Chapter 1 : The design Approach

DEVELOPMENT OF WORKINC STRESS AND ULTIMATE

STRENGTH DESIGN PROCEDURES
Working Stress Design (Elastic Theory)

The sections of the members of the structure arc designed assuming straight-line stress-strain
relationships ensuring that at service loads the stresses in the steel and the concrete do not exceed
the allowable working stresses. The allowable stresses are taken as fixed proportions of the
ultimate or yield strength of the materials.

Ultimate Strength Design

The sections of the members of the structures are designed taking inelastic strains into account to
reach ultimate (maximum) strength. Typical load factors used in practice are 1.4 for dead load
and 1.7 for live load. Some of the reasons for trend towards ultimate strength design are :

1. Reinforced concrete sections behave inelastically at high loads; hence elastic theorv
cannot give a reliable prediction of the ultimate strength of the members because
inelastic strains are not taken into account. For structures designed by the working stress
method. therefore, the exact load factor (ultimate load/service load) is unknown and
varies from structure to structure.
2. Ultimate strength design allows a more rational selection of the load factors. For
example, a low load factor may be used for loading known more exactly, such as dead
load, and a higher load factor for less certain loads. Such as live load.
3. he stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear and is time dependent. For example. the
creep strains for concrete under constant sustained stress may be several times the initial
elastic strain.
4. Ultimate strength design utilizes reserves of strength resulting from a more efficient
distribution of stresses allowed by inelastic strains, and at times it indicates the working
stress method to be very conservative.
5. Ultimate strength design makes more efficient use of high strength reinforcement. and
smaller beam depths can be used without compression steel.
6. Ultimate strength design allows the designer to assess the ductility of the structure in the
postelastic range.
DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY

More recently it has been recognized that the design approach for reinforced concrete ideally
should combine the best features of ultimate strength and working stress design. This is desirable
because if sections are proportioned by ultimate strength requirements alone, there is a danger
that although the load factor is adequate. the cracking and the deflections at the service loads
may be excessive.

The most important limit states were: strength at ultimate load, deflections at service load,
and crack widths at service load Thus ultimate strength theory is becoming the predominant
approach for proportioning sections, with elastic theory used only for ensuring serviceability. In
this book the strength and serviceability approach of the 1971 ACI code is adopted.

ACI STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY DESIGN METHOD

a. Strength Provisions

Strength provtsions for structural safety into two parts, load factors and capacity reduction
factors.

Load Factors

Load factors are intended to ensure adequate safety against an increase in service loads
beyond loads specified in design so that failure is extremely unlikely. Load factors also help
to ensure that the deformations at the service load are not excessive. The load factors are
different for various types of loading because, for instance. the dead load of a structure is less
likely to be exceeded than the prescribed live load. The ultimate load of the structure should
at least equal the sum of each service load multiplied by its respective load factor.

dead load D and live load L be at least equal to : U= 1.4D + 1.7L

when wind load W is to be considered: U= 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W)

when L having its full value or zero : U= 0.9D + 1.3L

Capacity Reduction Factors

Capacity reduction factors Φ are provided to allow for approximations in the calculations
and variations in the material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions. The dependable or
reliable strength of the section .to he used in the design calculations is taken as the ideal
strength multipede by Φ where the value for the capacity reduction factor Φ depends on the
Importance of the variable quantities.

b. Serviceability Provisions

The assessment of the performance of the structure at the service load is an extremely
important consideration when members are proportioned on the basis of the required
strength. This is because members with small sections. and sections with little compression
steel can satisfy the strength requirements but lead to high stresses and deformations at the
service load.

c. Ductility Provisions

It is important to ensure that in the extreme event of a structure being loaded to failure. it will
behave in a ductile manner. This means ensuring that the structure will not fail in a brittle
fashion without warning but will be capable of large deformations at near-maximum load
carrying capacity. The large deflections at near-maximum load give ample warning or
failure, and by maintaining load carrying capacity, total collapse may be prevented and lives
saved. The 1971 ACI code 1.2 makes recommendations for longitudinal steel contents that
result in ductile sections. and it allows some redistribution of bending moments from the
clastic moment diagram. Also. for the first time, the code includes an appendix giving special
provisions for seismic design.

CONSIDERATIONS OF MEMBER STRENGTH

a. Development of Member Strength

In design it is often necessary to evaluate the possible upper and lower bounds of the likely
strength of structural components. This is the case when a desired sequence of strength
attainment in the members of a structure loaded to failure is to be ensured. For example, at a
beam-column joint in a continuous frame, if a column failure with its possible catastrophic
consequences is to be avoided, it is always desirable to develop the strength of the beam
before the strength of the column.
Real structures contain variations in the strengths of the concrete and steel from the specified
values, and there are unavoidable deviations from the specified dimensions because of
constructional tolerances. Also, assumptions have been made in the derivation of the strength
equations. Hence it is difficult-to calculate exactly the real strength of a structure; but it is
possible to define levels of possible strength of members, which can be used in various types
of design calculations.

b. Ideal Strength S,

The ideal or nominal strength of a section of a member S, is obtained from theory predicting
the failure behavior of the section and on assumed section geometry and specified material
strengths. The major part of this book deals with the derivation of the ideal strength, to which
other st rength levels can be conveniently related.

c. Dependable Strength Sd

The purpose of the capacity reduction factor Φ was outlined. The capacity reduction factor
allows the dependable or reliable strength Sd to be related to the ideal strength by : Sd = Φ si
where the capacity reduction factor, is less than 1.

d. Probable Strength Sp
The probable strength Sp takes into account the fact that the materials strengths are generally
greater than the specified strengths. The probable strengths of the materials can be obtained
from routine testing, normally conducted during construction of the structure. If the
information is required at the design stage. it must be based on previous experience with the
materials.

e. Overstrength S

The overstrength So takes into account all the possible factors that may cause a strength
increase. These include a steel strength higher than the specified yield strength plus
additional steel strength due to strain hardening at large deformations, a concrete strength
higher than specified, section sizes larger than assumed, axial compression in flexural
members due to lateral restraint, and additional reinforcement placed for construction
purposes or unaccounted for in calculations.
Chapter 2 : Stress-Strain Relationships For Concrete and Steel

I. Concrete
a. Uniaxial Stress Behavior

Under practical conditions concrete is seldom stressed in one direction only (uniaxial stress).
since in most structural situations the concrete is stressed simultaneously in a number of
directions. Nevertheless. an assumed uniaxial, stress condition can be justified in many cases.

