94 Introduc on to Process Engineering and Design

H = hd – hs (5.10)
Before installation of pump it is possible to estimate the total discharge head hd by
using following equation:
hd = hsd + hfd (5.11)
where, hsd = Static discharge head = p¢± Z¢ (5.12)
p¢ = Absolute pressure over free surface of liquid in receiver
Z¢ = Vertical distance between free surface of liquid in receiver and
centerline of pump placed horizontally (For vertical pump Z¢ is distance
between free surface of liquid and eye of suction of impeller).
hsd = p¢ + Z¢, if pump is below the level of free surface of liquid in receiver
and
hsd = p¢ – Z¢, if it is placed above the free surface of liquid in receiver.
hfd = Discharge friction head = frictional loss in discharge line.
During operation, total discharge head hd can be determined by following equation:
hd = hgd + atm pressure + hvd (5.13)
where, hgd = Discharge gauge pressure measured by pressure gauge. If pressure is
below atmospheric, vacuum gauge reading is used for hgd in Eq. (5.13)
but with negative sign.
hvd = Velocity head at the point of gauge attachment in discharge line
Before installation of pump, total suction head can be estimated by following
equation:
hs = hss – hfs (5.14)
where, hss = Static suction head = p ± Z
p = Absolute pressure over free surface of liquid at source
Z = Vertical distance between free surface of liquid at source and centerline
of horizontal pump (or suction eye impeller for vertical pump)
hss = p + Z, if pump is going to be installed below the free surface of
liquid
hss = p – Z, if pump is going to be installed above the free surface of
liquid
hfs = Friction loss in suction line
In existing installation, total suction head hs can be determined by following
equation:
hs = atm pressure + hgs + hvs (5.15)
where, hgs = suction gauge pressure,
hvs = velocity head at the point of gage attachment.
In the above equations, all pressure heads are in terms of liquid heads (LC), flowing
in the system.
3. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH): Net positive suction head is the excess of sum
of velocity head and pressure head in suction line over the vapour pressure head of
liquid. When pump installation is designed, available net positive suction head (NPSH)A
must be equal to or greater than net positive suction head required; (NPSH)R.
 Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 95

(NPSH)R is normally specified by the pump supplier, while based on the installation
of pump, (NPSH)A should be calculated and specified by the process engineer.
Theoretically, (NPSH)A should be greater than zero to avoid cavitation.
(NPSH)R depends on properties of liquid, the total liquid head, pump speed, capacity
and impeller design. Practical curves of (NPSH)R vs capacity and speed of pump are
supplied by the pump manufacturer. Figures 5.3 and 5.4 can be used as a guideline to
find the value of (NPSH)R for centrifugal pump handling water at temperatures below
100oC and above 100°C, respectively.
30
25
20
15
bar
e 70
abov r
10
3550
r p m 70 ba
35 to
(NPSH)R, m

e e n
7.5 betw
rpm
3550 5 bar
5 b e low 3 r
3550
rpm 0 ba
4 3 5 to 7
een
1750 rpm betw
3 ar
35 b
n b e low
mi
rpm/
2 1750
1.5
25

30
35
40
45
50

60
70
80
90
100

125

150
175
200

250

300
350
400
Capacity, m3 /h

Fig. 5.3 Net Posi ve Suc on Head for High Pressure Centrifugal Hot-Water Pumps8
(Reproduced with the Permission of the Hydraulic Ins tute (USA)

When (NPSH)A is less than (NPSH)R, cavitation can take place and bubbles of
vapour form in the suction line. Eventually these bubbles collapse inside the casing
of the pump when pressure is exerted on them by the impeller of the pump. Such
collapse of bubbles can cause severe erosion and damage to the pump. It may form
minor cavities on the inside surface of the casing and of the impeller. Hence, this
phenomenon is called cavitation.
When a pump installation is being designed, the available net positive suction head
(NPSH)A can be calculated by the following equation:
(NPSH)A = hss – hfs – pv (5.16)
where, hss = Static suction head, m LC = p ± Z
hfs = Friction loss in suction line, m of liquid column (LC)
pv = Vapour pressure of liquid at suction temperature expressed in m of
liquid column (LC)
For existing installation, (NPSH)A can be determined by following equation:
(NPSH)A = atm pressure + hgs – pv + hvs (5.17)
where, hgs = suction gauge pressure, m of liquid column (LC)
pv = vapour pressure of liquid at suction temperature expressed in m of
liquid column (LC)
96 Introduc on to Process Engineering and Design

