Chapter-2

DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM

2.1. Introduction
Drip irrigation is a method, which optimizes the use of irrigation water by providing it uniformly and
directly to the roots of the plants by drippers. Drip irrigation system is considered to be the most efficient
method of irrigation. It saves about 60% of water as compared to surface irrigation. The drip irrigation
system consists of a network of pipes along with suitable dripper device. In this system water is applied at
lower rate for a longer period at frequent intervals near the plant root zone and through a lower pressure
delivery system (0.5 to 2.0 kg/cm2) to a plant. It has been very successful for irrigating horticultural crops
like mango, banana, grapes, pomegranate, guava, citrus, brinjal, cucumber, okra, capsicum etc.

From the available literature and the results obtained through experiments conducted at different places, it
is known that 50 to 70% of the irrigation water can be saved and 10 to 70% increase in yield of fruits and
vegetable crops is possible through drip irrigation system (Table-1).

Table 2.1. Extent of Water Saving and Increase in Yield with Drip Irrigation System
Sl No. Name of Crops Water Saving (%) Increase in Yield (%)

1 Sugarcane 50 99

2 Tomato 42 60

3 Watermelon 66 19

4 Cucumber 56 45

5 Chilli 68 28

6 Cauliflower 68 70

7 Okra 37 33

8 Groundnut 40 152

9 Mulberry 22 23

10 Gram 41 18

Advantages:

 Saves water
 Enhances plant growth and yield
 Uniform and better quality of produce
 Efficient and economic use of fertilizers
 Less weed growth
  Possibility of using saline water
 No soil erosion
 Flexibility in operation
 Labour saving
 No land preparation for irrigation
 Minimum diseases and pest infestation.

Limitations
 Clogging of system components by particulates, chemical and biological materials
 Poor uniformity of application due to clogging
 Cost due to equipment need such as pipe, emitters, valves etc. make the cost per hectare very
high.
 Costs are generally comparable to solid set sprinkler systems but higher than those of surface
irrigation (except where high land levelling cost is involved).
 Crop root development is limited to the wetted portion of the root zone.
 Reduces plant’s ability to withstand winds.
 Salt accumulation problem may arise when saline water is used.
 For application of precise amount of water, fluctuations of pressure from the design pressure
should be limited.
 Higher level of technology and sophisticated equipment are required.

2.2. Types of Drip Irrigation System

The basic types of drip irrigation system are as follows:

Surface System. In this system drippers and laterals are laid on the land surface. It is primarily used on
widely spaced plant, but can also be used for row crops.

Sub-surface system. In this system water is applied slowly below the land surface through the drippers.
These systems are used on small fruits and vegetables.

Bubbler. In this system water is applied to the land surface in a small stream or fountain. A small basin is
required to control the distribution of water. Advantages of bubbler system include reduced filtration,
maintenance or repair and energy requirements as compared with other drip irrigation system.

Micro Sprinkler. This is a combination of sprinkler and drip irrigation. Water is sprinkled around the
root zone of trees with a small sprinkler working under low pressure. Water is applied only to the root
zone area as in case of drip irrigation but not to the entire ground surface as done in case of sprinkler
irrigation method.

Pulse. Pulse system uses high discharge rate drippers and consequently has short water application time.
The primary advantage of this system is a possible reduction in the clogging problems.
Biwall. It is extruded dual chamber micro-irrigation tubing manufactured from Linear Low Density
Polyethylene (LLDP). This system is suitable for all closely spaced row crops like sugarcane, cotton,
vegetables, grapes, pineapple, onion, tea etc.

2.3. Components of Drip Irrigation System

Different components of a drip irrigation system are shown in Fig.2.1. The components can be grouped
into two major heads:

i) Control head and ii) Distribution network.

Control Head.

The control head of a drip irrigation includes the components such as pump and overhead tank, filter,
fertilizer applicators or fertigation unit and pressure regulator.

Pump/Overhead Tank. It is required to provide sufficient pressure in the system. Centrifugal pumps are
generally used for low pressure trickle irrigation systems. Overhead tank is generally used for small areas
of orchard crops with a comparatively lesser water requirement.

