Geologi Struktur

Perkuliahan
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3. Nilai:
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Buku Rekomendasi
 Mata Kuliah Geologi Struktur
pertemuan Tanggal (2023) Materi Tugas
1 16 - 20 Januari Pendahuluan: Struktur Geologi & Aplikasi —
2 23 - 27 Januari Mekanisme Deformasi —
3 30 Januari - 3 Februari Struktur Geologi dan Stratigrafi —
4 6 - 10 Februari Kontak Stratigrafi —
5 13 - 17 Februari Analisa Kinematika dan Dinamika —
6 20 - 24 Februari Gaya dan Tekanan terhadap Material —
7 27 Februari - 3 Maret Struktur Geologi - Litosphere - Tektonik (Aktif) —
8 6 - 10 Maret UTS (30%)
9 12 - 16 Maret Shear Zones —
10 20 - 24 Maret Rekahan, kekar dan sesar —
11 27 - 31 Maret Patahan dan Lipatan —
12 3 - 7 April Interaksi Sesar - Lipatan —
13 10 - 14 April Foliasi, Cleavage and Lineation —
14 17 - 21 April Rekahan, kekar dan sesar —
15 24 - 28 April Aplikasi untuk hidrogeologi, mineral dan hidrokarbon —
16 1 - 5 Mei Aplikasi untuk geoteknik dan bencana —
8 - 12 Mei UAS
15 - 19 Mei Remedial / Batas Pemasukan Nilai
22 - 26 Mei
Stratigraphical Contact

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy#/media/File:SEUtahStrat.JPG
 Stratigraphic relationship

• Two types of contact:

conformable and unconformable.

• Conformable: unbroken deposition, no break

or hiatus (break or interruption in the continuity
of the geological record). The surface strata
resulting is called a conformity.

https://petgeo.weebly.com/geologic-time.html
Sharp, conformable sandstone bedding contact, near Terrace Bay,
Ontario, Canada.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bedding_contact.jpg
https://quizlet.com/ca/672640745/structural-geology-midterm-flash-cards/
 Stratigraphic relationship

• Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition (a break in

time in an otherwise continuous rock record).

• The surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity.

• There are four types of unconformity

https://www.geologyin.com/2015/10/types-of-
unconformities.html
 Angular unconformity
• Younger sediment lies upon an eroded surface of
tilted or folded older rocks. The older rock dips at a
different angle from the younger.
https://epod.usra.edu/blog/2015/01/angular-unconformity-at-telheiro-beach-portugal.html
 Disconformity

• An unconformity in which the strata above and below

the eroded surface are essentially parallel, indicating a
significant interruption in the orderly sequence of
sedimentary rocks, generally by a considerable interval
of erosion or sometimes of non-deposition.

• It is usually marked by irregular or uneven erosion

surface of appreciable relief.

• Unless the erosional surface separating the older from

the younger parallel beds is well defined or distinct, the
disconformity frequently resembles an ordinary
bedding plane.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Disconformity_Horni_Pocernice.jpg
 Paraconformity
• The bedding planes below and above the unconformity are
parallel.

• A time gap is present, as shown by a faunal break, but there

is no erosion, just a period of non-deposition.

http://rhaydenmazzrhezky.blogspot.com/2014/06/struktur-batuan-sedimen.html
https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/397935317048581179/
 Nonconformity
• Relatively young sediments are deposited right above
older igneous or metamorphic rocks.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/49277736082/in/photostream/
https://www.eoas.ubc.ca/courses/eosc326/resources/Stratigraphy/unconformities-v2.htm
 Hiatus
A break or interruption in the continuity of the geologic record, such
as the absence in a stratigraphic sequence of rocks that would normally
be present but either were never deposited or were eroded before
deposition of the overlying beds.
http://web.arc.losrios.edu/~borougt/GeologicDatingDiagrams.htm
Unconformity in Seismic Images

https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Picking_unconformities
Unconformity in Seismic Images

https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Picking_unconformities
Introduction of Geophysical Survey
GEOLISTRIK

http://www.arctic-geophysics.com/methods_resistivity_2D.html
Sumber: http://www.enviroscan.com/
Sumber: http://www.enviroscan.com/
Gamma Ray - summary of responses
• Lithology indicator -
but not unique (high
K minerals appear as
shales)

• Not F dependent

• “Cleaning”, not
fining trends

WELL
LOGGING

From Rider (2002)