5
Additional (NPSH)R, m

0
100 150 200
Water Temperature, °C

Fig. 5.4 Temperature Correction Chart for Net Positive Suction Head Requirement for
Centrifugal Hot Water Pumps8
(Reproduced with the Permission of the Hydraulic Ins tute, USA)

hvs = Velocity head at the point of gauge attachment, m of liquid column

(LC)
As a general guide (NPSH)A should preferably be above 3 m for pump capacities
up to a flow rate of 100 m3/h, and 6 m above this capacity.
For a given system, if (NPSH)A is less than (NPSH)R, following remedial measures
are recommended:
(a) Change the location of the pump to improve (NPSH)A. In other words, positive
suction head (hss) may be increased.
(b) Provide jacketed cooling in the suction line to decrease the vapour pressure (pv)
of the liquid.
(c) Reduce operating speed of the pump; thereby specific speed of the pump is
reduced and its (NPSH)R is less.

5.3.2 NPSH Requirement for Liquids Saturated with

Dissolved Gases
In many situations, the liquid to be pumped is saturated with gases, which have definite
solubilities in the liquid. When a suction system for such a liquid is to be designed for
a centrifugal pump, (NPSH)A calculations differ from Eqs. (5.16) or (5.17).
 Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 97

Pumping of cooling water (saturated with air), pumping of condensate from a

knock-out drum of a compressor, pumping of solution from an absorber, etc., can be
cited as examples of such situations where the liquids are saturated with gases.
Dissolved gases start desorbing when the pump is started and suction is generated
at the pump eyes. Normally, a pump can tolerate 2 to 3% flashed gases at the pump
eye without encountering cavitations. If the design of the suction system is made to
restrict about 2.5% flash, it is considered safe for the pump operation.
In Eq. (5.16) suction source pressure is the system pressure (p) minus the vapour
pressure (pv) for a normal liquid having practically no dissolved gases. For a liquid
saturated with dissolved gases, pv is replaced by pva which is called artificial liquid
vapour pressure. For evaluation of pva, following procedure is recommended:
1. Calculate molar mass of the gas mixture, dissolved in the liquid.
2. Calculate mass fraction (wo) of the dissolved gas mixture.
3. Calculate psuedo-critical properties of the dissolved gas mixture, if system
pressure is high.
4. Calculate specific volume of the dissolved gas mixture (VGa) at the operating
conditions.
Steps (1) to (4) can be avoided if the solubility of the gas mixture in the liquid (such
as air in water) is known from the literature.
5. Calculate volume fraction of the dissolved gas (GVP) in a hypotheoretical gas-
liquid mixture. Consider one unit mass of the liquid in which the gas mixture
is dissolved. If GVP is less than or equal to 2.5%, Eq. (5.16) can be safely used
to calculate (NPSH)A using vapour pressure (pv) of the liquid at the operating
temperature. If higher than calculate volume fraction (a) of flashed gas mixture
(as pressure is lowered) over the liquid, saturated with the dissolved gas mixture,
using the following equation9:
ÈÊ p 2
pv ˆ Ê pv ˆ ˘
ÍÁ - ˜ Á1 - ˙
Í Ë p0 p0 ¯ Ë p0 ˜¯ ˙
a= 1 ÍÊ V ˆ Ê p ˆ Ê + 1˙ (5.18)
Í Ga pˆ ˙
1-
ÍÎ ÁË VL ˜¯ ÁË p0 ˜¯ ÁË p0 ˜¯ ˙˚
where, p = liquid pressure at pump eye, kPa
pv = vapour pressure of liquid at the operating temperature, kPa
p0 = system pressure, kPa
VGa = specific volume of the dissolved gas mixture, m3/kg [see Step (4)
above]
VL = specific volume of the liquid at the operating conditions, m3/kg
Equation (5.18) assumes that the dissolved gas mixture follows ideal gas law,
Dalton’s law and Henry’s law.
6. Calculate a for different value of p. Draw a graph of a vs p. Read p corresponding
to a = 0.025 which is called pva. Alternately by trial and error, calculate pva, for
a = 0.025.
7. Use Eq. (5.16) and insert pva in place of pv and calculate (NPSH)A. The above
procedure is well exemplified in Example 5.10.
98 Introduc on to Process Engineering and Design

5.3.3 Power Required for Pumping

Power required for pumping an incompressible fluid is given by equation:
H qv r
P= (5.19)
3.67 ¥ 105 ¥ h
where, P = Power required, kW
H = Total dynamic head, m of liquid column
qv = Capacity, m3/h
r = Fluid density, kg/m3
h = Efficiency of pump

Example 5.6 A centrifugal pump draws benzene from an overhead tank.