Filters. The hazard of blocking or clogging necessitates the use of filters for efficient and trouble free
operation of the drip irrigation system. Different types of filters are described below.

a) Media Filter. It consists of fine gravel and sand of selected sizes placed in a pressurized tank.
Media filters are not easily plugged by algae and can remove relatively large amounts of
suspended solids before cleaning is needed. It can retain particle sizes in the range of 25 to 200
. In general water flow rates through the gravel filter is between 10 to 18 lps per square metre
of filtration surface area.
 Fig.2.1. Drip irrigation system with different components

b) Centrifugal Filter. It uses vortex motion and centrifugal force to remove suspended substances with
specific gravities greater than 1.2.

c) Screen Filter. The screen filter consists of a screen made of metal, plastic, or synthetic cloth enclosed
in a cylinder with special housing used to limit maximum particle size. It is fitted in series with gravel
filter to remove the solid impurities like fine sand, dust etc. from water. Screen blockage of algae is
routinely cleaned. Screen filters are provided after the fertilizer applicator/fertigation unit.

Fertilizer Applicators. Application of fertilizer into the drip irrigation system is done by either a by-pass
pressure tank or by venturi pump or direct injection system.

Pressure Regulators. These are generally used to decrease the higher pressure to the required
lower pressure. It controls the pressure only in one way i.e. high to low.

Distribution Network
t mainly constitutes main line, sub main line and laterals with drippers and other accessories.

Main and Sub Main line.

A typical drip main line is generally made of rigid PVC and High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
pipes of 65 mm diameter and above with a pressure rating of 4 to 6 kg/cm 2. For sub main pipe
line, rigid PVC, HDPE or LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) pipes with diameter ranging from
32 to 75 mm and pressure rating of 2.5 kg/cm2 are recommended.

Laterals.
These are normally manufactured from LDPE. Generally pipes of 10, 12 and 16 mm internal
diameter with wall thickness varying from 1 to 3 mm are used in drip irrigation system.
Drippers/emitters.
An emitter is a device which applies water to the soil from the distribution system. They function
as energy dissipaters, reducing the inlet pressure head (0.5 to 1.5 atmosphere) to zero atmosphere
at the outlet. Most of the point source drippers are either on-line or in-line drippers. They are
manufactured from Poly-propylene material.

a) In-Line Drippers. These are fixed along with the line, i.e. the pipe is cut and dripper is fixed
in between the cut ends, such that it makes a continuous row after fixing the dripper. They have
generally a simple thread type or labyrinth type flow path (Fig.2.2). These are also known as
point source emitters.

Fig.2.2. Types of emitter connections

b) On-Line Drippers. These are fixed on the lateral by punching suitable size holes in the pipe.
On-line drippers are also shown in Fig. 2.2. These are also known as line source emitters.
i) Simple Type Laminar Flow. In this type of dripper the discharge is directly proportional to
pressure. They have simple threaded type, labyrinth type, zig-zag path, vortex type flow path or
have float type arrangement to dissipate energy.
ii) Turbo Key Drippers. They are made of virgin and stabilized polymers and are available in 2,
4 and 8 lph discharge. They are resistant to blockage and are pressure compensating.
iii) Pressure Compensating Drippers. This type of dripper gives a fairly uniform discharge
within the pressure range of 0.3 to 3.5 atmosphere. They are provided with a high quality rubber
diaphragm to control pressure and are most suitable on slopes and difficult terrain.
iv) Built-in Dripper Tube. In this system, polyethylene drippers are inseparably welded to the
inside of the tube during extrusion of polyethylene pipes. They are provided with independent
pressure compensating water discharge mechanism and extremely wide water passage to prevent
clogging. Other accessories include take out/starter, rubber grommet, end plug, joints, tees and
manifolds, etc.
Table 2.2. General estimates of trickle system equipment requirements (Adapted from
Hanks
And Keller, 1972).
Type of crop Row spacing Plants per Emitters per Lateral Length
(m) Hectare Hectare (m/ha)
Ordinary orchards 6 250 500 – 1500 1,900
Dwarf orchards and vineyards 3.7 1,000 2,000 3,040
Berries and wide-spaced row crops 1.5 15,000 7,500 6,840
Greenhouse and close-spaced row crops 1 25,000 10,000 10,640

