LEA 2: COMPARATIVE MODELS IN POLICING

Introduction

The study of comparative models in policing, criminal justice and law is a fairly new field and has
corresponded with rising interest in a more established field, comparative criminology. 

Policing is one of the most important of the functions undertaken by every sovereign government.
For the state machinery, police is an inevitable organ which would ensure maintenance of law and
order, and also the first link in the criminal justice system.

Comparative Models in Policing is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system
of nations. It covers the study of police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various
nations.

Simply, the process of outlining the similarities and differences of one police system to
another in order to discover insights in the field of policing.

MODULE 1

Unit I. POLICING AND GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is a package of transnational flows of people, production,

investment, information, ideas, and authority.

Globalization as internationalization. Here globalization is viewed 'as simply

another adjective to describe cross-border relations between countries'.

Globalization as liberalization. In this broad set of definitions, 'globalization'

refers to 'a process of removing government-imposed restrictions on movements
between countriesin order to create an "open", "borderless" world economy'
(Scholte 2000: 16).

Globalization as universalization. In this use, 'global' is used in the sense of

being 'worldwide' and 'globalization' is 'the process of spreading various objects
and experiences to people at all corners of the earth'. A classic example of this
would be the spread of computer, television etc.

Globalization as westernization or modernization. Here 'globalization' is

understood as a dynamic, 'whereby the social structures of modernity
(capitalism, rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism, etc.) are spread the world
over, normally destroying pre-existent cultures and local self-determination in the
process.   

Globalization as deterritorialization (or as the spread of supraterritoriality).

Here 'globalization' entails a 'reconfiguration of geography, so that social space
is no longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and
territorial borders.
UNIT 1: POLICING AND GLOBALIZATION

COMPARATIVE MODELS IN POLICING

The study of comparative models in policing, criminal justice and law is a fairly
new field and has corresponded with rising interest in a more established field,
comparative criminology.  However, in this chapter, we will present some issues
which will bring you to discover ideas useful in the conceptualization of successful
crime control policies.

Comparative
Denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or
quality greater or less in extent than that of another.

Police
A police service is a public force empowered to enforce the law and to ensure public
and social order through the legitimated use of force.
“Police is the public and the public is the police” – Sir Robert Peels
In the Philippines, the police/law enforcement is spearheaded by the following agencies:
a. Philippine National Police
b. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
c. Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA)

Policing
Policing is one of the most important of the functions undertaken by the every sovereign
government. For the state machinery, police is an inevitable organ which would ensure
maintenance of law and order, and also the first link in the criminal justice system.

System
A combination of related elements that is functioning as a whole in order to achieve a
single goal or objective.

Comparative Models in Policing

It is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system of nations. It
covers the study of police organizations, trainings and methods of policing of various nations.
Simply, the process of outlining the similarities and differences of one police system to
another in order to discover insights in the field of policing.

RATIONALE
With globalization goes transnational crimes like terrorism, drug trafficking,
money laundering and human smuggling. Transnational crimes across borders and the
need for bilateral and international cooperation become imperative. It is also
essential to study trends in policing because the speed by which changes affect the
lives of people disturbs traditional values and social arrangements which used to unite
people in pursuing common goals in the past. This state of anomie (as Robert Merton
termed it) or “normlessness”brings about a new breed of crimes which the police
normally is not prepared to face. As we compare our own police system with other
models we would be able to gain insights into how to deal with transnational or
borderless crimes. Besides, best practices may be adopted from other police models in
order to make policing in the Philippines more current and effective.

According to Harry Dammer there are many reasons why we need to compare but the
basic reasons are:

 To benefit from the experience of others;

 To broaden our understanding of the different cultures and approaches to
problems; and
 To help us deal with the many transnational crime problems that plague our
world today.

THE NEED FOR INNOVATIVE POLICING

Theories and practices in law enforcement have been compared in several

studies under diverse circumstances, the goal is to test whether the theory and practice
in policing needs innovation to meet the demands of the present trends in crime
fighting.

Comparative research is usually carried out by the "safari" method (a

researcher visits another country) or "collaborative" method (the researcher
communicates with a foreign researcher).  Published works tend to fall into three
categories: single-culture studies (the police and the crime problem of a single
foreign country is discussed), two-culture studies (the most common type), and
comprehensive textbooks (which cover three or more countries).  The examination of
crime and its control in the comparative context often requires historical perspective
since the phenomena under study are seen as having developed under unique social,
economic, and political structures.  Hence, the method most often employed by
researchers is the historical-comparative method. On the other hand, whatever
method used in comparative research in this subject matter, one thing is evident -
police systems are now moving towards innovative law enforcement.

GLOBALIZATION AND LAW ENFORCEMENT

Every nation has its own law enforcement agency called the Police. One thing is
common. The police symbolize the presence of a civil body politics in everyday life; they
symbolize the capacity of the state to intervene and the concern of the state for the affairs of
the citizenry. It is therefore timely to discuss the connection of globalization to policing.

What is Globalization?

Globalization is a package of transnational flows of people, production,

investment, information, ideas, and authority.

Alison Brysk in a digest paper stated that Globalizationis the growing inter-
penetration of states, markets, communications, and ideas. It is one of the leading
characteristics of the contemporary world. International norms and institutions for the
protection or policing human rights are more developed than at any previous point in
history, while global civil society fosters growing avenues of appeal for citizens
repressed by their own states.

But assaults on fundamental human dignity continue, and the very blurring of
borders and rise of transnational actors that facilitated the development of a global
human rights regime may also be generating new sources of human rights abuse.

With Brysk’s view on globalization and human rights, a more broadly articulated
and accepted way of protecting these rights is within the hands of Law Enforcement
Agencies in the world. The rights of individuals have come to depend even more on a
broad array of global system of policing and forces, from the local police to the
INTERPOL (International Police).

Globalization (other definitions)

Jan Art Scholte (2000: 15-17) has argued that at least five broad definitions of
'globalization' can be found in the literature.  

Globalization as internationalization. Here globalization is viewed 'as simply another

adjective to describe cross-border relations between countries'. It describes the
growth in international exchange and interdependence.With growing flows of trade
and capital investment there is the possibility of moving beyond an international
economy,  (where 'the principle entities are national economies') to a 'stronger' version
- the globalized economy in which, 'distinct national economies are subsumed and
rearticulated into the system by international processes and transactions' (Hirst and
Peters 1996: 8 and 10).

Globalization as liberalization. In this broad set of definitions, 'globalization' refers to

'a process of removing government-imposed restrictions on movements between
countriesin order to create an "open", "borderless" world economy' (Scholte 2000:
16). Those who have argued with some success for the abolition of regulatory trade
barriers and capital controls have sometimes clothed this in the mantle of
'globalization'.

Globalization as universalization. In this use, 'global' is used in the sense of being

'worldwide' and 'globalization' is 'the process of spreading various objects and
experiences to people at all corners of the earth'. A classic example of this would be the
spread of computer, television etc.

Globalization as westernization or modernization(especially in an 'Americanized'

form). Here 'globalization' is understood as a dynamic, 'whereby the social structures
of modernity (capitalism, rationalism, industrialism, bureaucratism, etc.) are spread the
world over, normally destroying pre-existent cultures and local self-determination in the
process.   

Globalization as deterritorialization(or as the spread of supraterritoriality). Here

'globalization' entails a 'reconfiguration of geography, so that social space is no
longer wholly mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances and territorial
borders. Anthony Giddens' has thus defined globalization as ' the intensification of
worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. (Giddens
1990: 64). David Held et al (1999: 16) define globalization as a ' process (or set of
processes) which embodies a transformation in the spatial organization of social
relations and transactions - assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity
and impact - generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of
activity. 

What are the positive effects of globalization?

The positive effects of globalization is that it has helped us communicate

better, stay healthier, because of globalization we have learned to communicate
with people from other places who don’t know the language we speak in .
Globalization has also helped us in warit’s not a good thing but think about it, if we
didn’t communicate with other countries our country would probably been taken over by
another. This is because most nuclear weapons are made in South Korea if we didn’t
communicate and by them even for self-defense do you think we'd be living here? Well
I do not...

Effects of Globalization on Law Enforcement

Every law enforcement agency in the world is expected to be the protector of the
people’s rights. Globalization has great impact on every human right.

The emergence of an "international regime" for state security and protection of

human rights, growing transnational social movement networks, increasing
consciousness and information politics have the potential to address both traditional
and emerging forms of law violations. Open international systemshould free
individuals to pursue their rights, but large numbers of people seem to be suffering from
both long-standing state repression and new denials of rights linked to transnational
forces like international terrorism and other acts against humanity.

The challenge of globalization is that unaccountable flows of migration and

open markets present new threats, which are not amenable to state-based human
rights regimes, while the new opportunities of global information and institutions are
insufficiently accessible and distorted by persistent state intervention.

Threats on law enforcement: Some threats brought about by globalization are:

1. Increasing volume of human rights violations evident by genocide or mass

killing.
2. The underprivileged gain unfair access to global mechanisms on law
enforcement and security.
3. Conflict between nations.
4. Transnational criminal networks for drug trafficking, money laundering,
terrorism, etc.

Opportunities for law enforcement: While globalization brings the threats and
many other threats to law enforcement, opportunities like the following are carried:

1. Creation of International tribunals to deal with human rights problems.

(International Court of Justice in Hague Netherlands)
2. Humanitarian interventions that can promote universal norms and link
them to the enforcement power of states.
3. Transnational professional netqwork and cooperation against
transnational crimes.
 4. Global groups for conflict monitoring and coalitions across transnational
issues.

Law Enforcement in a Global Arena

How can the police or law enforcement agencies safeguard life and human
dignity in a global scale? The system and norms are codified in a widely endorsed set
of international undertakings: the "International Bill of Human Rights" (Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, and International Covenant on Social and Economic Rights );
phenomenon-specific treaties on war crimes (Geneva Conventions), genocide,
and torture; and protections for vulnerable groups such as the UN Convention on the
Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination
against Women. International dialogue on human rights has produced a distinction
between three "generations" of human rights, labeled for their historical emergence.
Security rights encompass life, bodily integrity, liberty, and sometimes associated rights
of political participation and democratic governance. Social and economic rights,
highlighted in the eponymous (relationship) International Covenant, comprise both
negative and positive freedoms, enacted by states and others: prominently, rights to
food, health care, education, and free labor.

With this, the creation of an international regime to enforce these UN

declarations, bills and other international standards. We may call it “Universal
Declarations”. However, the very process of globalization blurs distinctions among
categories of law enforcement due to racial differences and states own standards or
laws.

Analysts on crime control have identified a variety of psychological, social,

economic, and political patterns that put societies "at risk" of law and order violations.
These generally include authoritarian government, civil war, strong ethnic
cleavages, weak civil society, power vacuums, critical junctures in economic
development, and military dominance . Above all, the study of human rights teaches
us that human rights violations usually reflect a calculated pursuit of political power,
not inherent evil or ungovernable passions.

