the entire eastern margin of the Philippine Sea
plate. 1—normal fault; 2—subduction zone; 3—inactive subduction
vacant region at the plate boundary (Elsasser, 1971; Shemenda, zone; 4—land; 5—continental shelf/topographic feature on ocean
1993). Extension in the overriding plate will be dominantly ori- floor; 6—ocean floor/backarc basin. Curved arrows along Mariana
ented in the direction perpendicular to the trench, although there Ridge indicate rotation since Late Eocene (from McCabe, 1984).
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250 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Figure 9. Three possible driving mechanisms for regressive hinge-line migration of a subducting slab. A. Migration due to sinking of the slab,
resulting from the negative buoyancy of the slab with respect to the surrounding mantle. B. Migration due to push exerted from the overriding
plate to the hinge-line. C. Migration of west-dipping subduction zones due to global east-directed asthenosphere flow. FSB—slab buoyancy force;
FRP—ridge push force; FOB—overriding plate buoyancy force; FEF—eastward asthenosphere flow force.

(Schellart, 2003, 2004). An example for this type of arc curvature (α ≈ 2.4 × 10−5 K−1) for mantle material (Turcotte and Schubert,
is the northern part of the Tonga arc, where the northern edge of 2002) indicates that for a 1000 K temperature increase, the den-
the Tonga slab is curved due to mantle flow around the edge from sity decreases by 2.4% (assuming density is not affected by a
the Pacific side toward the backarc side. The occurrence of such change in pressure). Since oceanic lithosphere grows with age
flow is supported by geochemical data from magmas erupted in due to conductive cooling of subcrustal mantle, its average den-
the Lau Basin. Isotope data from these magmas indicate the pres- sity increases with increasing age because the thickness ratio of
ence of a Samoa mantle plume component for magmas in the (buoyant) crust to lithosphere decreases with age. Therefore, the
northern part of the Lau Basin (Wendt et al., 1997; Turner and thin oceanic crust (~2950 kg/m3 [basalt] for the crust compared
Hawkesworth, 1998). to ~3300 kg/m3 [olivine] for the mantle) places a lower limit on
Several driving mechanisms have been proposed for retreat the age of oceanic lithosphere, which is negatively buoyant and
of the hinge-line of the subducting lithosphere: therefore will have a tendency to roll back. Calculations from Le
1. Hinge-line retreat is driven by the negative buoyancy Pichon (1982) place this lower limit at ca. 8 Ma; those of Cloos
of the slab with respect to the sublithospheric mantle through (1993) at ca. 10 Ma; and those of Molnar and Atwater (1978) at
which it sinks (Fig. 9A) (Elsasser, 1971; Molnar and Atwater, ca. 30 Ma. However, once subducted, metamorphism causes the
1978; Malinverno and Ryan, 1986; Bott et al., 1989; Royden, crustal layer of basalt and gabbro to transform into more dense
1993; Shemenda, 1993; Lonergan and White, 1997; Schellart et amphibolite (~3.15 kg/m3) and eclogite (~3.40 kg/m3), further
al., 2002b). This model applies when the subducting lithosphere increasing the negative buoyancy force of the slab (Cloos, 1993).
is of an oceanic nature. Oceanic lithosphere has the same min- Upward displacement of the olivine-spinel phase boundary in the
eralogical composition as the surrounding mantle (except for its subducting slab also increases the buoyancy contrast between
thin [~6 km] crust), but it is much colder and therefore denser slab and surrounding mantle (Turcotte and Schubert, 1971). This
than the surrounding mantle. The thermal expansion coefficient additional downward body force on the subducting lithosphere is
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 251