Problem 2.1. A typical orchard is to be developed on a field with dimensions of 253 m x 439 m.
The orchard will be irrigated using a trickle system laid out so that each tree is served by four
emitters. The following design conditions are based on peak period requirements at full tree
maturity:
(a) Operating pressure head at the emitter = 10 m
(b) Peak period crop water requirement = 5 mm/d
(c) Distribution pattern efficiency = 92 per cent
(d) Operating time = 18 h/d
Estimate the following design parameters:

(a) Number of emitters required.

(b) Required emitter discharge, l/h.
(c) Length of lateral, m.

Solution: From Table 2.2. for an ordinary orchard, plant density is 250 trees per hectare. Calculate
number of emitters required rounding to the nearest number of integer trees.

N = 253 x 439 x 250 x 4 = 11,108 emitters.

1000

Calculate the required emitter discharge taking into account the crop water requirement, distribution
pattern efficiency, and operating time. Begin by calculating the equivalent application rate.

Depth of application rate, da = 5 x 1 = 0.302 mm/h

0.92 18
Discharge rate/emitter, q = 0.302 x 253 x 439 x 1000 = 3.0 l/h

1000 x 11,108

Calculate required lateral length, L using 1,900 m/ha from Table 2.2.

L = 1900 x 253 x 439 = 21,103 m.

10000

2.4. Classification of Emitters

As mentioned earlier, emitters are either in-line or on-line emitters. The primary differences are:
a) In in-line emitters, the entire flow required downstream passes through the in-line emitter.

b) There is more head loss along a lateral with on-line emitter than one with in-line emitters.

Point source emitters can also be classified as i) long path emitters, ii) orifice type and iii)
pressure compensating emitter. Classification depends on the exponent of the equation

Q = K Px …… (2.1)
where Q = emitter discharge, P = operating pressure, K, x = constants for a emitter.
 When x approaches 1, the emitter is long-path emitter or laminar flow type emitter.
 When x is about 0.5, it is an orifice type emitter.
 When x is positive and nearly zero, the emitter is of pressure compensating type.

Also the exponent x provides a great deal of insight into the performance characteristics of the
emitter.
 When x = 1, it is laminar flow,
 x = 0.57, it is turbulent flow,
 x = 0.50, it is fully turbulent flow.
When x = 1, discharge and operating pressure are linearly related; hence the discharge of these
emitters is sensitive to fluctuations in operating pressure. In addition, discharge is very sensitive
to fluid temperature since the value of K depends on fluid viscosity.
When x  0.5 in turbulent or fully turbulent flow, emitter discharge is not as sensitive to
operating pressure and temperature (viscosity).
 Fig.2.3. Different emitters used in drip systems

Emitters with x < 0.5 are called pressure compensating emitters, since the influence of pressure
and discharge is reduced with smaller x values. The degree of pressure compensation increases
as x approaches zero. Pressure compensating emitters are especially useful in minimizing emitter
discharge variation when large pressure variations due to undulating terrain or system variation
are expected.

2.5. Planning and Design of Drip Irrigation System

The planning and design of drip irrigation system is essential to supply the required amount of irrigation
water. The daily water requirement of the plant is the water taken by the plant from the soil to meet
evapo-transpiration in a day. The plant intake is affected by the leaf area, stage of growth, climate, soil
conditions etc. The water requirement and irrigation schedule can be estimated by the direct observation,
but the simplest and most common method is pan evaporation data. To apply the required amount of
water uniformly to all the plants in the field, it is essential to design the system to maintain desired
hydraulic pressure in the pipe network. The design of drip irrigation system is essentially a decision
regarding the drippers, laterals, manifolds, sub main, main pipe line and required pumping unit. The steps
needed to be followed for designing the drip irrigation system are given below.

i) Collection of General Information. General information on water source, crops to be grown,

topographic condition, type and texture of the soil and climatic data are essential for designing the drip
irrigation system. In general, the following guidelines are used for supply of adequate water through
installation of drip irrigation system.