Effects of globalization on human rights

The effect of globalization on state-based human rights violations will depend on

the type of state and its history. In newly democratizing countries with weak
institutions and elite-controlled economies (Russia, Latin America, and Southeast Asia),
the growth of global markets and economic flows tends to destabilize coercive forces
but increases crime, police abuse, and corruption.

Global mobility and information flows generally stimulate ethnic

mobilization, which may promote self-determination in responsive states but more
often produces collective abuses in defense of dominant-group hegemony. On the
other hand, the same forces have produced slow institutional openings by less
fragmented single-party states (like China and Mexico). In much of Africa, globalization
has ironically increased power vacuums, by both empowering sub-state challengers
and providing sporadic intervention, which displaces old regimes without consolidating
new ones. Some of the most horrifying abuses of all have occurred in the
transnationalized Hobbesian civil wars of Sierra Leone, Angola, and Congo.
 In general, analysts of globalization find that states' international integration
improves security rights, but increases inequality and threatens the social rights
of citizens. However, neither economic development nor economic growth in and of
themselves improves law enforcement capabilities and human rights performance. In
addition to globalization and growth, findings on the effectiveness of international
pressure on state human rights policy suggest that target states must be structurally
accessible, internationally sensitive, and contain local human rights activists for linkage.

Challenges of Globalization in the field of Law Enforcement

In the law enforcement and security sphere, states respond with increased
repression to fragmentation (destruction), transnationalized civil war, and uncontrolled
global flows such as migrants and drug trafficking. Trans border ethnic differences
help inspire civil conflict, while the global arms trade provides its tools. Even extreme
civil conflicts where states deteriorate into warlordism are often financed if not abetted
by foreign trade: diamonds in the Congo and Sierra Leone, cocaine in Colombia. While
non-state actors like insurgents and paramilitaries pose increasing threats to human
rights, state response is a crucial multiplier for the effect on citizens. Since all but the
most beleaguered (struggling) states possess more resources and authority than
rebels, they can generally cause more damage-and human rights monitoring in a wide
variety of settings from Rwanda to Haiti attributes the bulk of abuses to state (or state-
supported) forces. States also differ in their ability and will to provide protection from
insurgent terror campaigns (like that in Algeria).

Global economic relationships can produce state policies that directly

violate social and labor rights and indirectly produce social conflict that leads to
state violations of civil and security rights. While globally induced economic
adjustment may cut state services and intensify poverty and protest, global windfalls of
wealth may also underwrite repressive and predatory states, as in Angola, where oil
revenues have fueled repression and civil war(Harden 2000). It is states that largely
determine labor rights and security response to labor dissidence; states also regulate
multinationals, certify unions, and form joint ventures with global investors.

The challenge now is on how every state pursues a strong relationship in the
area of policing these global wrongs.

Globalization and Terrorism

The nature of the threat, its targets and impact, and the response all indicate the
growing power of globalization as a parameter of political action. The emergence of
transnational civil networks capable of state-level crimes against humanity depends
upon the globalizing patterns of connection, communication, and even
commodification (via financial networks). It is inspired by a transnational ideology of
a radical, extremist version of Islamic fundamentalism that is largely reactive to
economic and cultural globalization, and thus targets sites and symbols of
cosmopolitanism. The shattering impact of threats to globalizing flows such as air travel
on the world economy and daily life demonstrate how deeply dependent we have
become on these connections.

And even the U.S.-sponsored response against terrorism and all its form has
gone beyond the historical standard reaction of a great power under direct attack; it is
more internationalist, multi-sectoral in its treatment of areas like migration and finance,
and much more conscious of human rights issues such as laws of war, refugees, and
humanitarian assistance.

COMPARATIVE LAW ENFORCEMENT

After we have discussed the effect of globalization and the Interpol’s role in
policing the world, let us now look into some police systems and models which their
methods can be adopted in our own system for effective modern-day policing.

As stated earlier, the examination of crime and its control in the comparative
context often requires a historical perspective since the phenomena under study are
seen as having developed under unique social, economic, and political structures. 
Hence, the method most often employed by researchers is the historical-comparative
method.

    To summarize the historical-comparative method, it is basically an alternative to

both quantitative and qualitative research methods that is sometimes called
historiography or holism.  In historiography, there are at least eight ways to do
history: the Great Man approach; the historical forces approach; the crisis of
civilization approach; the dialectic approach; the evolutionary approach; the
geographic factors approach; the conflict or "who won" approach; and the
serendipity or accidental discovery approach.  In holism (which is a term that
describes when a whole gives meaning to parts), there is an emphasis upon inductive
inference from description, which is similar to Max Weber's notion of "ideal types"
that are general to many cases.  It should be noted that historical-comparative method
is tied to the origins of sociology.  Patterns, trends, and syndromesare the words
most often used in comparative law enforcement and criminal justice with the same
meaning as ideal-types.

Societal Type and Police System

There are four kinds of societies in the world: (1) folk-communal societies,
which are also called primitive societies; (2) urban-commercial societies, which rely
on trade as the essence of their market system; (3) urban-industrial societies, which
produce most of the goods and services they need without government interference;
and (4) bureaucratic societies, or modern post-industrial societies where the
emphasis is upon technique or the "technologizing" of everything, with the government
taking the lead. 

Folk-communal society- has little codification of law, no specialization

among police, and a system of punishment that just let things go for a while without
attention until things become too much, and then harsh, barbaric punishment is
resorted to.  Classic examples include the early Roman gentiles, African and Middle
Eastern tribes, and Puritan settlements in North America.  (Law of Tribes)

Urban-commercial society - has civil law (some standards and customs are
written down), specialized police forces (some for religious offenses, others for
enforcing the King's law), and punishment is inconsistent, sometimes harsh,
sometimes lenient.  Most of Continental Europe developed along this path. 

Urban-industrial society - not only has codified laws (statutes that prohibit)
but laws that prescribe good behavior , police become specialized in how to handle
property crimes, and the system of punishment is run on market principles of
creating incentives and disincentives.  England and the U.S. followed this positive
legal path. 

Bureaucratic society - has a system of laws (along with armies of lawyers),

police who tend to keep busy handling political crime and terrorism, and a system of
punishment characterized by over criminalization and overcrowding.  The U.S.
and perhaps only eight other nations fit the bureaucratic pattern.  Juvenile
delinquency is one of the phenomena that occurs in a bureaucratic society.

Some people also talk about the fifth type: Post-modern society, where the
emphasis is upon the meaning of words and the deconstruction of institutions. 

Developing countries tend to be lumped into the first two (1) and (2) types,
and the study of culture becomes more important in these contexts.  Developed
countries tend to be the last two (3) and (4) types, and the study of structure
becomes more important.  The study of culture involves the study of customs and
folkways of the people.  The study of social structure involves the study of
institutions, like economic and political systems. 

VARIABLE AFFECTING SYSTEM COMPARISON ON POLICE SYSTEM

Many comparativists romanticize (exaggerate) the folk-communal society for

its low crime rates as well as the way most quarrels and conflicts are settled
privately.  However, folk societies are also known for "lumping it"which is the process
of letting things go on longer until it's too much to tolerate anymore .  Nonetheless, folk
societies work very hard to avoid the over criminalization common to modern
bureaucratic societies. 

The most frequently studied variable in comparative police system and criminal
justice is urbanization, or the process of internal migration from the countryside to
the cities.  It is suspected that urbanization dissolves family ties, creates cultures
of poverty, and produces a stabilized criminal underworld consisting of well-
defined criminal career pathways.  Also of importance are the variables of
colonization and underdevelopment, as these processes of globalization shape
underdog ideologies among exploited Third World people which come back in the form
of terrorism against the more developed countries.  However, an event (like
urbanization or colonization) is not the cause of crime if it occurs when crime rates are
falling.

Types of Police Systems

It is the consensus of experts that there are four types of criminal justice
systems in the world:  (CCSI)

a. Common
b. Civil
c. Socialist
d. Islamic 

This classifies all 185 nations in the world.  It is important to compare nations
that have similar legal traditions because crimes may not be defined the same. 
 Interpol and the U.N. have dealt with this problem for years.  Even something as
simple as murder is defined differently by different nations.  In some countries, crime
data is based on offenses known to police, and in other countries, statistical data is
based on convictions.  Certain countries (such as those in Central Africa) do not even
collect crime statistics.  In other countries (mostly socialist ones), crime statistics are
collected, but the data are classified.  It is also difficult to compare punishments, since
in some countries, the family members of the offender are punished, and the range of
punishments includes such things as stoning and mutilation. 

    Common law systems are also known as Anglo-American justice, and exist
in most English-speaking countries of the world, such as the U.S., England, Australia,
and New Zealand.  They are distinguished by a strong adversarial system where
lawyers interpret and judges are bound by precedent.  Common law systems are
distinctive in the significance they attach to precedent (the importance of previously
decided cases).  They primarily rely upon oral systems of evidence in which the
public trial is a main focal point. 

Civil law systems are also known as Continental justice or Romano-

Germanic justice, and practiced throughout most of the European Union as well as
elsewhere, in places such as Sweden, Germany, France, and Japan .  They are
distinguished by a strong inquisitorial system where less right is granted to the
accused, and the written law is taken as gospel and subject to little
interpretation.  For example, a French maxim goes like this: "If a judge knows the
answer, he must not be prohibited from achieving it by undue attention to regulations of
procedure and evidence."  By contrast, the common law method is for a judge to at
least suspend belief until the event of a trial is over.  Legal scholarship is much more
sophisticated and elitist in civil law systems, as opposed to the more democratic
common law countries where just about anybody can get into law school.  Romano-
Germanic systems are founded on the basis of natural law, which is a respect for
tradition and custom.  The sovereigns, or leaders, of a civil lawsystem are
considered above the law, as opposed to the common law notion that nobody is
above the law.

    Socialist systems are also known as Marxist-Leninist justice, and exist in
many places, such as Africa and Asia, where there had been a Communist
revolution or the remnants of one.  They are distinguished by procedures designed to
rehabilitate or retrain (reeducate) people into fulfilling their responsibilities to the state.  
It is the ultimate expression of positive law, designed to move the state forward
toward the perfectibility of state and mankind. It is also primarily characterized by
administrative law, where non-legal officials make most of the decisions.  For
example, in a socialist state, neither judges nor lawyers are allowed to make law.  Law
is the same as policy, and an orthodox Marxist view is that eventually, the law will
not be necessary.

