1.

1 Patterns and Number in Nature

This lesson presents the nature of mathematics. It reveals hidden beautiful patterns
found in nature and introduce the famous mathematical number sequence that is related to
nature.

1.1.1. Nature of Mathematics

The word mathematics comes from the Greek word “máthēma” (noun) which
means "learning”. Mathematics has no universally accepted definition (Tobies, 2012).
According to Webster’s dictionary, “Mathematics is the science of number and their
operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations and abstractions and of space
configurations and generalizations.
Here are some definitions of mathematics from famous mathematicians:
o Mathematics is the science of quantity. – Aristotle
o Mathematics is the language in which god has written in the universe. - Galileo
o The science of indirect measurement. - Auguste Comte
o Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns. - Walter
Warwick Sawyer
o Mathematics is our one and only strategy for understanding the complexity of
nature. – Ralph Abraham
o Mathematics is a formal system of thought for recognizing, classifying, and
exploiting patterns and relationships. - Stewart

It can be seen that the definition of mathematics changes according to a specific

lens. Thus, mathematics maybe defined as the study of patterns which may be numerical,
logical or geometric. Mathematics as the study of patterns will be the focus of our lesson.
1.1.2. Patterns in Nature

Mathematics shapes the world around us! One of the things about Mathematics that
we love the most is its uncanny ability to reveal hidden beautiful patterns in our everyday
life, the nature around us.
What number comes next in
0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?

What is the pattern used in getting the next number?

A pattern is an organized arrangement of objects in space or time. It is something
that is repeated either exactly or according to recognizable transformations. It is the
opposite of chaos.
Natural patterns include symmetry, stripe, spot, crack, spiral, tessellation, foam,
wave, dunes and fractal.
 Symmetry is when a shape looks identical to its original shape after being flipped
or turned. The two main types of symmetry are reflective and rotational. Reflective, or line,
symmetry means that one half of an image is the mirror image of the other half (think of a
butterfly's wings). Rotational symmetry means that the object or image can be turned
around a center point and match itself for some number of times (as in a five-pointed star).
Crack are linear openings that form in materials to relieve stress. The pattern of
cracks indicates whether the material is elastic or not. Some examples are old pottery
surface, drying inelastic mud, and palm trunk with branching vertical cracks.
Tesselation or tiling forms a class of patterns found in nature. The arrays of
hexagonal cells in a honeycomb or the diamond-shaped scales of snake skin are natural
examples of tessellation patterns.
Fractal pattern is when an object exhibits self-similar shape or form at any scale
and repeat itself overtime. Trees are natural fractals, patterns that repeat smaller and smaller
copies of themselves to create the biodiversity of a forest.
Here are some examples of patterns we see in nature.

Fig 1. The tiger face shows a bilateral symmetry Fig 2. Phyllotaxis of spiral aloe

Fig 3. Honeycomb is a natural tessellation Fig 4. Stripes of a zebra

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
Fig 5. Branching pattern of a tree is a fractal Fig 6. Palm trunk with branching vertical cracks

Fig 7. Foam of soap bubbles Fig 8. Spots of a Leopard

Fig 9. Breaking wave in a ship's wake Fig 10. Patterns form as wind blows sand in the dunes
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_in_nature
 1.1.3. Numbers in Nature

The natural world is full of sets of numbers. The Fibonacci sequence (0, 1, 1, 2, 3,
5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 and so on), that is, it follows a trivial logic in which the next number is
derived by adding the two numbers before it. It is a simple pattern, but it appears to be a
built-in numbering system of the universe.
An interesting fact is that the number of petals on a flower always turns out to be a
fibonacci number!

Fig 11. Fibonacci Numbers on Flowers

Another example is if you look at the bottom of pine cone, and count clockwise and
anti-clockwise the number of spirals, they turn out to be adjacent fibonacci numbers.

Fig 12. Fibonacci Numbers on the Bottom of Pine Cone

Source:https://medium.com/math-%CF%80rates/beauty-of-numbers-and-patterns-a-world-shaped-by-math-
71d240c4ee05
 The head of a flower is also subject to Fibonaccian processes. Typically, seeds are
produced at the center, and then migrate towards the outside to fill all the space.