 WELL
LOGGING
 Pemboran
(Drilling)

http://info-pertambangan.blogspot.com/2012/10/pelaksanaan-pekerjaan-pemboran.html
https://csegrecorder.com/articles/view/chasing-density-an-introduction-to-seismic-acquisition-processing
https://unipetrotek.com/
Marine and land seismic acquisition

http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/06/marine-and-land-seismic-aquisition.html
Marine and land seismic acquisition

http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/06/marine-and-land-seismic-aquisition.html
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277176911_Gas_Bearing_Prospect_Identification_by_Integrated_Seismic_and_Petrop
hysical_Interpretation_Using_Effective_Pore_Space_Approach/figures?lo=1
 Seismic profiles of the nonconformity between the
Carboniferous and Permian Jiamuhe Formation.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265470274_Kinematics_of_syn-
tectonic_unconformities_and_implications_for_the_tectonic_evolution_of_the_Hala%27alat_Mountains_at_the_northwestern_margin_of_the_Junggar_Basin_Central_As
ian_Orogenic_Belt/figures?lo=1
 Seismic profiles of the unconformity at the base of the Triassic.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265470274_Kinematics_of_syn-
tectonic_unconformities_and_implications_for_the_tectonic_evolution_of_the_Hala%27alat_Mountains_at_the_northwestern_margin_of_the_Junggar_Basin_Central_As
ian_Orogenic_Belt/figures?lo=1
Unconformity in Seismic Images

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019TC005523
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley
.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019TC0055
23
 Generating Models

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019TC005523
 Back to Stratigraphical (bedding) Contacts:
Gradual and Sharp Contacts

• Bedding contacts can be gradational (gradual) or sharp

(abrupt).

• If the contact is not very well defined and appears gradational,

that means that sediments were deposited gradually.

• If the contact is sharp, that means that there was a rapid

change in sediment type.

• One example of a cause of rapid change is the storms that

frequently destroyed benthic communities. These disturbances
removed all fine matter, leaving the coarse to settle down. This
would later cause a sharp bedding contact.
Gradual and Sharp Contacts
Gradual and Sharp Contacts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_%28geology%29
Gradual and Sharp Contacts

https://www.gov.nl.ca/iet/files/mines-outreach-education-features-gradedlg.jpg
 Gradual and Sharp Contacts

https://sites.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/5SedimentaryRocks/SedStructures/GradedBedding/ReverseGradedBishopTuffLake.JPG
Gradual and Sharp Contacts
Sedimentary Structures

https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ts/2016/10/17/soft-sediment-structures-slumps-and-flames/
Bedding Surfaces

https://slideplayer.com/slide/1554400/
 Struktur Perlapisan Batuan Sedimen

• Perlapisan adalah sifat utama dari batuan sediment hasil dari

proses pengendapan yang menghasilkan bidang-bidang batas
satuan sedimentasi.

• Lapisan adalah satuan stratigrafi terkecil (mm – m) terdiri atas

satu macam batuan yang homogen dibatasi pada bagian bawah
dan atas oleh bidang perlapisan.

• Bidang perlapisan adalah bidang yang membatasi dua lapisan

batuan atau lebih.
 Struktur Perlapisan Batuan Sedimen

• Batuan sedimen merupakan jenis batuan yang terbentuk

akibat proses pengendapan. Pengendapan tersebut
diakibatkan oleh berbagai tenaga pengangkut seperti air, angin
dan es.

• Perbedaan tenaga dan lingkungan pengendapan

mengakibatkan struktur perlapisan pada batuan sedimen
menjadi beranekaragam bentuk.
Struktur Perlapisan Batuan Sedimen

http://earthsci.org/mineral/rockmin/sed/sed.html
Soft Sediment Structures – Flame Structures

https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ts/2016/10/17/soft-sediment-structures-slumps-and-flames/
Soft sediment deformation (Slump)

https://blogs.egu.eu/divisions/ts/2016/10/17/soft-sediment-structures-slumps-and-flames/
 Symmetrical ripple marks

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/
 Asymmetrical ripple marks

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/
Ripple marks

https://imgur.com/gallery/E8zcI
Cross-bedding from ancient sand dunes

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/
A sketch and an example of graded bedding

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/
Laminar and wavy cross bedding

https://www.flickr.com/photos/nchazarra/4395968501
 Mudcracks

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/

Mudcracks, also called desiccation cracks, form

when wet sediment, typically clay-rich, dries out
Mudcracks with raindrops impressions

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/
 Sole Marks - Flute Casts

https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-sedimentary-structures/