    Islamic systems are also known as Muslim or Arabic justice, and derive all
their procedures and practices from interpretation of the Koran.  There are exceptions,
however.  Various tribes (such as the Siwa in the desert of North Africa) are
descendants of the ancient Greeks and practice Urf law (the law of tradition) rather
than the harsher Shariah punishments.  Islamic systems in general are characterized
by the absence of positive law (the use of law to move societies forward toward some
progressive future) and are based more on the concept of natural justice (crimes are
considered acts of injustice that conflict with tradition).  Religion plays an important role
in Islamic systems. Most nations of this type are theocracies, where legal rule and
religious rule go together.

    Each society also has its own customary law or tribal traditions.  Many parts
of Africa, for example, have reverted back to a tribal system because they could not
accommodate their heritage of colonialism, which essentially involved the problem of
mixed Common, Civil, Socialist and Islamic influences.  Tribal justice systems tend to
be characterized by arrest without trial and other summary procedures.  In other
parts of the world, such as Latin America, the problem has been modernization. 
Advances in technology and the profits of drug crime have outpaced the capability of
Western-oriented justice systems, and what would normally be a trend toward
decriminalization has become a haphazard set of legal practices that are sometimes
lenient and sometimes harsh.  Traditionalism, colonialism, modernization, and the
increasing tendency for crime to become transnational in an international marketplace
form the components of the globalization problem in criminal justice.           

    Each type of system - Common, Civil, Socialist, and Islamic - has local variation. 
Even in English-speaking countries, for example, there is variation.  Canadian justice
places more emphasis upon the right to a fair trial, free from prejudicial publicity.  In
Canada, the public and the media are usually banned from the courtroom, and there is
little interest in crime news.  In England, there is more emphasis upon fairness in
sentencing, and making sure the guilty punished.  English police dossiers along with
two types of lawyers (solicitors and barristers) and two types of courts (Magistrate and
Crown) help ensure this.

Police System vs. Criminal Justice System

    With these influences of societal systems, Police systems and Criminal
Justice Systems around the world varies depending on the kind of legal system.  With
the exceptions of Japan and the Common Law nations , few countries hold their
police officers accountable for violations of civil rights.  In Socialist and Islamic
countries, the police hold enormous political and religious powers.  In fact, in such
places, crime is always seen as political crime or co-occurring religious problem

Comparative Court System

Court systems of the world are of two types:

Adversarial, where the accused is innocent until proven guilty.  The U.S.
adversarial system is unique in the world.  No other nation, not even the U.K., places
as much emphasis upon determination of factual guilt in the courtroom as the
U.S. does. 

Inquisitorial,where the accused is guilty until proven innocent or mitigated,

have more secret procedures.   Outside the U.S., most trials are concerned with legal
guilt where everyone knows the offender did it, and the purpose is to get the offender to
apologize, own up to their responsibility, argue for mercy, or suggest an appropriate
sentence for themselves. 

Comparative Correctional System

Correctional systems worldwide can be easily distinguished by whether they

support corporal punishment (physical torture/beatings) or not.  Some so-called
"civilized" countries claim they are better than the U.S. because they don't perform
death penalty but actually practice such corporal punishments as beatings and
whippings.  Nations that practice corporal punishment do tend, however, to have
less of a correctional overcrowding problem.   Probation and parole, where they
exist cross-culturally, are applied to the country’s citizens, and not for foreigners
or immigrants.   

Comparative Juvenile Justice System

Juvenile Justice Systems vary widely.  Scotland has the toughest system,
regularly sentencing juveniles to harsh boot camps with a strict military regimen
and forced labor.  Germany has a juvenile justice system similar to the U.S., where
more emphasis is upon education as punishment. 

MODERNIZATION versus COLONIZATION THESIS

The idea that “technology” produces common effects which tend to make all
nations increasingly similar is the modernization thesis (Shelley 1981).  In this view,
the developing countries are destined to go through the same crime and control
patterns as the developed nations have gone through.  This pattern mainly involves a
skyrocketing increase in property crime, the hallmark of industrial society.  It also
involves more female emancipation (liberation/freedom), and certain problems arise
from this, not the least of which is a backlash(counteract) of male violence.  The
implication of the modernization thesis is that developed countries, like the U.S.,
ought to reach out, and help developing countries manage or regulate the
inevitable stages they will have to go through.

Opposed to this idea is the underdevelopment, or colonization

thesis (Sumner 1982) which holds that it is the more advanced, developed nations
in the world which cause crime in dependent Third World nations .  Corporations,
for example, are allowed to pillage (plunder) raw materials and resources in the Third
World.  Likewise, most of the developed nations do not engage in free trade. 
Instead, they subsidize their farmers and producers at home, prohibit the import
of cheap, foreign-made products, and make their money by saturating foreign
markets with luxury goods that create a sense of rising expectations or
unreachable aspirations in the Third World.

There is little debate, however, over the importance of urbanization. 

Comparative criminologists believe urbanization is the primary cause of violent
crime in any society (Archer & Gartner 1984).  When citizens migrate to the cities,
kinship and community ties are broken, and a sense of anonymity (concealment) and
impersonality develops.  Some of this impersonality is inherent to the nature of
industrial and bureaucratic work, but the problem in the cities appears to be the
problem of income inequality, where vast numbers of poor people live in fairly close
concentration to wealthier people, or those who are on the verge of "making it"
economically. 

Theories of Comparative criminology

According to Schneider (2001), the various theories that exist with empirical support are
the following theories of comparative Criminology:
 1. Alertness to crime theory – is that as a nation develops, people’s alertness to crime is
heightened, so they report more crime to police and also demand the police to
become more effective at solving crime problems.
2. Economic or migration theory – is that crime everywhere is the result of
unrestrained migration and overpopulation in urban areas such as ghettos and
slums.
3. Opportunity theory – is that along with higher standards of living, victims become
more careless of their belongings, and opportunities for committing crime multiply.
4. Demographic theory (population) – is based on the event of when a greater number
of children are being born, because as these baby booms grow up, delinquent
subcultures develop out of the adolescent identity crisis.
5. Deprivation theory – holds that progress comes along with rising expectations while
people at the top don’t see themselves rising fast enough.
6. Modernization theory – sees the problem as society becoming too complex.
7. Theory of anomie and synomie – suggest that progressive lifestyles and norms result
in the disintegration of older norms that once held people together(anomie), but in
other cases, people can come together and achieve social consensus or social
cohesion over values(synomie).

References:
1. Garcia, Mario A. (2015). A Textbook on Comparative Police and Criminal
Justice System. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines
2. Poschor-Depayso, Veneranda. (2017). Comparative Police System: Global
Responses of Law Enforcement Officers to Crimes, Wiseman’s Books Trading,
Inc. Quezon City, Philippines
3. Estipona, Effrendy M. (2014). Notes on Comparative Police System for
Criminology Students. Risk Management & Training Consultants. Baguio City,
Philippines
4. Compilation on Comparative Police System (2016).
Module 2
Styles of Policing
Watchman- Emphasizes maintaining order, usually found in communities with a
declining industrial base, and a blue-collar, mixed ethnic/racial population.
Legalistic- Emphasizes law enforcement and professionalism.
Service- Emphasizes the service functions of police work, usually found in suburban,
middle class communities where residents demand individual treatment.

POLICING MODELS
Crime Control Model is based on the presumption that the repression of criminal
behavior is the most important aspect of police duty and therefore should be given
priority. This approach has been rationalized in the past by the assumption that
inconvenience or harassment of innocent people can be justified by the fact that police
are fighting crime.
Criminal Justice Goal • Ultimate goal of repression of criminal behavior by
apprehension, conviction, and punishment of offenders.
DUE PROCESS MODEL
When due process is the primary object of policing, police policy is that is far better
than 100 guilty men escape justice rather than one innocent person be convicted.
The Due Process Model Criminal Justice Goal • Ultimate goal of convicting the guilty
while protecting the innocent by limiting governmental power and respecting individual
rights.

The crime control model is considered to be a conservative approach to crime that

focuses on protecting society from criminals by regulating criminal conduct and justice.
Moreover, this model stresses strict and swift punishment for crimes; in return, this
strict adherence benefits society by striking fear in criminals because they will be
harshly punished. The crime control model also seeks to move criminal cases through
the criminal system as quickly as possible. The goal of the model is to get the cases
through the systems swiftly, even if that means expanding the powers of the courts. In
fact, this model supports greater powers for prosecutors and the courts that are
handling the cases.

In contrast, the due process model is considered to be a liberal approach to criminal

justice that favors criminal rights. This model functions under the tenet that defendants
are innocent until proven guilty. The model also favors strategies that might rehabilitate
offenders rather than simply punish them. The goal for this model is to get offenders
functioning back into society and out of prison, if possible. It is therefore in direct
contrast to the crime control model. Opponents to this model often argue that the due
process model sets too many obstacles in the way of serving justice and punishing
serious criminals.

The Basis of modeling police system are the, continental, developing, and modernized
police system.
3 types of Policing Models
Traditional Policing, the police officer would respond when a call came in that a crime
occurred. Once the officer responded to the crime, the officer would then take a report,
and hand the investigation off to a detective. At this point, the officer would go back to
his patrol car, and wait for another call to come in that a crime had occurred.
Problem Solving Policing, within this model there is an emphasis on trying and
prevent crime from happening. This policing model has detective watching for pattern in
crimes to help understand when and how crimes are being committed.
Community Oriented Policing, the officers will take a more community involvement
stance. Within this type of policing, the officer will have a zone in which to work in
during their shifts.
THEORIES IN POLICING
Continental = is the theory of police service which maintains that police officers are
servants of higher authorities. This theory prevails in the continental countries like
France, Italy and Spain.
Home Rule = the theory of police service which states that police officers are servants
of the community or the people. This theory prevails in England and United States. It is
also the police service which prevails in country with decentralized form of government.
This is likewise the police service theory that should prevail in the Philippines based on
the existing laws, concepts and principles.
CONCEPT OF POLICE SERVICE
a. Old police service = states that the yardstick of police proficiency relies on the
number of arrest made.
b. Modern police service = states that the yardstick of police proficiency relies on the
absence of crime.
Civil disorder, also known as civil disturbance or civil unrest, is an activity arising from a mass
act of civil disobedience (such as a demonstration, riot, or strike) in which the participants become
hostile toward authority, and authorities incur difficulties in maintaining public safety and order, over
the disorderly crowd

Civil order control = is not organizationally separated from deviance control but is
performed by regular street police in the country of England and United States.
Proactive or Reactive Model
Proactive police work emphasizes police-initiated activities of the individual officers and
the department. Developing a response to a crime or another problem that is designed
to keep a crime from occurring is proactive. “Proactive policing” to refer to all policing
strategies that have as one of their goals the prevention or reduction of crime and
disorder 
Reactive police work is more on response to a problem by police when assistance is
specifically requested by citizens.
Reactive policing can be defined as the police responding to specific requests from
individuals or groups in the community which encompasses "immediate response to
calls" and "follow-up investigations".
EVOLUTION OF POLICING SYSTEM
Praetorian guards = military bodies who serve as guardians of peace in ancient Rome
in which the idea of policing said to have originated.