of the same magnitude as the body force due to thermal contrac- ridge (Meijer and Wortel, 1992). This does result in a shallow
tion (Turcotte and Schubert, 1971). The fact that numerous arc dipping slab, but it also results in large compressive stresses and
cusps are defined by buoyant irregularities on the subducting mountain building (e.g., the Andes) close to the subduction inter-
plate (such as aseismic ridges, oceanic plateaus, and continental face, not in the formation of a backarc basin.
fragments) further supports the concept of density-driven slab 3. Hinge-line retreat is driven by an overall east-directed
rollback (e.g., Marcus-Necker Ridge and Caroline Plateau for flow in the asthenosphere or a net westward rotation of the
Mariana arc [Fig. 8], Melanesian Border Plateau and Louisville lithosphere (Fig. 9C) (Nelson and Temple, 1972; Moore, 1973;
ridge for Tonga arc). Alvarez, 1982; Shemenda, 1994; Doglioni et al., 1999). This
2. Hinge-line retreat is driven by pushing of the overriding asthenosphere flow or lithosphere motion would in some way be
plate on the hinge-line of the subducting lithosphere (Fig. 9B) related to Earth’s rotation and/or tidal effects (Moore, 1973). The
(Davies et al., 1997; Hatzfeld et al., 1997; ten Veen and Meijer, model has been proposed to explain the tendency of west-dip-
1998; Gautier et al., 1999). This push force is either caused by ping subduction zones to be relatively steep and weakly compres-
the excess potential energy in the overriding plate with respect sive (e.g., Mariana type) compared to east-dipping subduction
to the subducting plate or by a tectonic force. In the former case, zones (Chilean type) (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979), which are
the model is actually similar to the gravitational collapse model. relatively shallow-dipping and highly compressive. West-dipping
Thus, the excess potential energy drives extension in the over- subduction zones would preferentially be bordered by backarc
riding plate as well as pushes back the hinge-line of the retreat- basins, while east-dipping subduction zones would not. Thus,
ing slab. In the latter case, the model is similar to the extrusion east-directed asthenosphere flow would push west-dipping slabs
tectonics model and the orogen-parallel compression models, eastward, increase the slab dip angle, and cause a deviatoric ten-
which will be discussed in the following sections. For this driv- sion along the subduction interface. Although this might seem an
ing mechanism, one would expect the retreating slabs border- appealing mechanism at first, there are several subduction zones
ing arc-backarc systems to be shallowly dipping and concave that do not fit this model. The most important example is the
upward (Fig. 9B), because the push back force is only exerted on New Hebrides arc in the Southwest Pacific, which dips eastward,
the hinge of the subducting lithosphere and not on the remainder has an actively opening backarc basin (North Fiji Basin), and
of the slab at depth. This implication is in stark contrast with is the second fastest retreating subduction zone on Earth. GPS
observed dip angles for slabs bordering actively extending back- measurements indicate that the southernmost part is retreating
arc regions, which are generally steeper than dip angles for slabs westward at ~12 cm/yr (Taylor et al., 1995). An example from
that do not border such regions (Table 2). This push back mecha- the Mediterranean is the Hellenic arc, where a northeast dip-
nism has been proposed for the Andean subduction zone (Uyeda ping subduction zone is retreating southwestward at a rate of
and Kanamori, 1979), which is retreating westward at a rate of ~3.5 cm/yr, accompanied by extension in the Aegean Sea (Kahle
~1.5–3.0 cm/yr (Jarrard, 1986) and is supposedly being pushed et al., 1998). Another Mediterranean example is the Betic-Rif arc
back by the ridge push force from the South Atlantic mid-oceanic from the Western Mediterranean, which has an eastward dipping
slab and has retreated during the Neogene toward the west and
is currently still retreating (Lonergan and White, 1997; Gutscher
et al., 2002). Two other examples involve the South Shetland arc
TABLE 2. SLAB DIP DATA IN COMPARISON WITH ACTIVE EXTENSION
in the Southeast Pacific and the Trans Mexican arc in the East
IN BACKARC REGION Pacific, the former a southeast dipping subduction zone retreat-
Subduction Slab dip Ref. Backarc Active extension/ Active
ing northwestward (Lawver et al., 1995) and the latter a northeast
zone angle basin spreading shortening dipping subduction zone retreating southwestward (Ferrari et al.,
in backarc in backarc 2001). Also, several west-dipping subduction zones (the Philip-
Chile 16–31° 1 No No Yes pine and Japan subduction zones) are not bordered by actively
Peru 15–32° 1 No No Yes opening backarc basins and are therefore not retreating eastward
Japan 26° 1 Yes No Yes
Kuril 42–47° 1 Yes No* No
with respect to the overriding plate, which further undermines
Izu-Bonin 40–60° 1 Yes Yes† No the model. Another argument against this model is that if retreat
Mariana 45–85° 1 Yes Yes No would be driven by such a flow, one would expect the slab to
Ryukyu 36–40° 1 Yes Yes No be concave toward the direction of retreat (and thus backarc
Scotia ~70° 2 Yes Yes No
basins to be located on the convex side of the arc). In order to
New Hebrides 64° 1 Yes Yes No
Tonga 35–50° 1 Yes Yes No be the driving mechanism, the east-directed flow would have to
Kermadec 47–60° 1 Yes Yes No be faster than the slab retreat and would therefore flow around
Hellenic ~55° 3 Yes Yes No the edges of the slab, which would force the slab into such a
Calabrian ~70° 4 Yes Yes No geometry. However, for all arc-backarc systems it is observed
Note: References (Ref.): 1—Yokokura (1981); 2—Yamaoka et al. (1986);
3—Spakman et al. (1988); 4—Wortel and Spakman (2000).
that backarc basins occur on the concave side of the arc (Fig. 1).
*Except active extension in Kamchatka (Central Kamchatka graben). Fluid dynamic experiments indicate that rollback of a slab in a
†
Active intra-arc extension. fixed mantle reference frame results in curvature of the slab and
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252 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