Fig 13. Fibonaccian Process on the Head of Flower

Source: https://io9.gizmodo.com/15-uncanny-examples-of-the-golden-ratio-in-nature-5985588

The unique properties of the Golden Rectangle provides another example. This
shape, a rectangle in which the ratio of the sides a/b is equal to the golden mean (phi), can
result in a nesting process that can be repeated into infinity — and which takes on the form
of a spiral. It's called the logarithmic spiral, and it abounds in nature.
Snail shells and nautilus shells follow the logarithmic spiral, as does the cochlea of
the inner ear. It can also be seen in the horns of certain goats, and the shape of certain
spider's webs.

Fig 14. Logarithmic Spiral of Snail Shell

1.2. The Fibonacci Sequence and The Golden Ratio
This lesson presents a general view of mathematical sequence, Fibonacci sequence
and Golden Ratio. It explains the existence of Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio in
nature.
1.2.1. Sequence
A sequence is an ordered list of numbers; the numbers in this ordered list are called
the elements or the terms of the sequence. The arrangement of these terms is set by a
definite rule. If a1, a2, a3, a4,……… etc. denote the terms of a sequence, then 1, 2, 3, 4, …
denotes the position of the term.
A sequence can be defined based upon the number of terms i.e. either finite
sequence or infinite sequence. If a1, a2, a3, a4, ……. is a sequence, then the corresponding
series is given as:
Sn = a1+a2+a3 + ... + an
Example 1. Describe the following sequences.
1. {1, 2, 3, 4,…} is a very simple sequence (and it is an infinite sequence)
2. {20, 25, 30, 35, …} is also an infinite sequence.
3. {1, 3, 5, 7} is the sequence of the first 4 odd numbers (and is a finite
sequence)
4. {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …} is an infinite sequence where every term doubles
5. {a, b, c, d, e} is the sequence of the first 5 letters alphabetically.

The two simplest sequences to work with are arithmetic and geometric
sequences.
An arithmetic sequence is a list of numbers with a definite pattern. If you take
any number in the sequence then subtract it by the previous one, and the result is always
the same or constant then it is an arithmetic sequence.

The constant difference in all pairs of consecutive or successive numbers in a

sequence is called the common difference, denoted by the letter d. Then use the common
difference to go from one term to another. How? Take the current term and add the common
difference to get to the next term, and so on. That is how the terms in the sequence are
generated.

Example 2. Find the next term in the sequence below.

2, 5, 8,11,14, ___
 The common difference of the sequence is 3, therefore the next term will be
14+3=17. The answer is 17.

Example 3. Find the common difference and the next term of the following
sequence:

3, 11, 19, 27, 35, ...

To find the common difference, subtract a successive pair of terms. It doesn't

matter which pair to pick, as long as they're right next to each other.

11 – 3 = 8
19 – 11 = 8
27 – 19 = 8
35 – 27 = 8
The difference is always 8, so the common difference is d = 8.

Five terms are given, so the sixth term of the sequence is going to be the very next
term. To find the next term, add the common difference d, to the fifth term:
35 + 8 = 43
Thus, the sixth term is 43.

A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the first is
found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-zero number called the common
ratio.

A geometric sequence goes from one term to the next by always multiplying (or
dividing) by the same value. So 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,... is geometric, because each step multiplies
by two;

The number multiplied (or divided) at each stage of a geometric sequence is called
the "common ratio" r, because dividing (that is, if you find the ratio of) successive terms,
the value are the same.

Example 4. Find the common ratio and the seventh term of the following
sequence:
2 2
, , 2, 6, 18 …
9 3
To find the common ratio, divide a successive pair of terms.
 2
(3) 2 9
= ∗ =3
2 3 2
(9)

(2) 2 3
= ∗ =3
2
(3) 1 2

(6)
=3
(3)

(18)
=3
(6)

The ratio is always 3, so r = 3.

Since the problem has given five terms, the sixth term is the very next term; the
seventh will be the term after that. To find the value of the seventh term, multiply the fifth
term by the common ratio twice:

a6 = (18)(3) = 54
a7 = (54)(3) = 162

Thus, the common ratio: r = 3 and the seventh term is 162.