Officer de la Paix= a French term which claimed to be the origin of the term Police
Officer
1. Anglo-Saxon Period of Policing System (Ancient England)
A. Tun Policing System
A system of policing emerged during the Anglo-Saxon period whereby all
male residents were required to guard the town ( tun ) to preserve peace and
protect the lives and properties of the people. About 700 AD, the people living in
England in small rural towns used the Anglo-Saxon System. Ten families in a town
(tun) equaled a tithing. Each tithing elected a leader who was known as the
Tithingman. Since10 tithings amounted to 100, the leader of the 100 families was
named the reeve. Both the tithingman and reeve were elected officials. They
possessed judicial power as well as police authority.
B. Hue and Cry
A village law started in Britain which provided methods of apprehending a
criminal by an act of the complainant to shout to call all male residents to
assemble and arrest the suspect.
C. Trial by Ordeal
A judicial practice where in the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined by
subjecting him to an unpleasant, usually dangerous, experience. The word “ordeal”
was derived from the Medieval Latin word “Dei Indicum” which means “a
miraculous decision.”
2. Norman Period of Policing System
This system of policing existed during the time of Norman William. The Conqueror
(King of France). When he invaded and conquered England, a military regime of
conquers and dictators began and changed the concept of crime being committed
against the state.
A. Shire-Rieve was a policing system during the Norman Period when England was
divided into fifty-five (55) military areas, each headed by a ruler called the Rieve (head-
man or lieutenant of the army). The fifty-five (55) military divisions in England are called
shires. The shire-rieve had absolute powers that no one could questions his or her
actions. Two “Constabuli” or “The Keeper of the Horse” were appointed to each village
to aid the Rieve in his duties. It became the source of the word Constable. The term
“Shire-Rieve” is said to be the origin of the word “Sheriff. ”
B. Travelling Judge or Circuit Judge A judge selected to hear cases which were
formerly being judged by the Shire-Rieve and tasked to travel through and hear criminal
case. This was the first instance of the division of the police and judicial power.
C. Legis Henrici
An act that was enacted during this period with the following features:
 Offenses were classified as against the king and individual.
 Policeman becomes public servant.
 The police and the citizens have the broad power to arrest. It introduced the
system called “citizen’s arrest.”

 Grand Jury was created to inquire on the facts of the law. A system which made
inquisition onto the facts of a crime and eliminate the “Anglo-Saxon Trial or
“Trial by Ordeal System. ”

D. Frankpledge System
A system of policing whereby a group of ten neighboring male residents over twelve
years of age were required to guard the town to preserve peace and protect the lives
and properties of the people
3. Westminster Period of Policing System
It is called by this name because the laws governing policing came out of the capital of
England, which at the time was Westminster . This period has the following features:
 Guards were appointed and the duties of the constables at night (watch) and in
daytime (ward) were defined
 Statute of Westminster of 1285, a collection of regulations aimed at keeping the
peace.

B. Statute of 1295
The law that marks the beginning of the curfew hours , which demanded the closing of
the gates of London during sundown.
C. Justice of the Peace (About 1361) Three or four men who were learned in the law of
the land were given authority to pursue, arrest, chastise and imprisonment violators of
law. They handled felonies, misdemeanors and infractions of city or village ordinances.
This was later abolished about 75 years after.
D. Star Chamber Court (1487)
A special court designed to try offenders against the state . The room set-up is
formed in a shape of a star and judges were given great powers such as the
power to force testimony from a defendant leading to a great abuse of power or
brutality on the part of the judges.
4. Keepers of the Peace
A proclamation issued by King Richard of England sometime in 1195 that required the
appointment of knights to keep the King’s peace by standing as guards on bridges and
gates while checking the people entering and leaving the cities and towns.
5. King Charles II of England (1663) King Charles II passed an act which established or
promoted the employment of watchmen or bellmen tobe on duty from sunset to sunrise.
6. Magna Carta or "The Great Charter" A law promulgated by King John of England
upon the demand of the Knights of the Round Table forcing the King to sign the same
with the following features:
 No freeman shall be taken, imprisoned, banished or exiled except by legal
judgment of his peers.
 No person shall be tried for murder unless there is proof of the body of the
victim.

LONDON POLICING PRIOR TO 1829

Henry Fielding = appointed as Magistrate in 1748, introduced the first detective force,
known as the Bow Street
Runners Bow Runners = a group of men organized by Henry Fielding and named by
his brother John Fielding task to catch thieves and robbers identified by carrying a
Tipstaff with the Royal Crown= made up of eight constables who also investigated
crimes handed over to them by the volunteer constables and watchmen
1798 = Marine Police Force was established, salaried constables were being paid by
local magistrates. = initially made up of 220 Constables assisted by 1,000 registered
dock workers, and was responsible for preventing the theft of cargo. = widely regarded
as being the first modern police force in the world, in the sense that they were not
government controlled and were responsible for the prevention of crime.
METROPOLITAN POLICE = organized in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel (Metropolitan Police
Act of 1829) = the largest of the police services that operate in greater London (the
others include the City of London Police and the British Transport Police) = finest police
force around the world.

TOTAL POLICING = motto of London Metropolitan Police

IMPORTANT DATES
1833 = Cold bath Fields Riot (Grays Inn Road). A major crowd disturbance
dealt with by the Metropolitan Police with controversial use of force.
1836 = The Metropolitan Police absorb the Bow Street Horse Patrol into its control.
1838 = incorporates Marine Police and Bow Street Runners into the Metropolitan Police
and the disbandment of the Bow Street Office and other Offices. These were all agreed
and put into effect.
Administration Policing Principles of London Metropolitan Police
1. Stable and effective civil police under government control
2. Absence of crime is the best proof of efficiency
3. Fast distribution of crime news to the police is essential.
Commissioner = highest rank in the Metropolitan Police
Police Constable = lowest rank Contributions of the French in Policing
 Assigning house numbers
 Installing street lights
 Use of police ambulances
 Use of warrant card and ID signifying the authority to arrest

Philippine Police System

During the Spanish Regime

 Maintenance of law and order is a part of the military system for the defense of
the colony;
 Locally organized police forces although performing civil duties is a direct
adjunct of the colonial military establishments; (policemen in appearance yet
colonial soldiers in the ultimate sense.
 Police functions consisted mainly of (1) suppression of brigandage by patrolling
unsettled areas;(2) detection of local or petty uprising by spying upon the work
and movements of the people and;(3) the enforcement of tax collection including
church revenues

Guardilleros = a body of rural police organized in each town established by Royal

decree of Jan. 8, 1836.It mandates that 5% of the able bodied male inhabitants of each
province where to be enlisted in this police organization for 3 years. These
services are originally not paid or gratuitous subject to some privileges
although in some province they received a proportionate pay ranging from 4.00 to 8.00
depending on the revenue collection.

Carabineros De Seguridad Publico = Organized in 1712 for the purpose of carrying the
regulations of the Department of State. This was armed and considered as the
mounted police who later discharged the duties of a port, harbor and river police. It was
later given special commission by Royal Decree of December20, 1842 and it was
called – Cuerco De Seguridad Publica (Corps of Crabbiness for Public Security).

Gurdia Civil = Created by Royal decree on February 12, 1852, to partially relieve the
Spanish peninsula troops of their works in policing towns. It is consisted of a body of
Filipino policemen organized originally in each of the provincial capital of the province
of Luzon under the Alcalde Mayor.)

Philippine Commission Act No. of 175 = (July 18, 1901) an act providing for the
organization and government of an Insular Constabulary.

Sec. 1, Act 255 of October 3, 1901 = renamed the Insular Constabulary to Philippine
Constabulary (a national police institution for preserving peace, keeping order and
enforcing the law.  Henry Allen = the first Chief of the Philippine Constabulary.

Rafael Crame = the first Filipino Chief of the Philippine Constabulary.

Act No 70 = (On January 9, 1901) The Metropolitan Police Force of Manila was
organized. E.O.

389 = Ordered that the PC be one of the four services of the AFP, dated December 23,
1940. P.D.

765 = Integration Act of 1975, dated August 8, 1975, established the Integrated
National Police (INP) composed of the PC as the nucleus and the Integrated local
police forces as components, under the Ministry of National Defense.

E. O. 1012 =transferred to the city and municipal government the operational

supervision and direction over the INP units assigned within their locality.

R. A. 4864 =It created the POLCOM (Police Commission) as a supervisory agency to

oversee the training and professionalization of the local police under the Officer of the
President. Otherwise known as the Police Professionalization act of 1966, dated
September 8, 1966. It was later renamed as the National Police Commission
(NAPOLCOM).

EO. 1040 = Transferred the Admin. Control and Supervision of the INP from the
ministry of National Defense to the National Police Commission

R.A. 6975 = It is otherwise known as the Department of Interior and Local

Government Act of 1990,enacted on December 13, 1990. Established the PNP, BFP,
BJMP and the PPSC.

R.A. 8551 Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998, enacted
1998, amending the provision of R.A. 6975. Act No. 181 = created the Division of
Investigation (DI) of the Department of Justice dated November1938. R.A. 157 =
created the National Bureau of Investigation, enacted June 19, 1947 and later
reorganized by R, A. 2678.
Line and Staff = the organizational structure of the P.N.P. which is also
adopted by many police organization in the world. P.N.P. = headed by Chief with a
rank of Police General with two (2) Police Lieutenant General (1) for Administration and
(2) for Operation.

SOP No. 7 = prescribed PNP guidelines in the conduct of operations against terrorists
and other lawless elements involved in terrorist activities

Developments in policing system during the Japanese Occupation:

The Japanese Military Police, known as KEMPETAI were held responsible in

maintaining peace and order in Manila and adjacent urban areas. Kempetai ruled the
urban areas until Gen. Douglas McArthur returned on February 7, 1945.

The Manila Police Department, which was created during the first American
occupation, was renamed into Metropolitan Constabulary under the Bureau of
Constabulary.

INSULAR POLICE FORCE was established on November 30, 1890 during the Filipino-
American war (1898-1901) upon the recommendation of the Philippine Commission to
the Secretary of War.

INSULAR CONSTABULARY was created on July18, 1901 by virtue of Act Nr. 175 titled
as “An Act Providing for the Organization and Government of an Insular Constabulary”.

MANILA POLICE DEPARTMENT (MPD) was organized on July 31, 1901 by virtue of
Act Nr. 183 of the Philippine Commission. The 1st Chief of Police was Capt. George
Curry, a US Army officer appointed by the TAFT COMMISSION on August 7, 1901.
Capt. Columbus Piatt was the last American COP of MPD before WW II broke out.

On October 3, 1901, the Insular Constabulary was changed to PHILIPPINE

CONSTABULARY (PC) by virtue of Act Nr. 255. Brig/Gen. Henry T. Allen was the 1st
Chief of the Philippine Constabulary. He was the PC Chief from 1901 to 1907 such that
he was called as the Father of Constabulary in the Philippines. The PC was manned
mostly by Filipinos but officers were mostly Americans.

REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE OF 1917 was approved a year before World War I
(August 1914 to November 1918) ended. In Section 825 of this law, it stated that the
Philippine Constabulary is a national police institution for preserving the peace keeping
order and enforcing the law. Brig/Gen. Rafael Crame became the first Filipino Chief of
Police. He served as the PC Chief from 1917-1927.
On January 1, 1932, Republic Act Nr. 3815, otherwise known as the Revised Penal
Code of the Philippines took effect.

In November 1938, Act Nr. 181 required the creation of a Bureau of Investigation. This
agency should be the modification of the Division of Investigation from the Department
of Justice. Finally, on June 19, 1947, Republic Act Nr. 157 was enacted which created
the National Bureau of Investigation.

Col. Antonio C. Torres – the 1st Filipino COP when Manila Police Department became
an all Filipino police organization; declared Manila as an open city when World War II
broke-out in 1941; during the World War II, Manila police was placed again under the
American control.

Col. Marcus Ellis Jones – a U.S. Provost Marshall who was named as MPD COP just
after the Manila Liberation.

Col. Lamberto T. Javalera – the 1st Filipino COP of MPD appointed by Pres. Roxas
under the Republic Government.

This is after the Implementing Rules and Regulations for Republic Act No. 11200
entitled, “An Act Providing for the Rank Classification in the Philippine National Police,
Amending for the purpose Section 28 of Republic Act No. 6975, as amended, otherwise
known as the Department of Interior and Local Government Act of 1990” was signed
last march 25, 2019

Under the new law, the PNP rank classification will be distinct because the ranks will be
preceded by the word “Police”. The new rank classification and abbreviation in the PNP
are as follows:

Police Director General - Police General, PGEN

Police Deputy Director General - Police Lieutenant General, PLTGEN

Police Director - Police Major General, PMGEN

Police Chief Superintendent - Police Brigadier General, PBGEN

Police Senior Superintendent - Police Colonel, PCOL

Police Superintendent - Police Lieutenant Colonel, PLTCOL

Police Chief Inspector - Police Major, PMAJ

Police Senior Inspector - Police Captain, PCPT

Police Inspector - Police Lieutenant, PLT

Senior Police Officer IV - Police Executive Master Sergeant, PEMS

Senior Police Officer III - Police Chief Master Sergeant, PCMS

Senior Police Officer II - Police Senior Master Sergeant, PSMS

Senior Police Officer I - Police Master Sergeant, PMSg

Police Officer III - Police Staff Sergeant, PSSg

Police Officer II - Police Corporal, PCpl

Police Officer I - Patrolman/Patrolwoman, Pat

The new law clarifies the command and responsibility of the PNP for effective and
efficient supervision and control among its uniformed personnel.

“The rank classification will also contribute to more performance output and productivity
from the police for having high morale as they will be called again the way they were
addressed before, in contrast to the present rank classification, which the public still
find difficult to follow and understand”, PNP spokesperson PCOL Bernard Banac said.

He also added that no matter how police personnel are called, what is important is their
professionalism, competence and genuine service to the public.

On February 8, President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Republic Act 11200 which
standardizes the way PNP officers are called.
Module 3

INTERPOL

The full name is the International Criminal Police Organization and they
are an inter-governmental organization. They have 194 member
countries, and they help police in all of them to work together to make
the world a safer place.
International police cooperation organizations are intended to serve as clearing houses
that collect police information voluntarily shared by national police authorities and
analyze the data to provide finished intelligence.

The intent of these International Organization is to coordinate a multilateral fight against

transnational crime by addressing the obstacles to cooperation that ensue from
isolationist/nationalist attitudes. Because states have traditionally viewed police matters
as a core national responsibility, agreement on how much authority these bodies ought
to have has been difficult to reach and led to very broad conventions that are entirely
left to the interpretation of individual member states. So, the adaptation of national
infrastructures that are conducive to sharing information with other states is left to
individual states. This study argues for a sequence of roles, intended and unintended,
that must be performed in order for these international bodies to fulfill their mandates of
facilitating cooperation and the sharing of information

History of INTERPOL

The International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) formed in 1923. With

headquarters in Vienna, Austria, the organization published a journal containing wanted
notices for international criminals. World War II interrupted the growth if the ICPC -- the
Nazis took control, deposed the current Secretary General and moved the
headquarters to Berlin. Following the war, the organization was rebuilt and new
headquarters were established in Paris. The group officially took the telegraph code
name "Interpol," and adopted the colored notice system. The headquarters moved to
Lyons in 1989.

The 1990s and 2000s saw the rapid development and expansion of communications
and database systems. The official Interpol emblem is a globe, which is flanked by olive
wreaths and a justice scale, in front of a sword, with the agency's initials at the top and
the name Interpol along the bottom. The Interpol flag features the emblem on a white
circle against a light blue background with white bolts of lightning pointing toward the
corners, symbolizing the speed of communications accomplished by Interpol.

Interpol can boast success in several major cases. One of the 2004 Madrid train
bombers was identified by cooperation between officials in Belgrade, Baghdad and
Madrid using the I-24/7 system [Source: Interpol]. In 2005, an Interpol incident
response team obtained and disseminated fingerprints and photographs of Abu Musab
Al-Zarqawi, one of the world's most wanted terrorists [Source: Interpol]. Interpol has
worked with the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children to find and recover
children who have been abducted across national borders [Source: Center for Missing
and Exploited Children]. The organization's efforts were especially notable following the
2004 Tsunami, when incident response teams helped coordinate the many
humanitarian and law-enforcement agencies involved. They also played a major role in
victim identification.
In a 2005 speech, Interpol President (a position on the Executive Committee) Jackie
Selebi provided a prime example of Interpol at work: "Interpol success stories
demonstrate the critical roles our different NCBs play in global police cooperation. For
instance, a Serbian national, Milan Lukic, wanted by the United Nations International
Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Serbia and Montenegro, for
war crimes against Bosnian Muslims in 1992-94, was arrested in Buenos Aires last
August 7, 2005. This could not have been possible without the close collaboration
between ICTY, the Interpol General Secretariat, and the NCBs in Argentina and Chile.
The true identity of Mr. Lukic, who was using a false name when accosted by the
Argentinean authorities, was confirmed when his fingerprints were sent by NCB Buenos
Aires to IPSG for immediate comparison and confirmation. This success story clearly
demonstrates that our NCBs play a very key operational role in global police
cooperation, and utilizing them to their fullest potential will make a difference in our fight
against transnational crime and terrorism."

Purpose of INTERPOL

INTERPOL is not an investigative body, but instead is a support organization with the
goal of aiding in the investigation of crimes and arrests of criminals worldwide. The
organization has established a secure communications system to expedite international
cooperation and provide access to international criminal databases such as the United
States' NCIC. The organization also employs forensic science experts, police training,
and crime analysts to provide an international support system for crime fighters.

ACTIVITIES

Our crime-fighting activities assist member countries through three global programmes:

■ Counter-terrorism – To prevent and disrupt terrorist activities by identifying members

of terrorist networks and their affiliates, and tackling the main factors that enable their
activities: travel and mobility, online presence, weapons and materials, and finances.

■ Cybercrime – Our primary activities target ‘pure cybercrime’ (crimes against

computers and information systems). We also fight cyber-enabled crimes, where the
use of technology amplifies crimes such as financial fraud and terrorists’ use of social
media.

■ Organized and emerging crime – To target and disrupt transnational organized

criminal networks, and to identify, analyse and respond to emerging threats.

CAPABILITIES
Our policing capabilities are the expertise, tools and services that we provide to our
member countries.

■ Police data management – We maintain global databases detailing suspects, travel

documents, vehicles, works of art, fingerprints, DNA, firearms, and more, and make
these available to frontline officers in real time.

■ Forensics – Our experts have specialist knowledge of fingerprints, DNA, DVI, facial
recognition and digital forensics.

■ Criminal analysis – By making connections between crimes (people, places, modus

operandi), we can establish patterns and trends.

■ Fugitive investigative support – International fugitives are opportunistic and often

dangerous. We work to close the net on criminals who are on the run.

■ Command and Coordination Centre – The CCC is our first point of contact for
countries who need assistance. It operates round the clock from offices in Buenos
Aires, Lyon and Singapore.

■ Special projects – We establish projects to respond to specific trends and issues,

such as our Border Management Task Force.

■ Innovation – Criminals are quick to adopt new technologies and police need to
stay ahead of the game. Our Innovation Centre looks at research and development in
policing matters.

■ Capacity building and training – Continuous learning and development is essential

for police at all levels. We provide training tailored to the specific needs of our member
countrie
Who makes Up INTERPOL?

The General Secretariat coordinates our day-to-day activities to fight a range of

crimes. Run by the Secretary General, it is staffed by both police and civilians and
comprises a headquarters in Lyon,a global complex for innovation in Singapore and
several satellite offices in different regions.

In each country, an INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB) provides the central
point of contact for the General Secretariat and other NCBs. An NCB is run by
national police officials and usually sits in the government ministry responsible for
policing.

The General Assembly is our governing body and it brings all countries together
once a year to take decisions.

General Assembly

The General Assembly is INTERPOL’s supreme governing body, comprising

representatives from each of our member countries. It meets once a year and each
session lasts around four days.

Each member country may be represented by one or several delegates who are
typically chiefs of police and senior ministry officials.

Its purpose is to ensure that INTERPOL’s activities correspond to the needs of our
member countries. It does this by determining the principles and measures for the
Organization to reach its objectives, and by reviewing and approving the program of
activities and financial policy for the coming year.

In addition, the General Assembly elects the members of the Executive Committee,
the governing body which provides guidance and direction in between sessions of
the Assembly. On the agenda each year are also the major crime trends and security
threats facing the world.

The General Assembly takes decisions in the form of Resolutions. Each member
country represented has one vote. The decision-making process is made by either a
simple or two-thirds majority, depending on the subject matter. These Resolutions
are public documents and available from 1960 to the current date.

As the largest global gathering of senior law enforcement officials, the General
Assembly also provides an important opportunity for countries to network and share
experiences.

Executive Committee

The Executive Committee is the governing body in charge of supervising the

execution of the General Assembly’s decisions and the administration and work of
the General Secretariat. It meets three times a year and sets organizational policy
and direction. The Committee's members sit at the top level of policing in their own
countries and bring many years of experience and knowledge to advise and guide
the Organization. Its role is to:
• Supervise the execution of the decisions of the General Assembly;

• Prepare the agenda for sessions of the General Assembly;

• Submit to the General Assembly any programme of work or project which it

considers useful;

• Supervise the administration and work of the Secretary General.