Flute casts are common structures created by turbidity currents. The movement of
these sediment avalanches underwater can scour the ocean floor, creating an
elongated impression.
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/turbidity.html
Turbidites, Contourites & Pelagic

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/contourite
 Flame Structures

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340827344_Earthquake-induced_deformation_structures_in_glacial_sediments-
evidence_on_fault_reactivation_and_instability_at_the_Vaalajarvi_fault_in_northern_Fennoscandia/figures?lo=1
 Pengantar: Analisa
Kinematika & Dinamika

https://keckcaves.org/structural-geology/
 Stress, strain and deformation
• Stress is the main cause of deformation in the crustal rocks.
• The stress (σ) is the force (F) per unit area (A) of the acting plane σ =F/A
Stress(σ) =force/area
=mass*acceleration/area
=kg.m.s-2/m²=Newton/m²=
N/ m²=Pascal (Pa)????

Sign of stress:
+ve: in case of compression.
-ve: in case of tensions.

•
•Deformation refers to any change in shape, volume, position, or orientation of
a body resulting from the application of a differential stress.
Deformation in general has three components: -

• Translation: movement of rock from place to

another ( i.e fault)

• Rotation: pivoting of a body around a fixed

axis (i.e fold)

• Strain: change in volume (dilation) and/or

change in shape (distortion) of a rock.
Strain is of two types:

1. Homogeneous strain: the

deformation is the same throughout the rock.

2. Heterogeneous strain: the

deformation is different throughout the rock.
 Structure analysis
What do structural geologists do?
Structural geologists do structural analysis, which
involves many activities such as:

1. Descriptive analysis:
The characterization of the shape and
appearance of geologic structures.

Attitude, strike, dip angle, dip direction ,plunge, trend,

rake (pitch), apparent dip, trace, cross section,
profile plane……
2. Kinematic analysis:
Involve the determination of the movement paths that rocks
or parts of rocks have taken during transformation from the
undeformed to deformed state. (use of features in rocks to
define the direction of movement on a fault).

3. Dynamic analysis:
Involve development of an understanding of how stress
related to deformation (stress and its direction).

4. Strain analysis:
The development of mathematical tools to quantifying the
strain in a rock.
5. Deformation – Mechanism analysis:
The study of processes on the grain scale to atomic
scale that allow structures to develop , ex: sliding,
fracturing, plasticity.

6. Tectonic analysis:
The study of the relation between structure and global
tectonic process: divergent, convergent, transform.
 Structural Analysis and Scales of
Observation

1. Descriptive analysis (shape and appearance,

vocabulary, 3D orientation).
2. Kinematic analysis (define the direction of
movement)
3. Strain analysis (quantifying the strain (maths)).
4. Dynamic analysis (How stress is related to
deformation, used microstructure).

5. Deformation – mechanism analysis (structural

development in grain to atomic scale, fracture
and flow of the rock).

6. Tectonic analysis (relation between structure

and global tectonic).
 We used four relative scales of
observations

Scale of observation
1. Micro scale (thin section): microscope
2. Meso scale (isolated outcrop): hammer
3. Macro scale (regional): helicopter
4. Mega scale (plate): Satellite, Global
Positioning System (GPS)
• Good observation, recognition
and description of rocks and
their structure are very
important for field analysis.
 Some guideline for the
interpretation of deformed area
• Law of original horizontality (bed deposited
horizontally).
• Law of superposition (strata follow one another
in chronological).
• Stratigraphical continuity for the same
lithological sequence.
• Sharp discontinuities in lithological pattern are
faults, unconformities or intrusive contacts.
• Deformed area can be subdivided into a
number of region contain consistent structural
attitude (structural domain).

• Additional subsurface data (drilling, seismic

and other geophysical techniques) are important
for structural geologist interpretation.

• It is important to imagine all geological structure

in a MODEL 3D and even more than that.
 References

• Anonim, 2021, Struktur Perlapisan Batuan, esaunggul.ac.id

• Geologyhub, 2022, Unconformity and different types in Geology
• https://geologyscience.com/geology/stratigraphy; Stratigraphy
• https://www.mindat.org/glossary/hiatus, Definition of Hiatus
• Masdouq Al-Taj, 2015, Structural Geology, The Hashemite University, Faculty of
Nat. Res. and Env., Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
• The Karl E. Limper Geology Museum, 2023, Characteristics of Local Bedrock,
https://miamioh.edu/cas/academics/centers/limper-museum/local-
geology/history/bedrock
 Selesai

Pegunungan Pyrenees, Spanyol