Orchard crop:

Water supply : 1 litre per second/ha for 4 hours per day

Storage capacity : 15 m3/ha

Power requirement : 1 HP/ha.

Vegetables and other closely spaced crops:

Water supply : 3 litre per second/ha for 4 hours per day

Storage capacity : 45 m3/ha

Power requirement : 3 HP/ha.

ii) Layout of the Drip Irrigation System. The layout of the path and lengths of main line, sub main line
and lateral lines is worked out to connect the water source with the existing/planned cropped area (Fig-1).
The sub main should run along the slope of the field and lateral across the slope or along the contour lines
of the field.

iii) Crop Water Requirement. The water requirement of crops varies at various growth stages, soil and
atmospheric conditions. Water requirements of few crops presented in Table2.3 may be used as guideline
for design purpose.

Table 2.3. Water Requirement of Some Horticultural Crops

 Name of the crop Spacing, m Water requirement, l/plant/day

Minimum Maximum

Banana 2.0 x 2.0 4 20

Papaya 2.0 x 2.0 3 12

Orange 5.0 x 5.0 20 65

Guava 6.0 x 6.0 25 65

Mango 10.0 x 10.0 40 90

Cashew 7.5 x 7.5 40 80

Jujube 6.0 x 6.0 30 70

Sapheda 10.0 x 10.0 60 125

Pomegranate 5.0 x 5.0 20 50

Tomato 0.6 x 0.6 0.5 1.5

Okra 0.3 x 0.3 0.5 2

Rose 0.75 x 0.75 1 2

Jasmine 1.5 x 1.5 3 5

The daily crop water requirement is estimated by

V = Ep x Kp x Kc x A x Wp ….. (2.2)

where V = volume of water required in litre,

Ep = mean pan evaporation for the month in mm per day,

Kp = pan coefficient,

Kc = crop coefficient,

A = area to be irrigated, m2

Wp = percentage wetting.

Net volume of water to be applied, Vn = V – Re x A x Wp ….. (2.3)

where Re = effective rainfall, mm.

No of daily operating hours of the system

= (Vn x Wp) / ( No of drippers per plant x No of plants x Dripper discharge) …… (2.4)

The crop coefficient (Kc) varies with the crop growth stage and season. The crop coefficient (K c) for the
most critical stage is considered for design of drip irrigation system.

iv) Hydraulic Design of the System. The ideal drip irrigation system is one in which all drippers deliver
the same volume of water in a given time. Practically, it is impossible to achieve this ideal performance.
However, the variation of water pressure in dripper can be controlled by hydraulic design.

Flow carried by each lateral line (Q1) = Discharge of dripper x No of drippers per lateral.

Flow carried by each sub main line (Q2) = Q1 x No of lateral lines per sub main.

Flow carried by main line (Q) = Q s x No of sub main line.

The diameter of the main, sub main and laterals are chosen based on the hydraulics of pipe flow.
The pressure drop due to friction can generally be evaluated with the help of Williams and Hazen
formula.
v) Selection of Components. The finalization of dimensions of mains, sub mains and laterals and
selection of pump consists of the following steps:

Total head loss due to friction (Hf)

= Friction head loss in (mains + sub mains + laterals) + head loss in accessories.

Operating pressure head required at the dripper = He (m),

Total static head = Hs (m), Total pumping head, H = Hf + He + Hs

Discharge of main = Qm (lps), Efficiency of pump = p, Efficiency of motor = m.

Power required = (H x Qm) / (75 x p x m) ........(2.5)

Head Loss in Drip Laterals

The pipes used in drip irrigation system are made of plastics and are considered as smooth pipe. The
pressure drop due to friction or frictional head loss can be computed with the help of Hazen-William
equation. The general form of the equations reproduced below are same as given for sprinkler irrigation:

Hf = K c L Qm /D2m + n ...... (2.6)

Values of c, m and n are given in sprinkler irrigation chapter. However, Hazen-William equation for drip
system is as follows:

Hf = 15.27 Q1.852 .L /D4.871 ..... (2.7)

where Hf = head loss by friction, m

Q = discharge through the pipe, lps

D = inside diameter of pipe, cm

L = length of pipe, m.