trench line, which are both convex toward the direction of retreat et al., 1986). Second, if the subducting plate rolls back, the upper
(Schellart, 2003, 2004). This curvature results from rollback- plate has no option other than to follow the migrating hinge. If
induced mantle flow around the edges of the slab toward the this were not the case, the retreating slab would simply create
mantle wedge. a lithospheric-scale gap. Of course, no such lithospheric-scale
From discussion of the three above-mentioned possible gaps are found along subduction zones; however, as a thought
mechanisms to drive hinge-line migration it can be concluded experiment, consider the extreme case, in which a retreating slab
that slab rollback is most likely caused by the negative buoyancy rolls back instantaneously with respect to the overriding plate for
force of the slab. The concept behind the mechanism is simple a short distance, creating a narrow, lithospheric-scale gap. Then,
and physically sound and has been supported by numerous the potential energy difference between the overriding plate and
analogue and numerical experiments, in which slab rollback is this gap equals the potential energy of the overriding lithosphere
driven by the negative buoyancy of the slab (Kincaid and Olson, from the surface to its base. Collapse of the overriding plate
1987; Shemenda, 1993; Faccenna et al., 1996, 2001a; Becker et toward this potential gap will occur if its potential energy relative
al., 1999; Schellart, 2003, 2004). Although it is argued that the to the gap is greater than its own integrated strength (for exten-
negative buoyancy force of the slab is the main driving mecha- sion). This can be written as follows:
nism for rollback, it should be kept in mind that numerous other zc zc

factors influence slab retreat and backarc formation, including ∆E p = ∫ (ρgz)dz >∫ (σ1 − σ 3 )dz. (12)
the slab width, viscosity of the slab and sub-lithospheric mantle, 0 0

horizontal velocity of the subducting plate, horizontal velocity In Equation (12), the upper limit of the strength of a litho-
of the overriding plate, irregularities on the subducting plate, spheric column (for extension) can be given by Equation (6ai).
and tearability of the subducting lithosphere. Finally, it should From this it follows that the (extensional) integrated strength
be mentioned that even though the horizontal buoyancy force of a column of lithosphere is always smaller than its potential
resulting from the potential energy difference between the over- energy at any strain rate, since ρgz > 0.79ρgz(1 − λ) (with 0 ≤ λ
riding and subducting plate is a magnitude smaller than the force ≤ 1). Thus, no matter how fast a subducting slab is rolling back,
resulting from the sinking slab, it still exerts a net force from the the upper plate will always follow the retreating hinge instanta-
overriding plate to the subducting plate. This force is important neously, simply because it is not capable of supporting a poten-
because it forces the overriding plate to follow the hinge-line of tial lithospheric-scale gap that would otherwise arise at the plate
the subducting lithosphere during slab retreat. contact. The locus of extension is most likely to occur at places
having a relatively small integrated strength and relatively large
Why Rollback? potential energy.