Compressive Stress Behavior

The compressive strcngt h of concrete is usually obtained from cylinders with a height to
diameter ratio of 2. The cylinders are loaded longitudinally at a slow strain rate to reach
maximum stress in 2 or 3 minutes. The normal standard cylinder is 12 in (305 mm) high by 6
in (152 mm) diameter and the compressive strength attained at 21i days usually ranges
between 2000 and 8000 psi (13.8 to 55.2 N mm^2) Smaller size cylinders, or cubes, are also
used, particularly for production control, and the compressive strength of these units is
higher.

Ruch who has conducted long-term-Loading tests on unconfined concrete, has found that the
sustained load compressive strength is approximately 80 '~o of the short-term strength, where
the short-term strength is the strength of an identically old and identically cast specimen that
is loaded to failure over a 1O-minute period when the specimen under sustained load has
collapsed. In practice, concrete strengths considered in the design of structures are usually
based on the anticipated short-term strength at 28 days. The strength reduction due to long-
term loading will be at least partly offset by the property of concrete to reach a higher
strength at greater ages. .Also. the capacity reduction factor Φ is low when the compressive
strength 01 concrete is critical. Creep strains due to long-term loading cause modification in
the shape of the stress-strain curve.

Tensile Stress Behavior

The tensi le strength of concrete. generally, less than 20% of the compressive strength, can be
obtained directly from tension specimens. However, because of the difficulties of holding the
specimens to achieve axial tension and the uncertainties of secondary stresses induced by the
holding devices. The direct tension tcst is infrequently used, even for research purposes. The
tensile strength of concrete may be measured indirectly in terms of the computed tensile
stress at which a cylinder placed horizontally in a testing machine and loaded along a
diameter will split. The method of test and the stresses induced along the loaded diameter, as
found from the theory of elasticity.

Poisson's Ratio

Poisson's ratio, is usually found to be in the range 0.15 to 0.20 for concrete. However, values
between 0.10 and 0.30 have been determined. No reliable information appears to exist
regarding the variation of Poisson's ratio with the concrete properties, but it is generally
considered that Poisson's ratio is lower for high-strength concrete.

b. Combined Stress Behavior

In many structu rul situat ions concrete is su bjcctcd to direct and shear stresses acting in a
number of directions, Modifications of the conventional theories of strength of materials
have been attempted, but no single theory is accurately applicable to all cases. In many
applications, however, one of the simpler theories of failure gives sufficient accuracy.

Biaxial Stress Behavior

A biaxial stress condition occurs if the principal stresses act only ill two directions: that is,
the stresses act in one plane and the third principal stress is zero.

Triaxial Compressive Stress Behavior

The strength and ductility of concrete are greatly increased under conditions of triaxial
compression.

c. Concrete Confinement by Reinforcement

concrete may be confined by transverse reinforcement, commonly in the form 01' closely
spaced steel spirals or hoops. In this case, at low levels of stress ill the concrete, the
 transverse reinforcement is hardly stressed; hence the concrete is unconfined. The concrete
becomes confined when at stresses approaching the uniaxial strength, the transverse strains
become very high because of prugrcsxi vc intcrnul crack ing and the concrete bears out
against the transverse reinforcement, which then applies a confining reaction to the concrete.

d. Creep of Concrete

The final creep strain may be several times as large as the initial elastic strain. Generally
creep has little effect on the strength of a structure, but it will cause a redistribution of stress
in reinforced concrete members at the service loads, and lead to an increase in the service
load deflections. Creep deformations arc beneficial in some cases. For example, concrete
stresses due to differential settlement of structures are reduced by creep. Creep in tension
also delays shrinkage cracking in concrete.

II. Steel Reinforcement

a. Bar Shape and Size

Steel reinforcing bars arc generally round in cross section. To restrict longitudinal movement
of the bars relative to the surrounding concrete, lugs or protrusions called deformations are
rolled on to the bar surface. Minimum requirements for the deformations (spacing, height.
and circumferential coverage) have been established by experimental research and arc
indicated by steel specifications.

b. Monotonic Stress Behavior

Typical stress-strain curves for steel bars used in reinforced concrete construction were
obtained from steel bars loaded monotonically in tension. The curves exhibit an initial linear
elastic portion, a yield plateau., a yield point beyond which the strain increases with little or
no increase in stress), a strain-hardening range in which stress again increases with strain,
and finally a range in which the stress drops off until fracture occurs.

c. Repeated Stress Behavior

stress-strain curve for a steel specimen loaded either in axial tension or in compression to
failure in a single loading run. If the load is released before failure, the specimen will recover
along a stress-strain path that is parallel to the original elastic portion of the curve. If loaded
again, the specimen will follow the same path up to the original curve. The virgin curve is
then closely followed, as if unloading had not occurred. Hence the monotonic stress-strain
curve gives a good idealization for the envelope curve for repeated loading of the same sign.

d. Reversed Stress Behavior

If reversed (tension-compression) axial loading is applied to a steel specimen in the yield

range.