As the length of pipe increases, the discharge along the pipe decreases and the total energy loss is less
than given by the equation. For this reason, a reduction factor F is introduced as follows:

F = [2N/ (2N - 1)] { (1/m + 1) + (m - 1)0.5 /6 N2} ...... (2.8)

where N = number of emitters along the lateral,

m = 2, 1.85 and 1.90 for Darcy-Weisbach, Hazen-William and Scobey's equations

respectively.
The total energy drop in sub main or lateral can also be approximately estimated from the following
formula:

H = 5.35 Q1.852 .L /D4.871 ........ (2.9)

The design criteria for lateral pipe is to keep pressure and discharge variation within the prescribed limit.
For lateral design, the discharge and operating pressure at dripper are required to be known. Based on
this, the allowable head loss can be calculated using standard formula. The diameter of lateral pipe is
usually selected such that the difference in discharge between drippers operating simultaneously will not
exceed 10%. Pressure head difference should not exceed 10 to 15% of the operating pressure. If discharge
variation of 10% is allowed, the emission uniformity has to be more than 90%.

Head Loss in Sub Main

The sub main line hydraulics is similar to the lateral hydraulics. The sub main hydraulics characteristics
can be computed by assuming the laterals as analogous to drippers on lateral line. Hydraulic
characteristics of sub main and mainline pipe are usually taken hydraulically smooth since PVC and
HDPE pipes are normally used. The Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient is usually between 140 to 150.
The energy loss in the sub main can be computed by applying the method used for laterals.

Head Loss in Main Line

Usually the pressure controls or adjustments are provided at the sub main inlet. Therefore, energy losses
in the mainline should not affect system uniformity. There is no outlet in case of main line. Therefore,
reduction factor is not multiplied. The frictional head loss in main pipeline is calculated by the Darcy-
Weisbach or Hazen-Williams formula.

2.6. Emitter Uniformity

To maintain a balance between crop water requirement and the emitter discharge along a lateral, there
should be high degree of uniformity. It is represented by emission uniformity and is given by:

Ue = 100 [1.0 – (1.27/n) Cv] qmin / qavg ….. (2.10)

where Ue = emission uniformity, per cent

n = number of emitters per plant for point source emitters on a permanent crop,

n = a value greater of the following two ( a & b) for a line source emitter on an annual
row crop,
(a) spacing between plants divided by same unit length of lateral line used by the
manufacturer to compute Cv,
(b) 1.0
Cv = manufacturer’s specified coefficient of variation,

qmin = minimum emitter discharge, l/h and

qavg = average or design emitter discharge, l/h.

The qmin corresponds to the point of minimum pressure in the distribution system. C v is a function of the
type of emitter, and the quality control in manufacturing process. Recommended ranges of design
emission uniformity are given by ASAE as function of (a) type of emitter, (b) crop spacing and (c) field
topography. Field emission uniformity can be determined by equation (2.10) using measured values of C v,
qmin and qavg. Field procedures are:

i) Select four lateral lines along a sub main (one at the inlet, one at the far end and two in the
middle).
ii) Select four positions as in (i) on each lateral.

iii) Measure emitter discharge at each position on the lateral for two adjacent emitters (volume over one
minute time).

iv) Calculate Cv, qmin and qavg using the data for 16 positions and substitute the results in equation (10).

Cv is calculated by using the following formula:

_
Cv = (q1 + q2 + ……. + qn – n q ) / [q (n – 1)1/2]
2 2 2 - 2 1/2
……..
(2.11)
where Cv = manufacturer’s coefficient of uniformity,

q1, q2, ….qn = discharge of emitters, (l/h)

q = average discharge of emitters tested (l/h) and

n = number of emitters tested.