We will now expand on some arguments as to why the Discussion on Slab Rollback
rollback model is a good candidate to explain arc formation
and backarc extension in the overriding plate. First of all, it is Several problems have been identified for the subduction
assumed that every slab with a larger average density than the rollback model as a mechanism for arc formation and backarc
surrounding mantle will have the tendency to sink due to its nega- extension. It has been argued that it is difficult for the slab to
tive buoyancy and therefore roll back. It has indeed been shown move in a direction perpendicular to its own surface because
that most subduction zones are presently retreating (Garfunkel it would require a large volume of surrounding mantle to be

Figure 10. Illustration of the anchored slab model, where trench (B–B′) is stationary with respect to hot spot and the slab only moves parallel to
its dip-angle. Subducting plate moves toward the left over a distance C–C′ with respect to the hot spot. The overriding plate moves toward the
left (A–A′) with respect to the hot spot (C) and therefore also with respect to the trench (B–B′). As a result of overriding plate movement and the
stationary trench, the overriding plate is extended.
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 253

displaced. Therefore, the anchored slab model has been pro- flow in the mantle wedge will aid in driving the overriding plate
posed, in which the slab is fixed to the lower mantle and does toward the trench (McKenzie, 1978).
not move laterally (Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979). In this model, Subduction-induced return flow has also been suggested
backarc opening is explained by retreat of the overriding plate as the principal driving mechanism for the formation of back-
from the supposedly fixed trench (Fig. 10). However, simple arc basins (Toksöz and Hsui, 1978). Return flow occurs due to
kinematic arguments can be put forward against this model, since displacement of the slab parallel to its own plane; however, the
it cannot explain the lateral discontinuity of backarc basins (Hsui, contribution of this return flow to driving backarc extension is
1988), the variation in arc-perpendicular opening rate parallel to probably very small (Taylor and Karner, 1983). A number of sub-
the trench, the irregular arc-shaped nature of many subduction duction zones are not bordered by backarc basins (South Ameri-
interfaces, and paleomagnetic rotations along arc segments. As can subduction zone, Middle America subduction zone, Philip-
an illustration of these difficulties, consider the example of the pine trench) or are bordered by inactive backarc basins (Aleutian
Izu-Boni–Mariana subduction system (Fig. 8). It seems hard arc, Kuril arc, Japan arc, Lesser Antilles arc), while return flow is
to explain the opening of the Parece-Vela basin due to simple present in every subduction system. Also, return flow as a driving
westward migration of the overriding Philippine plate, since mechanism for backarc extension does not explain the irregular
the shapes of the Palau-Kyushu Ridge and the Izu-Bonin–West shape of backarc basins, the limited time-span of backarc activ-
Mariana Ridge are very dissimilar. The ridges testify to a varia- ity, and paleomagnetic rotations observed along a number of
tion in the amount of opening of the basin in an E-W direction. In arcs. Finally, it is thought that the asthenosphere has a relatively
addition, a simple westward retreat would not explain the recent low viscosity (~1019–1020 Pa·s [Artyushkov, 1983]) and would
opening of the Mariana Trough without similar amounts of open- therefore not be able to excite a large shear traction at the base of
ing along the Izu-Bonin Ridge and the Yap Ridge. Such opening the lithosphere to drive lithospheric deformation.
would be required, unless the Yap and Izu-Bonin subduction Another argument against separation between overriding
zone hinges and slabs are rapidly migrating westward, thereby and subducting plates during rollback is that the overriding
annulling the need for east-west extension in the overriding plate. plate has a relatively large extensional strength near the sub-
The direction of subduction hinge and slab migration along the duction interface, due to the subduction of cool lithosphere and
Mariana trench would then depend on the rate of westward subsequent cooling of the overriding plate near the subduction
displacement of the Philippine plate and the rate of opening of interface (cf. Hsui, 1988, his Fig. 5). The overriding plate is
the Mariana Trough. In this scenario of forward slab migration more likely to extend at places having relatively small integrated
along the Yap and Izu-Bonin subduction zones, slab rollback is strength and large potential energy. For instance, this has been
not required, but one still requires lateral migration of slabs (e.g., observed at several subduction zones in the Western Pacific (e.g.,
Yap and Izu-Bonin slabs), which is not allowed in the anchored Mariana arc, Tonga-Kermadec arc, Izu-Bonin arc). Here, exten-
slab model of Uyeda and Kanamori (1979). Also, paleomagnetic sion of the upper plate took place along a volcanic arc adjacent
rotations recorded along the Mariana arc indicate that different to the subduction zone, resulting in the formation of a backarc
segments of the arc have experienced different amounts of rota- basin in between a remnant arc and a new volcanic arc (Karig,
tion, as would be predicted from the progressive outward bowing 1970; Kobayashi and Nakada, 1979; Fryer and Hussong, 1982).
of the Mariana arc (Hsui and Youngquist, 1985). Such rotations This suggests that a volcanic arc is a fundamental line of weak-
cannot be explained by the simple westward retreat of the Philip- ness (Molnar and Atwater, 1978; Dewey, 1980) resulting from a
pine plate with respect to the trench. thicker crust and a higher geothermal gradient than surrounding