1.2.2. The Fibonacci Sequence

What’s the Real Story behind this famous sequence?
Fig 15. A page of Fibonacci's
Liber Abaci from
the Biblioteca Nazionale di
Firenze showing the Fibonacci
sequence (in the box on the
right)."
The exact origination of the Fibonacci sequence is
unknown. It was believed the contribution of the theory began
in 200 BC by Indian mathematics whose studies were based
on Sanskrit prosody. Many sources claim it was first
discovered or "invented" by Leonardo Fibonacci. The Italian
mathematician, who was born around A.D. 1170, was
originally known as Leonardo of Pisa. In 1202 Leonardo of
Pisa published the massive tome "Liber Abaci". "Liber Abaci"
laid out Hindu-Arabic arithmetic useful for tracking profits,
losses, remaining loan balances and so on. In the "Liber
Abaci," Fibonacci poses this mathematical problem: if a pair
of rabbits breeds once a month, and each pair they produce can
also breed new pairs at one month old, how many pairs of
rabbits will be bred in a year, starting with the one pair? The
answer is contained in a sequence that begins 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
and continues, working out to 377 pairs by the end of the year.
The principle of the sequence is that it is built by adding two adjacent terms to get the next
term to add to the series. Indian scholars had already studied the sequence in the century
before Fibonacci published the "Liber Abaci" and he didn't claim it as his own, but because
he introduced it to the West, the sequence is associated with him. It was French
mathematician Edouard Lucas who named it the Fibonacci sequence in the late 1800s.
The Fibonacci sequence is a set of
numbers that starts with a one or a zero,
followed by a one, and proceeds based on the
rule that each number (called a Fibonacci
number) is equal to the sum of the preceding
two numbers. If the Fibonacci sequence is
denoted F (n), where n is the first term in the
sequence, the following equation obtains
for n = 0, where the first two terms are
defined as 0 and 1 by convention:
Fig 16. Fibonacci and Rabbit Breeding
F (0) = 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ...

In some texts, it is customary to use n = 1. In that case, the first two terms are
defined as 1 and 1 by default, and therefore:

F (1) = 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55 ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:
• the 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),
• the 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
• the 5 is (2+3),
• and so on!

Example 5. Find the next number on the given Fibonacci 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21,
34, 55 ....
The next number in the sequence above is 34 +55 = 89
The Fibonacci spiral also known as
golden spiral has an association with the golden
mean, and it is based on the Fibonacci sequence.
Fibonacci spiral is also reefed to as golden
spiral. In logarithm, it means a logarithmic
spiral which gets wider by a factor of ɸ after
making a quarter turn. A Fibonacci spiral having
an initial radius of 1 has a polar equation similar Fig 17. Fibonacci Spiral
to that of other logarithmic spirals.
 Fibonacci spiral is based on Fibonacci numbers, which are a set of numbers
arranged in integer sequences referred to as the Fibonacci sequence. These numbers are
characterized in such a way that each of the numbers after the first two numbers represent
the sum of two numbers before it. The first two numbers in the sequence can either be 0
and 1 or 1 and 1. The starting point notwithstanding, the subsequent number is always the
sum of the two numbers before it. The sequence of these numbers can be defined by what
is termed the Recurrence Relation.
Fibonacci's sequence is all around us. In nature, the number of petals on a flower is
usually a Fibonacci number, the branches of the tress follows the Fibonacci sequence, and
the spiraling growth of a sea shell progresses at the same rate as the Fibonacci sequence,
in art, music and architecture.

Fig 18. Fibonacci in Flowers petals. Fig 19. Fibonacci in Tree Branches Fig 20. Fibonacci in Music
https://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=Awr https://botanicamathematica.files.wo https://fibonacci.com/wp-
wJTRKxw9fLlIAKoxmIYpQ;_ rdpress.com/2014/04/fibonacci- content/uploads/2019/01/P
1.2.3. The Golden Ratio tree.png iano-Keys-Fibonacci.png

Golden ratio, also known as the golden section, golden mean, or divine
proportion, in mathematics, the irrational number (1 + √5)/2, often denoted by the Greek
letter ϕ or τ, which is approximately equal to 1.61803 39887 49894 84820. In the world
of mathematics, the numeric value is called "phi", named for the Greek sculptor Phidias.
It is the ratio of a line segment cut into two pieces of different lengths such that the
ratio of the whole segment to that of the longer segment is equal to the ratio of the longer
segment to the shorter segment. The origin of this number can be traced back to Euclid,
who mentions it as the “extreme and mean ratio” in the Elements.