Table 2.4. Design standards for emission uniformity coefficient for arid areas. (Adapted from

ASAE Standard EP405,1985)

Type of emitter Crop Spacing Field Topography Emission Uniformity (per cent)
Point source Widea Uniformc 90 – 95
Steepd or undulating 85 – 90
Closeb Uniform 85 – 90
Steep or undulating 80 – 90
Line source Close Uniform 80 – 90
Steep or undulating 75 - 85
a - Spaced greater than 4 m apart

b – Spaced less than 2 m

c – Slope less than 2 per cent

d – Slope greater than 2 per cent

Problem 2.2. A trickle system is to be designed for an established orchard in which the field slope is
greater than 2 per cent and spacing between trees is greater than 4 m. Four point source emitters are to be
used per tree. Design emitter discharge is 8.0 l/h and the manufacturer’s coefficient of variation is 0.08.
Compute the minimum emitter discharge.
Solution. From ASAE Standards in Table 2.4, the minimum design emission uniformity is

Ue-min = 85 per cent

Emission uniformity can be estimated by equation (2.10) as:

Ue = 100 [1.0 – (1.27/n) Cv] qmin / qavg

Substituting the problem variables in the above equation for emission uniformity,

85 = 100 [1.0 – (1.27/4) 0.08][qmin / 8.0

Solving for qmin, qmin = 8.0 x 0.85 = 6.977 l/h = 7 l/h

0.9746

2.7. Emitter Hydraulics

The relationship between emitter discharge and operation pressure is dependent upon flow regime. The
flow regime is determined by the Reynold’s number which is computed as:

RN = v D / (1000) ….. (2.12)

where, RN = Reynold’s number, dimensionless

V = flow velocity, m/s

D = emitter diameter, mm

 = kinematic viscosity of water, m2/s

The standard value for the kinematic viscosity of water is 1.0 x 10 -6 m2/s at 20oC. The following
categories are used to describe the flow regime as a function of Reynold’s number:

(a) Laminar RN  2000

(b) Unstable 2000  RN  4000
(c) Partially turbulent 4000  RN  10,000
(d) Fully turbulent RN  10,000
The relationship between Reynold’s number and the dimensionless friction factor f given by:
 f = hf . …..(2.13)

(L/D) (v2/2g)

where, hf = headloss due to friction, m

L = length of pipe or tubing over which headloss is evaluated, m

D = diameter of pipe or tubing, m

v2/2g = velocity head of flow, m

Different equations relating emitter discharge and operating pressure are required depending on the type
of emitter and flow regime. The discharge equation for an orifice emitter in fully turbulent flow is given
as:

q = 3.6 (A) C0 (2gH)0.5 ….. (2.14)

where, q = emitter discharge, l/h

A = emitter cross sectional flow area, mm 2

C0 = orifice coefficient, dimensionless

g = acceleration of gravity = 9.807 m/s 2

H = orifice operating pressure head, m.

The orifice coefficient is typically assumed equal to 0.6 for application in Eq. (2.14)

The governing equation for long path emitter operating in a laminar flow regime is given as:

q = 0.11384 (A) [ 2g (HD/fL)] 0.5 …..(2.15)

where, f = friction factor, dimensionless

L = emitter length, m
Under turbulent flow, the governing equation for discharge from a long-path emitter is given by:

q = 0.11384 (A) [ 2g (√HD/fL] 0.5 …..(2.16)

Different expressions are required for the friction factor f dependent upon flow regime. The linear
expression for laminar flow is given as:

f = 64 / RN …..(2.17)

For fully turbulent flow, f is said to be a function of the relative roughness of the pipe or tubing material.
The expression for the friction factor in the fully turbulent regime is given by:

1 = 2 log (D / €) + 1.14 ….. (2.18)

√f

where, € = absolute roughness of pipe or tubing, mm. The logarithmic expression in Eq. (2.18) is base
10. Table 2.5 indicated absolute roughness values for different pipe and tubing materials.