Another problem with rollback and backarc extension has regions. Also, the higher potential energy of the arc compared to
been raised by Hsui (1988). He argued that it is not clear why the the surrounding ocean floor will favor extension to initiate in the
overriding and subducting plates do not simply separate along arc region.
the subduction interface, letting the less viscous mantle material
fill the gap created by rollback. This is simply explained by the EXTRUSION TECTONICS MODEL
horizontal buoyancy force exerted on the subducting lithosphere
by the overriding plate, resulting from the larger potential energy In the extrusion tectonics model, arc formation and backarc
of the overriding plate with respect to the subducting lithosphere. extension are due to sideways escape of continental fragments
The subducting oceanic lithosphere always has a smaller poten- away from a continent-continent collision zone toward regions of
tial energy than the overriding plate. If the overriding plate is of low compression or low confinement (Fig. 4C). In this scenario,
a continental nature with normal crustal thickness (~30 km, ρcr maximum compression is oriented perpendicular to the axis of
= 2750 kg/m3, ρm = 3300 kg/m3), then ∆EP ≈ 2.0 × 1012 N/m. If the orogen. This model was first proposed by McKenzie (1972)
the overriding plate is of an oceanic nature with an arc with a 20- for the formation of the Hellenic arc and the Aegean Sea backarc
km-thick crust (ρcr = 2750 kg/m3, ρm = 3300 kg/m3), then ∆EP ≈ region, which supposedly formed due to the Arabia-Eurasia col-
0.9 × 1012 N/m. This buoyancy force will push the fore-arc sliver lision and escape of the Anatolian plate toward the west. This
toward the trench and will therefore not allow separation along model was later applied to the India-Eurasia collision zone and
the subduction interface. In addition, subduction-induced return the widespread deformation found in East Asia and along the East
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254 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Asian active margin (Molnar and Tapponnier, 1975; Tapponnier inside and close to the collision zone, but it seems mechanically
et al., 1982). In this model, the indentation of the Indian continent unsound to justify that during extrusion of a wedge, the push
into Eurasia led to thickening in front of the indenter (Himalayas, from the rear of the wedge can be transmitted to the leading edge
Tibet), the eastward escape of continental blocks (such as the of the wedge (arc), while at the same time producing extension in
Indo-China block), and widespread deformation in East Asia, the middle of the wedge (backarc). For example, how can extru-
with strike-slip faulting and the opening of several basins in a sion of orogenic wedges in the Eastern Alps produce shortening
pull apart fashion (Baikal rift, Shanxi graben, South China Sea). along the Carpathians simultaneously with extension in the Pan-
More recently, this model has been applied to the Eastern Alps, nonian Basin, especially since the Carpathian region has much
Pannonian Basin, and Carpathian arc (Ratschbacher et al., 1991). greater potential energy than the Pannonian region?
In this example, indentation of Adria into Europe would have led Additionally, timing can be invoked as a problem when
to eastward escape of continental blocks in the Eastern Alps and one wants to hold extrusion tectonics responsible for some
formation of the Pannonian Basin and the Carpathian arc. arc-backarc systems. For the Hellenic arc-backarc system,
The extrusion tectonics model has been supported by vari- extension in the Aegean region had already started in the latest
ous analogue models, such as plain strain models (Tapponnier et Oligocene or Early Miocene (ca. 25 Ma [Lister et al., 1984]),
al., 1982) and three-dimensional models scaled for gravity (Davy while collision between Arabia and the Eurasian continent
and Cobbold, 1988; Jolivet et al., 1990; Ratschbacher et al., 1991; started in the Middle to Late Miocene (Gautier et al., 1999). In
Martinod et al., 2000). In these models, a rigid indenter collided East Asia, the South China Sea region started extending in the
with a homogeneous or stratified layer representing the litho- latest Cretaceous (Northrup et al., 1995; Ren et al., 2002), while
sphere. The requirement for eastward extrusion of lithospheric the India-Eurasia collision started in the Early Eocene (Searle
blocks was the presence of a “free boundary” to the side of such et al., 1987). Thus, there is evidently a need for another mecha-
a collision zone (Tapponnier et al., 1982; Davy and Cobbold, nism to account for the formation of arcs and the extension in
1988; Jolivet et al., 1990; Ratschbacher et al., 1991), simulating a backarc basins in these regions.
subduction zone, supposedly a zone of low compressive stresses.
The role of such a “free boundary” in the analogue models was to OROGEN-PARALLEL COMPRESSION MODEL
give the lithosphere lateral isostatic support where it was unable
to apply or support any lateral deviatoric stresses. Alternatively, In the orogen-parallel compression model, compression ori-
one could consider the subduction margin to play an active role ented parallel to the axis of an orogen leads to outward bending of
in the extensional backarc deformation (i.e., rollback), instead of the orogen with formation of an extensional backarc basin on the
being passively pushed back. Indeed, slab rollback could be the concave side of the orogen (Fig. 4D) and shortening on the convex
main driving agent for widespread deformation in the Aegean side of the orogen. This model has been proposed for several arcs
Sea, the Pannonian Basin, and the East Asian region. in the Mediterranean, such as the Apennines-Calabria arc (Ghisetti
The extrusion model is probably not far from the truth and Vezzani, 1982; van der Linden, 1985; Mantovani et al., 1997a,
concerning extrusion of crustal or lithospheric wedges located 1997b), the Hellenic arc (Mantovani et al., 2000), the Betic-Rif–