Operating vacuum in the tank is 700 Torr. Vertical distance
between free surface of liquid in tank and centerline of pump is 12 m. Maximum
operating temperature is 50°C. Vapour pressure of benzene at 50°C is 280 Torr. Density
of benzene at 50°C is 870 kg/m3. Frictional loss in suction line of pump is 1 m of
benzene column. Calculate the (NPSH)A of centrifugal pump.

Solution
(NPSH)A = hss – hfs – pv (5.16)
hss = p + Z
p = 760 – 700 = 60 Torr a
1 atm = 10.33 m WC
60 Density of water 60 1000
p= ¥ 10.33 ¥ = ¥ 10.33 ¥
760 Density of benzene at 50°C 760 870
= 0.937 m LC
280 1000
pv = ¥ 10.33 ¥ = 4.37 m LC
760 870
(NPSH)A = p + Z – hfs – pv = 0.937 + 12 – 1 – 4.37 = 7.567 m LC

Example 5.7 A centrifugal pump is drawing methanol from an underground

tank. Operating pressure in the underground tank is 1 atm.
Vertical distance between centreline of pump and free surface of liquid in the tank is
3 m. Maximum operating temperature is 50o C. Vapour pressure and density of methanol
at 50o C are 400 Torr and 785 kg/m3, respectively. Friction loss in suction line is 1 m
of liquid column. Calculate the (NPSH)A of centrifugal pump.

Solution
(NPSH)A = hss – hfs – pv = p – Z – hfs – pv (5.16)

101.325 ¥ 103
p= = 13.16 m LC
(785 ¥ 9.81)
 Process Design of Piping, Fluid Moving Devices and Flow Meters 99

400 101.325 ¥ 103

pv = ¥ = 6.925 m LC
760 (785 ¥ 9.81)
(NPSH)A = 13.16 – 3 – 1 – 6.925 = 2.235 m LC

Note: Effect of vapour pressure (pv) of the fluid is significant in calculation of

(NPSH)A. Selection of the pump is critical. As a general guideline (NPSH)A should
be greater than 3 m for a centrifugal pump.

Example 5.8 Installation of pump is to be decided for the a pump which will
handle hot water at a temperature of 176.7°C and a suction
pressure of 1.034 MPa g. Capacity of pump will be 10 m3/h. It is planned to use a
centrifugal pump with single suction for this applications. Speed of its impeller will
be 2900 rpm.
Find the minimum distance that must be kept between free surface of liquid at
source and centreline of horizontal centrifugal pump.

Solution
(NPSH)A ≥ (NPSH)R
From Figs 5.3 and 5.4, data for centrifugal pump having a speed of 3550 rpm are
given. Assume these data to be applicable for 2900 rpm (a safer design). For 3550 rpm,
10 m3/h, 176.7°C and p < 35 bar:
(NPSH)R = 3.048 + 3.6576 m (additional)
= 6.7 m
(NPSH)A ≥ 6.7 m
p ± Z – hfs – pv ≥ 6.7 m
p = 1.034 MPa g = 1.034 ¥ 106 Pa g
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
p = (1.034 ¥ 106 + 101.325 ¥ 103) Pa a
p = 1.135 325 ¥ 106 Pa a
Vapour pressure of hot water at 176.7°C = 0.928 MPa
pv = 0.928 ¥ 106 Pa
Density of water at 176.7°C, r = 890 kg/m3
0.207 325 ¥ 106
p – pv = 0.207 325 ¥ 106 =
r¥g
0.207 325 ¥ 106
= = 23.746 m WC
890 ¥ 9.81
Select the pipe size and piping system such that hfs £ 1 m.
–Z – 1 + 23.746 ≥ 6.7 m
(if pump is installed above the free surface of liquid at source)
or Z £ 16.046 m