Elected by the General Assembly, the Executive Committee has 13 members

comprising the President of the Organization, two vice-presidents and nine
delegates. They are all from different countries and the geographical distribution is
balanced. The President is elected for four years, and vice-presidents and delegates
for three. They are not immediately eligible for re-election either to the same posts or
as delegates to the Executive Committee.

President: Kim Jong Yang (Republic of Korea)

Vice-President: Benyamina Abbad (Algeria)

Šárka Havránková (Czech Republic)

Vice-President for the Americas – Vacant

Delegates: Khaled Jameel Al Materyeen (Jordan)

Ahmed Nasser Al-Raisi (United Arab Emirates)

Jean-Jacques Colombi (France)

Héctor Espinosa Valenzuela (Chile)

Rogerio Galloro (Brazil)

Robert Guirao Bailén (Andorra)

Destino Pedro (Angola)

Olushola Kamar Subair (Nigeria)

Jannine Van den Berg (The Netherlands)

General Secretariat

INTERPOL is a membership-based organization, and the General Secretariat is the

body that coordinates all our policing and administrative activities.

It is run by the Secretary General; currently Jürgen Stock of Germany, who was
appointed by the General Assembly in November 2014.

There are around 1,000 staff, one-quarter of whom are law enforcement personnel
seconded by their national administration. Staff work in any of the Organization's four
languages: Arabic, English, French and Spanish.
The headquarters in Lyon coordinates much of the policing expertise and services
we provide to member countries. It is also the administrative and logistical centre of
the Organization.

Based in Singapore since 2015, the INTERPOL Global Complex for Innovation is the
centre of our activities in cybercrime, research and development, and capacity
building. It also provides an Asian base for the Organization in several crime areas.
The seven regional bureaus bring together police within a region to share
experiences and tackle common crime issues:

• Argentina (Buenos Aires)

• Cameroon (Yaoundé)

• Côte d’Ivoire (Abidjan)

• El Salvador (San Salvador)

• Kenya (Nairobi)

• Thailand liaison office (Bangkok)

• Zimbabwe (Harare)

Secretary General

The Secretary General is responsible for the General Secretariat, overseeing its day-
to-day activities and ensuring that it implements the decisions of the General
Assembly and Executive Committee.

The Secretary General is proposed by the Executive Committee and appointed by

the General Assembly for a period of five years and may be re-appointed once. The
role is defined in the Constitution, notably Articles 28-30.

The current Secretary General is Jürgen Stock of Germany, appointed by the 83rd
General Assembly session in Monaco, November 2014, and reappointed in 2019 to
serve a second five-year term by the 88th General Assembly in Chile.

The Secretary General engages with leaders at both policing and political levels to
increase support for the Organization, advocating for our role within today’s global
security architecture, and being a voice for policing matters on the world stage. This
involves meeting ministers, chiefs of police and representatives of international
organizations. He welcomes high-level visitors to the General Secretariat to learn
more about our activities.

In November 2016, Mr. Stock was the first INTERPOL Secretary General to address
the United Nations General Assembly, which approved a resolution to further
enhance collaboration between the UN and INTERPOL against transnational crime
and terrorism. Secretary General Stock has also overseen increased cooperation
between INTERPOL and other international and regional bodies such as the African
Union, the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS and the Cooperation Council for the Arab
States of the Gulf.
The Secretary General coordinates the day-to-day running of the activities of the
General Secretariat. This includes all the policing activities, expertise, databases and
services that we provide our membership to support them in the fight against
international crime, and also the ‘corporate’

functions that support this work.

National Central Bureau (NCBs)

Each of our member countries hosts an INTERPOL National Central Bureau (NCB).
This connects their national law enforcement with other countries and with the
General Secretariat via our secure global police communications network called I-
24/7.

Many crimes today have an international aspect; think of cybercrimes, fugitives, or

stolen or illicit goods that are driven by organized crime groups. When a crime goes
beyond their national jurisdiction, a country needs international support to solve it.

NCBs are at the heart of INTERPOL and how we work. They seek the information
needed from other NCBs to help investigate crime or criminals in their own country,
and they share criminal data and intelligence to assist another country.

As part of their role in global investigations, NCBs work with:

• Law enforcement agencies in their own country

• Other NCBs and Sub-Bureaus around the world

• The General Secretariat’s offices worldwide

• NCBs can also develop training programmes for their national police to raise
awareness on INTERPOL’s activities, services and databases.

NCBs contribute national crime data to our global databases, in accordance with
their respective national laws. This ensures that accurate data is in the right place at
the right time to allow police to identify a trend, prevent a crime, or arrest a criminal.
For example, our Red Notices alert police in all countries to wanted persons.

NCBs cooperate on cross-border investigations, operations and arrests. To take

investigations beyond national borders, they can seek cooperation from any other
NCB.

Given the common issues faced within each region, NCBs work together
increasingly on a regional basis. They combine resources and expertise in
successful interventions against those crime areas which affect them the most.

The composition of an NCB varies from country to country, but they are usually part
of the national police force, and are staffed by highly-trained police officers.

NCBs often sit structurally in a unit close to the national police chief and most of
them have the authority to trigger law enforcement action in their own countries.
NCB staff shape INTERPOL's activities and plans, coming together each year at the
Heads of NCB Conference. This provides a unique forum for building relationships
and working together to find joint solutions to common challenges. Many Heads of
HCB also participate at our General Assembly.

INTERPOL NCBs do not respond to requests from the general public. Anyone
wishing to report a crime or provide information on an international investigation
should contact their local or national police, who will in turn contact the NCB.
Philippine Center on Transnational Crime

Interpol NCB Manila

International Criminal Police Cooperation

INTERPOL (ICPO-INTERPOL)

Working Principles

INTERPOL is not a police force. It is the machinery for international police

cooperation and communication. The principles on which Interpol’s functioning is
based have stood the best time. It has become clear that the organization cannot
have teams of detectives with supranational powers who travel around investigating
cases in different countries. International police cooperation is the coordinated action
of the member countries’ police forces, all of which supply and request information
and services.

Some of the important provisions of the Interpol constitution provide for the
following:

1. To ensure and promote the widest possible mutual assistance between all
criminal police authorities, within the limits of the laws existing in the different
countries and in the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; and
2. To establish and develop all institutions likely to contribute effectively to the
prevention and suppression of ordinary law crimes.
3. “It is strictly forbidden for the Organization to undertake any intervention or
activities of a political, military, religious or racial character”.

ICP-Interpol National Central Bureau

The ICPO- Interpol Constitution calls for the appointment by each member country of
a body to serve as the Nationals Central Bureau (NCB). Recognizing the importance
of the role of the NCBs in the context of international police co-operation and
believing that for an NCB to be effective and meet the needs of international police
co-operation, the document entitled “The National Central Bureau of the ICP-
Interpol: Policy”, was adopted as set of policy guidelines for the NCBs.

The NCBs activities can be summarized as follows:

1. Collects documents and criminal intelligence, which have a direct bearing on

international police co-operation from sources in that own countries, and pass
this material on to the other NCBs and the General Secretariat.
2. Ensures that police action or operations requested by another country’s NCBs
are carried out on their territory;
3. Receives requests for information, checks, etc. from another NCBs and reply
to such request.
4. Transmits request for international co-operation made by their own courts or
police departments to the NCBs of other countries; and
5. The Heads of the NCBs attend Interpol General Assembly sessions as
members of their countries delegations, and subsequently ensure that the
Assembly’s resolution are implemented.

The NCBs communicate directly among themselves. However, they keep the
General Secretariat informed of their investigations so that the latter can perform its
task of centralizing information and coordinating cooperation.

National Central Bureau- Interpol Manila

The NCB-Interpol Manila traces its beginnings in 1961 when the Philippines became
a member of the ICPO – INTERPOL, with the National Bureau of Investigation (NBI)
as its focal point. Since then, the NCB-Interpol Manila has undergone changes,
which enable it to confront the challenges of the times.

In one of the General Assembly meetings of the ICPO-INTERPOL, its has been
decided and adopted that the National Central Bureau shall be handled by the
controlling body or Headquarters of the Criminal Police Organization of a member
State to be able to do its undertakings with authority.

In compliance thereto the President of the Philippines issued Memorandum Order

Nr. 92 on February 15, 1993 designating the Philippine National Police as the
INTERPOL National Central Bureau for the Philippines, with the Chief, Philippine
National Police (PNP) as its concurrent Chairman.

The Interpol National Central Bureau was Originally composed of the following
members:

Director General Philippine National Police ——- Chairman

Director, National Bureau of Investigation ——– Member
Commissioner, Bureau of Customs ———Member
Commissioner, Bureau of Internal Revenue ———Member
Commissioner, Bureau of Immigration ———Member
Governor, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas ———Member
Executive Director, Dangerous Drug Board ———Member
Commissioner, EIIB ———Member

The first four were designated by the President, and the last four were unanimously
chosen by members of the NATIONAL Law Enforcement Coordinating Committee
(NALECC) as authorized by the President thru NALECC Resolution 93-10 dated 21
July 1993.

A significant change in its membership however was noted following the dissolution
of EIIB in 1999. The Executive Director of PCTC was chosen to replace the
Commissioner, EIIB pursuant to NALECC Resolution No. 02-2000 dated 26 March
2002 and was subsequently designated as Head, NCB Secretariat. The NCB
Secretariat was transferred to PCTC pursuant to Executive Order No. 100 dated 7
May 1999. Subsequently, the Central Management Office of the Department of
Finance (DOF). The Presidential Anti-Organized Crime Commission, the Philippine
Drug Enforcement Agency, the Anti-Money Laundering Council and the Department
of Finance become a member of the NALECC Sub-Committee on Interpol pursuant
to NALECC Resolutions. The member agencies of the NALECC Sub-Committee on
Interpol also serve as Functional Sub-agencies of the NALECC Sub-Committee on
Interpol also serve as Functional Sub-Committee on Interpol also serve as
Functional Sub-Bureaus of Interpol NCB Manila.

Mission and Function of Interpol NCB-Manila

NCB-INTERPOL Manila serves as the office and main coordinating body for
international police cooperation against transnational crimes representing all law
enforcement agencies in the Philippines. In the accomplishment of its mission, NCB-
INTERPOL Manila has the following functions.
 1. Monitor and coordinate all activities of all law enforcement agencies relative to
transnational crime committed against or affecting the Philippines;
2. Maintain records and minutes of all meetings of NCB-INTERPOL Manila.
3. Operate and maintain the operation center of NCB-INTERPOL Manila as the
focal point for international cooperation against transnational crimes for all law
enforcement agencies in the Philippines; and
4. The NCB-INTERPOL Manila also functions as a sub-committee of the
NALECC for the monitoring of the sensitive activities of the latter.