Table 2.5. Values of the absolute roughness (€) for various pipe and tubing materials

(Adapted from Albertson et al.,1960)

Absolute Roughness (mm)

Material Minimum Maximum
Plastic 0.003 0.03
Commercial steel and wrought iron 0.03 0.09
Galvanized iron 0.06 0.02
Aluminium 0.1 0.3
Concrete 0.3 3.0
Riveted steel 0.9 9.0
Corrugated metal pipe 30.0 60.0

Problem 2.3. Determine the required diameter of an orifice emitter in a turbulent flow regime with a
design discharge of 10 l/h and operating pressure head of 10 m. Assume a value of 0.6 for the orifice
coefficient.
Solution. The discharge from an orifice emitter can be calculated by the equation (2.14)

q = 3.6 (A) C0 (2gH)0.5

where, q = emitter discharge, l/h

A = emitter cross sectional flow area, mm 2

C0 = orifice coefficient, dimensionless

g = acceleration of gravity = 9.807 m/s 2

H = orifice operating pressure head, m.

 q = 3.6 x A x 0.6 x [2 x 9.807 x 10]0.5

Substituting the design discharge and solving for the cross-sectional area and diameter,

A = 10.0 = 0.3305 mm2 =  D2

30.26 4
D = 0.65 mm.

Problem 2.4. Compute the required length of a long-path emitter for a system with a design discharge of
4.0 l/h and operating pressure head of 10.0 m using smooth plastic micro-tubing with an inside diameter
of 1.0 mm. Assume the standard value of 1.0 x 10-6 for the kinematic viscosity of water.

Solution. Compute the Reynold’s number using Eq.(2.12) to determine the flow regime.

v = q / A = 4.0 l/h = 1.4147 m/s

 (1.0 mm)2

4
 RN = 1.4147 x 1.0 = 1415  2000

1000 x (1.0 x 10-6)

Therefore, the flow is laminar. Compute the friction factor using Eq. (2.17)

f = 64 / 1415 = 0.0452

Substituting into Eq. (2.15), the only unknown is the length of micro-tubing.

q = 0.11384 (A) [ 2g (HD/fL)] 0.5

4.0 = 0.11384 [ (1.0)2/4][ 2 x 9.807 (10.0 x 1.0 / 0.0452 x L)]

√L = 1.472

L = 2.167 m.

Problem 2.5. Compute the required length of a long-path emitter for the same system as that given in
problem 2.4 except that the design discharge is 28 l/h.

Solution. Compute the Reynold’s number for this flow and the velocity is directly proportional to the
discharge, we can set up the Reynold’s number as a function of that computed in problem2.4.

RN = 1415 [28.0 / 4.0) = 9905

Assume a flow regime will be fully turbulent at this high a Reynold’s number. Apply Eq. (2.18) for the
friction factor. Use the value of € from Table 2.5 for plastic equal to 0.003 mm for the absolute
roughness.

1/√f = 2 log (1.0 / 0.003) + 1.14

f = 0.0261

Substituting into Eq. (2.16) and solving for emitter length,

28.0 = 0.11384 (0.7854 [ 2 x 9.807 √10.0 x 1.0 / (0.0261 x L)]0.5

 L = 0.0242 m

The length requirements have therefore been substantially reduced by increasing the discharge and going
from a laminar to turbulent regime.

2.8. Installation, Operation and Maintenance of Drip Irrigation System

Installation

Installation of the drip system can be divided into three stages.

i) Installation of filter units

ii) Laying of mains and submains

iii) Laying of laterals and fixing of drippers.

Installation of Filter Unit. The following points should be considered for installation of filter unit.

 There should be minimum use of fittings such as elbows and bends.

 The filter unit should be located on the delivery side of the pump.
 The filter size should be in accordance with the capacity of the system.

Laying of Mains and Submains. Except for fully portable system, both mains and sub-mains are
installed underground at a minimum depth of 0.5 m such that they are unaffected by cultivation or by
heavy harvesting machinery. Even for systems, which have portable laterals that are removed at the end
of each season, it is common practice to install permanent underground mains and submains. Generally
sub mains run across the direction of the rows.
 Fig.2.4. Different arrangement of drippers

Laying of Laterals with Drippers. Generally laterals are laid on the ground surface. Usually laterals are
placed along the contours on sloping field. Burying laterals underground might be necessary or at least
have some advantages for some installations. Where this is done, the distributors should be above the
ground level. The downstream end of the lateral can be closed by simply folding back the pipe and
closing it with a ring of larger diameter pipe, known as end plug. This can easily be slipped for flushing.
The simplest connection for low pressure system is for the lateral to be inserted directly into the sub main.
Cutting a slightly undersized hole in the sub main with either a wood auger bit or a metal twist drill does
this. The hole is expanded with the tapered tool, and then the lateral is inserted quickly after withdrawing
the taper. The lateral is cut at an angle of about 45 o at the end.