Figure 11. Two additional conceptual models for orogen-parallel compression showing different structures. A. Horizontal compression of a
passive margin parallel to the margin, resulting in reactivation of normal faults as strike-slip faults and outward bending of the passive margin
toward the ocean-side, with compression in the fore-arc region and extension in the backarc region (modified from Gelabert et al., 2002). B.
Horizontal orogen-parallel compression resulting in various structures in the backarc region, opposite-side rotation on either side of the arc, and
arc-perpendicular faults close to the arc (modified from van Dijk and Okkes, 1991).
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Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc basins 255

Maghebrides–Calabria–Apennines system (Gelabert et al., 2002), compression model. Although it was concluded that the rollback
and the entire West Pacific arc-backarc system (Mantovani et al., model is the principal mechanism to drive progressive arc-forma-
2001). A number of conceptual models have been proposed for tion and backarc extension, it is likely that in some natural set-
this mechanism that mainly differ regarding the structural geom- tings the other mechanisms provide a contribution to the process
etries in the arc and backarc region that are expected to result from as well. For example, in the Alpine region, the potential energy
orogen-parallel compression (Fig. 4D and 11). of the Alpine crust and convergence between Adria and Europe
The orogen-parallel compression model is not a sound have promoted eastward movement of material in the Eastern
physical mechanism to explain the formation of arcs and backarc Alps. However, this movement was only allowed to occur due
structures for several reasons. First, it is unclear what happens to eastward rollback of the slab subducting along the Carpathian
during orogen-parallel compression to the lithosphere sur- arc. Slab rollback was responsible for the formation of the arcu-
rounding the orogen. The conceptual diagrams of Mantovani et ate shape of the Carpathians as well as back-arc extension in the
al. (2000) (Fig. 4D) do not offer any solution to this problem. Pannonian basin. It should be further emphasized that potential
Gelabert et al. (2002) show that the surrounding lithosphere is energy in subduction settings plays an important role during slab
shortened in a direction parallel to the orogen (Fig. 11A), but rollback. The higher potential energy of the volcanic arc or conti-
they do not offer any solution as to where such shortening is nental crust in the overriding plate with respect to the subducting
actually absorbed (e.g., local crustal thickening or subduction). oceanic plate will always promote spreading of the overriding
Second, the model would require the orogen to behave elasti- plate toward the subducting plate during slab rollback. Thus, slab
cally, while an orogen is generally a region with relatively small rollback will not result in separation between the overriding plate
integrated strength and high potential energy, due to its thick and subducting plate along the trench.
crust and warm average thermal gradient. This would imply We have argued that subduction rollback is the most likely
that the orogen would behave elastically only on a short scale candidate for the formation of arc-backarc systems, in which the
(~100 km). The orogen-parallel compression model would arc develops progressively from initially more rectilinear features
require the orogen to behave elastically with a characteristic half and shortening and extension occur simultaneously in relatively
wavelength of some thousand kilometers or more. For example, close proximity (tens to hundreds of kilometers). The physical
Mantovani et al. (1997a, 1997b) and Gelabert et al. (2002) have concept behind the slab rollback mechanism is simple: the slab is
suggested that orogen-parallel compression of the Oligocene on average denser than its surrounding mantle and will therefore
orogenic belt, striking NE-SW and running from the Betics to sink not only in a direction parallel to its dip but also perpendicu-
the Western Alps, resulted in the formation of the arcuate Betic- lar to it. At the surface, this will necessitate the oceanward migra-
Rif–Maghrebides–Calabrian–Apennines belt. The length of the tion of its hinge-line, resulting in extension of the overriding plate
Oligocene structure is ~1500 km. In addition, in this particular (i.e., backarc extension). Progressive arc formation results from