Roles and Function of NCB Sub-Bureaus

1. Receives request for information and record checks of local and foreign
nationals and reply to such request.
2. Conduct investigation of cases brought to their attention involving Filipino’s
and foreign nationals as requested by other Interpol member countries.
3. Monitor result of investigation for cases referred by Interpol for compliance
and feedback.
4. Ensures that cases referred for action are acted upon and reports are
rendered promptly.
5. Informs Interpol Manila on any case being handled by their agency involving
foreign nationals or seek assistance for verification or any coordination
needed with other Interpol member countries based on the Standard Message
Format.
6. Maintain a list of wanted persons (local/foreign) circulated by Interpol and
inform Interpol Manila of any arrest.
7. Gives summaries of the most important international cases in which their
agency was involved; and
8. Submits periodic activity report of accomplishments to Interpol Manila based
on the Standard Message Format.

Information exchange between the Interpol General Secretariat and NCBs.

In its progress towards the goals and objectives set for the organization renewal of
INTERPOL, the organization has undergone enormous changes in recent years
notably in the stregthening of international police cooperation and in the
modernization of telecommunications.

In order for Interpol to facilitate the rapid and reliable exchange of criminal
investigative information among the police of member countries, the NCBs used the
Interpol Global Communication System (I-24/7). In technical terms, I-24/7 is a
security technology network which operates using Internet protocols and state of the
art security technology. It delivers fast, reliable and secure information in a highly
user-friendly manner permitting immediate analysis and identification. NCBs now
have easy and immediate access to criminal information (drugs, counterfeit credit
cards and fraudulently identity documents,stolen vehicles, international notices,
weapons and explosives tracking system, finger prints and DNA, Stolen works of
art…)

Telecommunication Network (X-400 Communication System)

One of INTERPOL’s prime objective is to ensure that it’s Member States have rapid,
reliable, secure and permanently available system for transmitting to each other to
the General Secretariat. The telecommunication as network, security by encryption
system. The information to be transmitted maybe anything from typed text to images,
fingerprints to database consolations, photographs to facts files.

Benefits that the Philippines Derive as Member of the INTERPOL

1. As member of the ICPO-INTERPOL we can have access to police information

on international Criminal Cases.
2. Access to International Summaries of Criminal Cases.
3. Attend meetings and symposiums on case of special topics.
4. Request information about criminal intelligence in an international perspective
through the criminal intelligence subdivision.
5. Access to information dealing with economic and financial crime in an
international level.
6. Access to information dealing with illicit drug trafficking in an international
level.
7. Recipient of reference materials on criminology, crime prevention, criminal law
and procedures, techniques used by the police etc.
8. Participate in I.C.P.O – Interpol organized training.
9. Receives technical assistance and support on telecommunication and
computerization.
10. Use of the IPSG to circulate information intended for International
Circulation:a. Individual notices
b. Stolen property notices
c. Modus operandi sheets
d. Facilitating identification
e. Criminal information on intelligence
11. Receives cooperation from other NCB’s in Combating International Crimes
such as:a. Crimes against person
b. Crime against property
c. Organized crime and terrorism
d. Firearms and explosives used for criminal purposes
e. Human trafficking, exploitation of prostitution, child abuse
f. Unlawful interference with international civil aviation
g. Trafficking of precious substance (gold, diamond, etc.)
h. Currency counterfeiting and forgery
i. Identification, tracing, seizure and forfeiture of assets derived from criminal
activities
j. Illicit drug trafficking
k. Drug related activities
12. Receives cooperation on matters involving extradition from other NCB’s.
13. Receives technical assistance granted by the more advanced countries to
less advanced countries especially in connection with training and
specialization of police personnel.
United Nations
Overview

The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945.   It is

currently made up of 193 Member States.  The mission and work of the United
Nations are guided by the purposes and principles contained in its founding
Charter.
Official languages

6 languages

Arabic
Chinese
English
French
Russian
Spanish

United Nations Headquarters in New York City.

Due to the powers vested in its Charter and its unique international character, the
United Nations can take action on the issues confronting humanity in the 21st
century, such as peace and security, climate change, sustainable development,
human rights, disarmament, terrorism, humanitarian and health emergencies, gender
equality, governance, food production, and more.

The UN also provides a forum for its members to express their views in the General
Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, and other bodies
and committees. By enabling dialogue between its members, and by hosting
negotiations, the Organization has become a mechanism for governments to find
areas of agreement and solve problems together.

The UN's Chief Administrative Officer is the Secretary-General.

2020 marks the 75th anniversary of the United Nations.

The role of the Secretary-General

Equal parts diplomat and advocate, civil servant and CEO, the Secretary-General is
a symbol of United Nations ideals and a spokesman for the interests of the world's
peoples, in particular the poor and vulnerable among them. The current Secretary-
General, and the ninth occupant of the post, is Mr. António Guterres of Portugal, who
took office on 1 January 2017.

The Charter describes the Secretary-General as "chief administrative officer" of the

Organization, who shall act in that capacity and perform "such other functions as are
entrusted" to him or her by the Security Council, General Assembly, Economic and
Social Council and other United Nations organs. The Charter also empowers the
Secretary-General to "bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which
in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security".
These guidelines both define the powers of the office and grant it considerable scope
for action. The Secretary-General would fail if he did not take careful account of the
concerns of Member States, but he must also uphold the values and moral authority
of the United Nations, and speak and act for peace, even at the risk, from time to
time, of challenging or disagreeing with those same Member States.

That creative tension accompanies the Secretary-General through day-to-day work

that includes attendance at sessions of United Nations bodies; consultations with
world leaders, government officials, and others; and worldwide travel intended to
keep him in touch with the peoples of the Organization's Member States and
informed about the vast array of issues of international concern that are on the
Organization's agenda. Each year, the Secretary-General issues a report on the
work of the United Nations that appraises its activities and outlines future priorities.
The Secretary-General is also Chairman of the United Nations System Chief
Executives Board for Coordination (CEB), which brings together the Executive
Heads of all UN funds, programmes and specialized agencies twice a year in order
to further coordination and cooperation in the entire range of substantive and
management issues facing the United Nations System.

One of the most vital roles played by the Secretary-General is the use of his "good
offices" -- steps taken publicly and in private, drawing upon his independence,
impartiality and integrity, to prevent international disputes from arising, escalating or
spreading.

Each Secretary-General also defines his role within the context of his particular time
in office.

Main Organs

The main organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security Council, the
Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of
Justice, and the UN Secretariat.  All were established in 1945  when the UN was
founded. 
 UN Photo

The UN General Assembly Hall during a vote in November 2014 to elect

four judges to the International Court of Justice (ICJ).

General Assembly

The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative

organ of the UN. All 193 Member States of the UN are represented in the General
Assembly, making it the only UN body with universal representation.  Each year, in
September, the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in New
York for the annual General Assembly session, and general debate, which many
heads of state attend and address. Decisions on important questions, such as those
on peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters, require a
two-thirds majority of the General Assembly. Decisions on other questions are by
simple majority.  The General Assembly, each year, elects a GA President to serve a
one-year term of office.

Security Council

The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the

maintenance of international peace and security.  It has 15 Members (5 permanent
and 10 non-permanent members). Each Member has one vote. Under the Charter,
all Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security
Council takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the peace or act of
aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful means and
recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases, the
Security Council can resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of force
to maintain or restore international peace and security.  The Security Council has
a Presidency, which rotates, and changes, every month.

Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for coordination, policy
review, policy dialogue and recommendations on economic, social and
environmental issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed
development goals. It serves as the central mechanism for activities of the UN
system and its specialized agencies in the economic, social and environmental
fields, supervising subsidiary and expert bodies.  It has 54 Members, elected by the
General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. It is the United Nations’ central
platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on sustainable development.

Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter

XIII, to provide international supervision for 11 Trust Territories that had been placed
under the administration of seven Member States, and ensure that adequate steps
were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government and independence. By
1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence.  The
Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994. By a resolution
adopted on 25 May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the
obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion required -- by its
decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its
members or the General Assembly or the Security Council.

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations.
Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the only one of the
six principal organs of the United Nations not located in New York (United States of
America). The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal
disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies.

Secretariat

The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of

international UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as
mandated by the General Assembly and the Organization's other principal organs. 
The Secretary-General is chief administrative officer of the Organization, appointed
by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a five-
year, renewable term. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally, and
work in duty stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the world.   But
serving the cause of peace in a violent world is a dangerous occupation. Since the
founding of the United Nations, hundreds of brave men and women have given their
lives in its service.

UN police

The mission of UN Police is to enhance international peace and security by

supporting Member-States in conflict, post-conflict and other crisis situations. Its goal
is to realize effective, efficient, representative, responsive and accountable police
services that serve and protect the population. To that end, United Nations Police
build and support or, where mandated, act as a substitute or partial substitute for
host-State police capacity to prevent and detect crime, protect life and property and
maintain public order and safety, in adherence to the rule of law and international
human rights law.

The mandate of UN police

Depending on the mandate given by the United Nations Security Council, United
Nations police build and support, or, where mandated, act as a substitute or partial
substitute for, host-State police capacity to prevent and detect crime, protect life and
property and maintain public order and safety in adherence to the rule of law and
international human rights law.

United Nations police pursue community-oriented and intelligence-led policing

approaches to contribute to the protection of civilians and human rights; address,
among other things, sexual and gender-based violence, conflict-related sexual
violence and serious and organized crime; and conduct investigations, special
operations and electoral security.

The work of the United Nations police is undertaken within a framework which
includes the principles of security sector reform, peace building and early peace
building for peace operations, and encompasses efforts to prevent the outbreak of or
relapse into conflict. Conflict prevention involves both immediate operational
activities (stabilization and physical protection) and longer-term structural prevention
(building of political will and national capacity)within a larger context, including
reconciliation and transitional justice as critical factors for sustainable peace.

The composition of UN police

The United Nations Police occupy a unique role among the world’s police, with about
11,000 men and women from over 90 countries serving on the frontlines in 14 peace
operations (figures as of August 2020). They are deployed as formed police units ,
individual police officers, which include specialized teams, contracted seconded
police and civilian experts, which are deployed in United Nations peace operations.

United Nations police officers are supported by the Police Division of the Department
of Peacekeeping Operations, with its New York-based sections and the Brindisi-
based Standing Police Capacity. At Headquarters, the Police Adviser is responsible
for providing strategic advice and support on all policing issues to senior United
Nations officials, as well as to heads of police components of operations led by the
Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of Political Affairs.

The role of legislative bodies

The specific mandates implemented by UN police in each peace operation are

established by the United Nations Security Council in its relevant resolutions, whilst
the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (C34) provides overall
guidance to the Department of Peacekeeping Operations on peacekeeping. The
General Assembly's Fifth Committee approves the budgets for each mission.

Individual police officers (IPOs)

Individual police officers (IPOs) are police officers or other law enforcement
personnel of various ranks and experience assigned to serve with the United Nations
on secondment by governments of Member States.