The Equation form of the Golden Ratio is

𝒂 𝒂+𝒃
=
𝒃 𝒂
where a is the longer segment and b is the shorter segment

The relationship of the Fibonacci sequence to the Golden Ratio lies not in the
actual numbers of the sequence, but in the ratio of the consecutive numbers.
 Since a ratio is basically a fraction (or a division problem). The ratios of these
numbers are computed by dividing the larger number by the smaller number that falls
consecutively in the series.
Considering the numbers in the Fibonacci Sequence, the ratio will look like this
2/1 = 2.0
3/2 = 1.5
5/3 = 1.67
8/5 = 1.6
13/8 = 1.625
21/13 = 1.615
34/21 = 1.619
55/34 = 1.618
89/55 = 1.618
….
The famous Fibonacci sequence has captivated mathematicians, artists, designers,
and scientists for centuries. Also known as the Golden Ratio, its ubiquity and astounding
functionality in nature suggests its importance as a fundamental characteristic of the
Universe.
The number of petals in flowers, spiraling patterns of seeds like sunflower,
pinecones, tree branches, shells, the spiraling patter of galaxies, hurricanes, human face
and fingers, animal bodies, and even the DNA molecules are just few examples that
exhibits the golden ratio (Dvorsky, 2013).
1. Golden Ratio in Humans

The golden ratio is supposed to be at the heart of many of the proportions in the
human body. These include the shape of the perfect face and also the ratio of the height of
the navel to the height of the body.
The body has many possible ratios, lots of which lie somewhere between 1 and 2.
If you consider enough of them then you are bound to get numbers close to the value of the
golden ratio (around 1.618). Pictures below show some examples of golden ratio in the
human body.

Fig 21. Golden ratio in the Human finger

Source:https://www.goldennumber.net/wp-
content/uploads/finger-golden-ratio.jpg
 Fig 22. Human Body Parts in the Human Body
Source: https://www.goldennumber.net/wp-
content/uploads/finger-golden-ratio.jpg

2. Golden Ratio in Architecture and Engineering

Architects keep the golden ratio in mind when deciding how a building’s floor plan
will flow. It is used when determining features such as how to properly determine a
buildings layout, space out windows, and position where a door should be placed in a room.
While these proportions are considered of secondary importance to the building’s structural
integrity, adherence to the ratio increases chances that people will find the building
aesthetically pleasing.

Fig 23. Taj Mahal Fig 24. CN Tower

Source: https://www.goldennumber.net/wp-
content/uploads/finger-golden-ratio.jpg

3. Golden Ratio in Arts and Design

The golden ratio has been used by artists to locate aesthetically pleasing areas to
place our subjects and distribute weight in our paintings. It appears to have been used in
these famous paintings by Michelangelo as well as the paintings of Leonardo the Vinci.
 Fig 26. Leonardo the Vinci, ,Monalisa
Fig 25. Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam, 1512

4. Golden Ratio in Nature

Nature is filled with patterns – spirals, in particular, are especially noticeable in

species of plants and animals.
The sunflowers seed are arranged in spiral pattern.
Snail shells, too, show growth rings that become
gradually larger as they spiral away from the shell’s
center. Evergreen cones, heads of broccoli and
cauliflower, and tree branches all display noticeable
iterations of this spiraling pattern.
Scientists speculate that plants that grow in spiral
formation do so in Fibonacci numbers because this
arrangement makes for the perfect spacing for growth.
In summary, Fibonacci numbers are present
throughout the world which we live, and the patterns
which can be formed from them continues to astonish and
Fig 27. Golden Ratios in Nature perplex the mind. The Fibonacci numbers are beautiful to
study in and of themselves, but there is a higher beauty to
them as well; these numbers highlight the incredible order and mathematical complexity
of the world we live in.
1.3. Functionality of Mathematics
You have seen in the preceding lessons how evident mathematics is in the natural
world. The patterns observed in nature follow a logical and mathematical structures. This
lesson presents the link between mathematics and other fields focusing on its varied
applications as far as patterns on nature and in the world are concerned.
1.3.1. Mathematics for Organization
Mathematics has a vital and unique
role in the human societies and represents a
strategic key in the development of the whole
mankind. The ability to compute, related to
the power of technology and to the ability of
social organization, and the geometrical
understanding of space time, that is the
physical world and its natural patterns, show
the role of Mathematics in the development of
a Society.
The society consists of its members (human
Fig 28. The Organization of Mathematics
being), who make government and organize
Source:https://www.google.com/search?q=rawpixel/
the
istock/thinkstock+digital+media&hl=en&source=ln natural resources to develop
ms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiFjbHp5tDq
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infrastructure. The human beings are the one
NDegQ_AUoAXoECA0QAw&biw=1366&bih=65 who develop the society. Therefore, we will
7#imgrc=-w9D8Sv3xuRU7M discuss the role of mathematics in the
development of an individual as well as the development of the society.
A lot of events happen around us. For us to make sense of all available information,
we need mathematical tools to help us make sound analysis and better decisions.
Mathematics is well integrated into the technological, industrial, military, economic, and
political systems and that mathematics has been relying on these systems for the material
bases of its continuing progress.
Mathematics is the solution for all the problems concerning about the pattern,
regularities, and numbers. All patterns were organized since the beginning, and regularities
are involved when revealed in the world. Thus, all living things around us had patterns and
regularities.
1.3.2. Mathematics for Prediction
Using mathematical tools we create models which correspond to what we can
measure and observe in the world of reality. Models that work really well, that predict
behaviors in the counterpart to the model which have not yet been observed, these are taken
as "laws of nature" Occasionally, the mathematics of laws describing phenomena not
considered related reveal surprising unanticipated relationships.
 Mathematics provides the framework within
which our observations of the physical world
can be encoded. It goes beyond being merely
descriptive when it exposes relationships that
integrate different subjects.
Mathematics can be used to explain
how something recurs in nature. Mathematics
is used to explain why the sun sets, where it
‘went’, & why it returns because it is easier to
count these events in numbers than to put
them in words. Similarly, formulas became a
Fig 29. Mathematics in Nature
Source: https://phys.org/news/2016-05-mathematics- way of using numbers to show how things in
weather.html nature happen together or oppose one
another.
Mathematics is helpful especially when seeking to explain the limitless feeling one
gets when contemplating the natural world that exists outside ourselves. The logic of any
idea that can be explained in words can be reinforced mathematically to reach and persuade
a larger audience about its concurrency with natural phenomena, its economic applicability
and it's business potential.