example, the amount of orogen-parallel convergence from the subduction of buoyant asperities on the subducting plate and
Late Oligocene to the Present between Africa and Europe near from rollback-induced lateral flow around the edges of the slab.
the Betic-Rif arc is <200 km (Rosenbaum et al., 2002b), which This buoyancy-driven rollback is a physically sound mechanism,
is much smaller than the maximum amount of arc migration of as demonstrated by physical and numerical modeling (Kincaid
~800 km during the same time interval (Faccenna et al., 2001a, and Olson, 1987; Shemenda, 1993; Faccenna et al., 1996, 2001a;
2001b; Rosenbaum et al., 2002a). Finally, it does not seem Becker et al., 1999; Schellart, 2003, 2004).
mechanically sound to assume that a linear orogen, embedded in The role of the buoyancy force in gravitational collapse
a lithospheric plate, would behave elastically in the plane of the might also be significant in driving radial collapse and extension
lithosphere. Rather, one would expect bending to occur only in a of thickened crust in orogenic belts, as these have a relatively
direction perpendicular to the lithospheric plane. large potential energy. However, in this scenario, one has to take
From the above-mentioned argument, it is concluded that into account a factor inhibiting collapse, which is often neglected:
the orogen-parallel compression model is not a physically sound the strength of the surrounding foreland. For gravitational col-
mechanism on the scale (~1000 km and over) for which it has been lapse to occur, the extending lithosphere has to be relatively
proposed to explain the formation of arc-backarc structures. thick and weak (warm), while the surrounding foreland has to be
relatively weak. Collapse and extension in Western Pacific style
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS arc-backarc settings is better viewed as an effect of slab rollback
rather than its cause (e.g., push back).
In this paper, four conceptual tectonic models were dis- Extrusion tectonics seems to occur only in orogens that are
cussed as possible driving mechanisms for the formation of laterally bounded by a zone that retreats during the extrusion. It is
arcs (arc-shaped topographic features such as orogens, volcanic not immediately clear if this boundary is retreating on its own or
arcs, and trenches) and backarc basins. These arc-backarc sys- is being actively pushed back by the extruding orogenic wedges.
tems occur on the scale of hundreds to thousands of kilometers. If the latter is true, then this would not explain the presence of a
These models are the gravitational collapse model, the rollback zone of extension in between the leading and trailing edges of the
model, the extrusion tectonics model, and the orogen-parallel extruded wedge.
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256 W.P. Schellart and G.S. Lister

Dewey, J.F., 1980, Episodicity, sequence, and style at convergent plate bound-
Orogen-parallel compression is not a sound physical mecha- aries, in Strangway, D.W., ed., The continental crust and its mineral
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Deformation 2; Comparison with the India-Asia collision zone: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 91, p. 3664–3676.
England, P.C., and Houseman, G.A., 1988, The mechanics of the Tibetan
The development of the ideas presented in this paper con- Plateau: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
cerning collapse, potential energy, and rollback benefited from Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, v. 326, p. 301–320.
discussions with M. Jessell, M. Krabbendam, M. Sandiford, K. England, P., and Houseman, G., 1989, Extension during continental conver-
gence, with application to the Tibetan Plateau: Journal of Geophysical
Stüwe, P. Rey, and G. Houseman. Constructive reviews from P. Research, v. 94, p. 17,561–17,579.
Cobbold and C. Faccenna are greatly appreciated. England, P.C., and Thompson, A.B., 1984, Pressure-temperature-time paths of
regional metamorphism; I, Heat transfer during the evolution of regions of
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Geological Society of America Special Papers

Tectonic models for the formation of arc-shaped convergent zones and backarc
basins
W.P Schellart and G.S Lister

Geological Society of America Special Papers 2004;383; 237-258

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