CHAPTER OUTLINE

• Introduction

• Rock Deformation-How Does It Occur?

• GEOLOGY IN UNEXPECTED PLACES: Ancient Ruins and Geology

• Strike and Dip-the Orientation of Deformed Rock Layers

• Deformation and Geologic Structures

• GEO-FOCUS 10.1: Geologic Maps-Their Construction and Uses

• Deformation and the Origin of Mountains

• Earth’s Continental Crust

• Geo-Recap
 CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Rock deformation involves changes in the shape or volume or both of rocks in
response to applied forces.

• Geologists use several criteria to differentiate among geologic structures such

as folds, joints, and faults.

• Correctly interpreting geologic structures is important in human endeavors

such as constructing highways and dams, choosing sites for power plants, and
finding and extracting some resources.

• Deformation and the origin of geologic structures are important in the origin
and evolution of mountains.

• Most of Earth’s large mountain systems formed, and in some cases continue to
form, at or near the three types of convergent plate boundaries.

• Terranes have special significance in mountain building.

• Earth’s continental crust, and especially mountains, stands higher than

adjacent crust because of its composition and thickness.
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 CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Folded and fractured rocks have been deformed or strained by applied stresses.

• Stress is compression, tension, or shear. Elastic strain is not permanent, but

plastic strain and fracture are, meaning that rocks return to their original shape
or volume when the deforming forces are removed.

• Strike and dip are used to define the orientation of deformed rock layers. This
same concept applies to other planar features such as fault planes.

• Anticlines and synclines are up- and down-arched folds, respectively. They are
identified by strike and dip of the folded rocks and the relative ages of rocks in
the cores of these folds.

• Domes and basins are the circular to oval equivalents of anticlines and
synclines, but they are commonly much larger structures.

• The two structures that result from fracture are joints and faults. Joints may
open up but they show no movement parallel with the fracture surface, whereas
faults do show movement parallel with the fracture surface.

• Joints are very common and form in response to compression, tension, and
shear.
 CHAPTER SUMMARY

• On dip-slip faults, all movement is up or down the dip of the fault. If the hanging
wall moves relatively down it is a normal fault, but if the hanging wall moves up
it is a reverse fault. Normal faults result from tension; reverse faults from
compression.

• In strike-slip faults, all movement is along the strike of the fault. These faults are
either right-lateral or left-lateral, depending on the apparent direction of offset of
one block relative to the other.

• Oblique-slip faults show components of both dip-slip and strike-slip movement.

• A variety of processes account for the origin of mountains. Some involve little
or no deformation, but the large mountain systems on the continents resulted
from deformation at convergent plate boundaries.

• A volcanic island arc, deformation, igneous activity, and metamorphism

characterize orogenies at oceanic oceanic plate boundaries, whereas
subduction at an oceanic-continental plate boundary also results in orogeny.
 CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Some mountain systems are within continents far from a present-day plate
boundary. These mountains formed when two continental plates collided and
became sutured.

• Geologists now realize that orogenies also involve collisions of terranes with
continents.

• Continental crust is characterized as granitic, and it is much thicker and less

dense than oceanic crust that is composed of basalt and gabbro.

• According to the principle of isostasy, Earth’s crust floats in equilibrium in the

denser mantle below. Continental crust stands higher than oceanic crust
because it is thicker and less dense.