Fig 30. Calamities

Source:https://prezi.com/p/om43ojaltn7x/mathematics-can-help-predict-the-behavior-of-nature-and-phenomena-in-the-
world/#:~:text=Predicting%20the%20size%2C%20location%2C%20and,%2C%20wildfires%2C%20and%20landslides%20etc.

Predicting the size, location, and timing of natural hazards is virtually impossible,
but because of the help of Mathematics, we can forecast calamities such as hurricanes,
floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and landslides, etc. Using mathematical
tools, we create models which correspond to what we can measure and observe in the
world.
Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the
conditions of the atmosphere for a given location and time. Human beings have attempted
to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since the 19th century.
 Fig 31. Weather Forcasting
Source:https://www.dreamstime.com/weather-forecast-presentation-report-background-beautiful-clouds-
aerial-view-aircraft-image147712082

Mathematicians play an important role in this process, working with a set of

equations that describe the atmosphere, taking into the account temperature, pressure, and
humidity.
Global Circulation Models (GCMs) describe the interactions between oceans and
the atmosphere to look at what the average conditions could be in decades to come.
1.3.3. Mathematics for Control
Mathematics can help us control
nature and occurences in the world for our
good through mathematical modelling. By
mathematical modelling, we see the inputs to
the events and their most likely outcomes.
Mathematics could not even predict these
disasters, let alone control, then or reduce the
damage. Knowing these inputs and seeing
their consequences, and establishing their
relationship defined quantitatively, we can
prepare for untoward consequences, or better
yet, stop them from happening.
Fig 32. Droplet
http://inspiredworlds.com/butterfly-effect-
decisions/ripple/
Occasionally, the mathematics of laws describing phenomena not considered
related reveal surprising unanticipated relationship. Mathematics provide the framework
within which our observations of the physical world can be encoded. It goes beyond being
merely descriptive when it exposes relationship that integrate different subject. The body
of knowledge and practice known as mathematics is derived from the contributions of
thinkers throughout the ages and across the globe.
 Through the use of mathematics, man is also able to exert control over himself and
the effects of nature. The threat of climate change and global warming has been the subject
of much debate over the years. It is believed that unless man changes his behavior, patterns
are set to indicate that sea levels could rise to catastrophic levels.
In summary, mathematics plays a huge role in the underpinnings of our world. We
have seen it in living creatures and natural phenomena. We have also looked at examples
of how mathematical concepts could be applied. Whether you are on your way to becoming
a doctor, an engineer, an entrepreneur, or a chef, a knowledge of mathematics will be
helpful. Logical reasoning and critical thinking are crucial skills that are needed in any
endeavor. As such, the study of mathematics should be embraced as it paves the way for
more educated decisions, and in a way, brings us closer to understanding our natural world.