As of 31 August 2017, 3,368 police officers from 87 Member States are serving with
United Nations police in UN peace operations.

Individual police officers cover the complete range of policing tasks, including the
developmment of community policing in refugee or internally-displaced persons
camps; they mentor and in some cases train national police officers; and they
provide specialization in different types of investigations and in a number of countries
they help law enforcement agents to address transnational crime.

Individual police officers are recruited in four categories, aligned with the Strategic
Guidance Framework for International Police Peacekeeping. Depending on their
expertise, IPOs work on:

Police Administration: the administrative systems, including budget management,

procurement, record-keeping and personnel management, needed for the effective
and efficient performance of the police component;
Police Capacity-Building and Development: how to best prepare officers and
host-state institutions to ensure the long-term sustainability of international peace
efforts;

Police Command: the resources, skills, capabilities and structures required to lead
a complex, multidimensional peace operation;

Police Operations: day-to-day police work, applying the basic principles of

community-oriented and intelligence-led policing to carry out investigations, provide
public safety and conduct special operations.

Formed police units (FPUs)

The majority of Police Officers serving in United Nations peacekeeping operations

are deployed as part of a Formed Police Unit (FPU). An FPU consists of
approximately 140 Police Officers, trained and equipped to act as a cohesive unit
capable of accomplishing policing tasks that individual Police Officers could not
address. Well-trained FPUs can operate even in “high-risk” environments.
FPUs have three core duties: public order management, protection of United Nations
personnel and facilities and support to such police operations that require a
concerted response but do not respond to military threats.
FPUs were deployed for the first time in the United Nations Mission in Kosovo
(UNMIK) and in the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
(UNTAET) in 1999. In both missions  the United Nations had full responsibility for
enforcing the law and dealing with threats to public order. Since then, the
deployment of FPUs has increased from nine units in 2000 to 71authorized FPUs in
2016, with over 10,000 Police Officers.
FPUs are deployed in the United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan
(UNMISS), the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), the African Union/ United
Nations Hybrid operation in Darfur (UNAMID), the United Nations Operation in Côte
d'Ivoire (UNOCI), the United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO), the United Nations Mission for
Justice Support in Haiti, the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization
Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) and the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated
Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic (MINUSCA).
The United Nations core documents for formed police units are the policy
(2016) and guidelines (2006). 
To be eligible to be deployed to United Nations missions FPUs have to undergo pre-
deployment training which meets the requirements envisaged in the UN Temporary
Training  Standards for FPUs (December 2010), and successfully pass the
assessment of operational capability conducted by Formed Police Assessment
Team (FPAT) in line with the Standard Operating Procedure for Assessment of
Operational Capability for formed police units for service in United Nations
Peacekeeping Operations (2012).
Essentially, there are three different categories to work in United Nations Police
Component:
1) As an Individual Police Officer (IPO): An IPO is temporary seconded, individually,
to work within United Nations and share his/her knowledge with the host-State
policing institutions. United Nations efforts are to bring high specialized officers to
mission areas. Some of the requirements to work as an Individual Police Officer, for
instance, are to be at least 25 years old, maximum 62, with a minimum police-related
working experience of 5 years.
2) As part of a Formed Police Unit (FPU) component: FPU roles includes crowd
control and protection of UN assets. The whole component is assessed as a unit
before being deployed to a peacekeeping operation.
3) As a professional and higher categories staff: This kind of appointment may allow
you to initiate a career in United Nations, and often a master's degree or higher
education is required. The salaries are higher and this include special functions in a
mission like Chiefs and Senior Police Advisers.
Also, UNPOL may be responsible for:

 Policy and guidance development: Creating policy and guidance and defining

the parameters of international police peacekeeping.
 Strategic planning: Strengthening the Police Division's resources and ability to
conduct strategic planning.
 Selection and recruitment processes: Improving efforts to recruit, select,
deploy and rotate highly qualified staff in missions. Increasing the number of
female officers in the UN Police service.
 Operational support to missions through the Standing Police
Capacity: Increasing the effectiveness of the operational support provided by the
Standing Police Capacity.
 Response to Sexual and Gender-based Violence (SGBV): Strengthening its
response to sexual and gender-based violence and creating guidance to assist its
police officers.
 Global Lead, partnerships and regional cooperation: leading the area of
international policing and developing partnerships for more effective delivery of its
mandates.

Specialized police teams in UN peace operations

To support host-state police with specialized policing expertise United Nations police
deploys specialized teams of individual police officers. Depending on the mandate
and need of the mission and host-state police, the teams can provide police
capacity-building, operational reinforcement to host-State police, conduct deterrent
patrols or respond independently to non-military physical threats against civilians
through use of force.  
Each team consists of experts from one (or a limited number of) Member State(s),
with special skills in areas such as investigations, serious and organized crime,
sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), or community-oriented policing.
For example, in the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), a specialized
sexual and gender-based violence police team in the police component developed
the capacity of the national police, which included the establishment of 13
specialized sexual and gender-based violence police offices, a sexual and gender-
based violence classroom at the Police School and an office for the Haitian National
Police National Coordinator on Gender and Women’s Affairs.
In the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali
(MINUSMA), a specialized team strengthens the capacity of the national police and
gendarmerie to address and respond to terrorism and transnational organized crime.
On 13 September, the specialized team conducted a workshop for over 100 law
enforcement personnel in Haiti on how to investigate sexual and gender-based
violence. 

ASEANAPOL

VISION 

" TOGETHER WE KEEP THIS REGION SAFE "

In essence embodies our reason for existence and asporation to enhance

cooperation in the realm of regional policing towards ensuring the safety of the
region.

MISSION

" PREVENTING AND COMBATING TRANSNATIONAL CRIME THROUGH A

GREATER NEXUS AND CREATIVE POLICING COLLABORATION "

To mutually contribute and synergize policing resources and expertise to effectively

thwart organised and emerging international criminal enterprises for a safer ASEAN
Community.

The first formal meeting of the Chiefs of ASEAN Police was held in Manila,
Philippines on the 21 to 23 October 1981.

 To discuss matters of law enforcement and crime control.

 This annual meeting was called ASEANAPOL Conference.  
 The basic requirement for a country to become a member of ASEANAPOL is
that the country shall first be a member of ASEAN and the application shall be
tabled at the conference for approval.
 The members of ASEANAPOL were originally Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand,
Indonesia and the Philippines.
 1984, Royal Brunei Police joined the conference for the 1st time.
 1996, The Republic of Vietnam National Police joined the conference
 1998, Laos General Department of Police and Myanmar police force joined
the conference
 2000, Cambodia National Police joined the conference
 The current members of ASEANAPOL are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao
People Democratic Republic,  Malaysia,  Myanmar, The Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.

ASEANAPOL PERMANENT SECRETARIAT

History
 
The Secretariat of ASEANAPOL was on a rotational basis with member countries
taking turns to host the ASEANAPOL Conference and automatically assume the role
of the secretariat for the current year. 

The 25th Joint Communique signed by the ASEAN Chiefs of Police during the 25th
ASEANAPOL Conference held in Bali, Indonesia, expressly stated the need to
establish a Permanent ASEANAPOL Secretariat.
 Objectives of the establishment of a Permanent Secretariat

 To harmonize and standardize coordination and communication mechanisms

amongst ASEAN police institutions;
 To conduct a comprehensive and integrative study concerning the resolutions
agreed in the ASEANAPOL Joint Communiqués
 To establish a mechanism with responsibility to monitor and follow up the
implementation of resolutions in the Joint Communiqués; and
 To transform the resolutions adopted in the Joint Communiqués into
ASEANAPOL Plan of Action and its work program

The working group which was set up to consider the viability of the permanent
ASEANAPOL Secretariat finalised that:                                                               

1. The Secretariat shall be administrated based on the Terms of Reference;

2. The Head of the Secretariat is an Executive Director and he is assisted by 2
Directors

The tenure of services are:

             Executive Director  - 2 years
             Directors               - 2 to 3 years     

 During the 29th ASEANAPOL Conference in Hanoi, Vietnam in 2009, the

Terms of Reference on the establishment of ASEANAPOL Secretariat was
endorsed.  Kuala Lumpur was made the permanent seat for the Secretariat.
 The ASEANAPOL Secretariat was fully operational from the 1st January
2010.
ASEANAPOL CONFERENCE

The Conference shall be held annually on a rotational basis amongst member

countries. The Conference will be attended by the Chiefs of Police.

ASEANAPOL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

The Executive Committee shall comprise of Deputy Heads of delegation attending

the annual Conference.

The Executive Committee shall meet annually, immediately before the Conference.

The Executive Director of the ASEANAPOL Secretariat shall present a report of its
activities, including amongst others, issues on financial performance, procurement of
works, supplies and services and control and management of contracts, to the
Executive Committee.
The Executive Committee shall provide a summary report of the activities of the
Secretariat to the Heads of Delegation at the Conference and at the Closing Plenary
Session of the Conference.

ASEANAPOL SECRETARIAT DIRECTORS

The Executive Director of the Secretariat shall be appointed by the ASEANAPOL

Conference upon nomination on a rotational basis in alphabetical order for a term of
two years. The Executive Director of the Secretariat shall be a Senior Police Officer
of the rank of Brigadier General and above or its equivalent. The Executive Director
will be assisted by Director for Police Services and Director for Plans and
Programmes shall be a Senior Police Officer of the rank of Colonel and above or its
equivalent.

OBJECTIVE OF ASEANAPOL

 Enhance police professionalism

 Forge stronger regional cooperation in policing
 Promote lasting friendship amongst police officers of member countries

OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SECRETARIAT

OBJECTIVES

 Ensure the effective implementation of all resolutions adopted at the

ASEANAPOL Conferences;
 Serve as a coordination and communication mechanism to allow members to
establish and to maintain all channels of interaction amongst members;
 Foster mutual assistance and cooperation amongst members; and
 Endeavour to increase regional cooperation efforts against transnational
crime.

FUNCTIONS

 Prepare and implement work plans for effective implementation of all the
resolutions adopted in the annual Joint Communiqués signed at the
ASEANAPOL Conferences;
 Facilitate and coordinate cross-border cooperation on intelligence and
information sharing and exchange;
 Facilitate and coordinate joint operations and activities involving criminal
investigations, the building and maintenance of the ASEANAPOL database,
training, capacity building, the development of scientific investigative tools,
technical support and forensic science;
 Provide support and necessary assistance in organising the ASEANAPOL
Conferences;
 Submit on a quarterly basis to the Chiefs of ASEAN Police Forces proposals
on all planned programmed and activities to be carried out;
 Prepare an annual report on its activities and expenditure to be presented to
the ASEANAPOL Executive Committee immediately before the ASEANAPOL
Conference, and distributed to all members and to the ASEANAPOL
Conference; and;
 Act as a custodian of all documents and records of ASEANAPOL