Punching of Laterals and Fixing of Drippers. The following steps may be followed:

a) The dripper's size and arrangement (Fig-7) should be made according to design, soil water report and
water requirement in peak summer.
b) Water is passed through the polythene and flushed so that it gets bulged and punching becomes easy.

c) Holes are made using punch on the lateral as per the required spacing.

d) The On-line point source drippers should be fixed such that outlets face upwards after laterals are
spread on the ground.

e) While fixing the dripper, push it inside the lateral and pull it slightly.

f) The end of the lateral should be closed with end cap.

Testing of the Dripper System

After installing the system, its testing should be done in the following way:

a) All the gate valves and flush valves should be opened before testing.

b) The filter should be backwashed till clean water comes out through its flush valve.

c) The flush valve should be closed after flushing of sub main.

d) The working of air release valve is checked at the sub main.

e) After flushing of laterals, these should be closed with the help of end caps.

f) The pressure at inlet and outlet of the filter should be checked regularly and the desired pressure should
be obtained by regulating the bye pass valve.

g) At this pressure, the discharge from the drippers is measured to study their discharge variation and
emission uniformity.

The emission uniformity can be calculated by the following equation:

EU = (qn / qa) x 100 ……. (2.19)

where qn = average of lowest ¼ of drippers flow rate,

qa = average dripper flow rate.

Chemical Injection Equipments

Fertilizers and chemicals for controlling clogging of emitters are sometimes directly injected into the drip
systems as such application is very effective. Chemical injection requires that the pressure acting on the
chemical is greater than the operating pressure in the system. Fig.2.5 shows some typical arrangements
for this purpose. Chemicals are to be injected upstream of the filters so that any precipitates are removed
before they could enter the main system.

Maintenance of Drip Irrigation System

Periodic preventive maintenance is required for successful operation of a drip irrigation system.

General Maintenance.

a) The dripper functioning, wetting pattern and leakage of pipes, valves, and fittings should be checked
regularly.

b) The placement of drippers should be ascertained. If the placement is disturbed, the drippers
should be placed back in proper position.
c) Leakage through filter gaskets in the lids, flushing valves and fittings etc are to be monitored
regularly.

Fig.2.5. Schematic arrangement for chemical injection

Filter Cleaning.
Filter is the heart of a drip system and its failure will lead to clogging of the entire system.
Pressure difference across the filter gives the correct indication of the timing of cleaning of the
filter.

a) Sand Filter. The filter should be backwashed everyday for five minutes to remove the silt and other
dirt accumulated during the previous day’s irrigation. Once in a week, while backwashing, the backwash
water should be allowed to pass through the lid instead of the backwash valves. The sand in the filter bed
is stirred up to the filter candles without damaging them. Whatever dirt is accumulated deep inside the
sand bed will get free and go out with the water through the lid.

b) Screen Filter. Before the start of the drip irrigation system, the flushing valve on the filter link should
be opened so that the dirt and silt will be flushed out. The filter element is taken out from the filter and it
is cleaned in flowing water. The rubber seals are taken out from both the sides and precaution should be
taken while replacing the rubber seals, otherwise they may get damaged.

Sub Main and Lateral / Bi-wall Flushing. Sometimes silt escapes through the filters and settles in
submains and laterals. Also some algae and bacteria lead to the formation of slimes/pastes in the pipe and
laterals. To remove these, the sub mains should be flushed by opening the flush valves. The lateral lines
are flushed by removing the end caps. By flushing, even the traces of accumulated salts will also be
removed. The flushing is stopped once the water going out is clean.

Chemical Treatment.

Clogging / plugging of drippers/orifices of bi-wall is due to precipitation and accumulation of certain

dissolved salts like carbonates, bi-carbonates, iron, calcium and manganese salts. The clogging is also due
to the presence of micro-organisms and the related iron and sulphur slimes due to algae and bacteria.

The clogging or plugging is usually removed by chemical treatment. Chemical treatments commonly used
in micro-irrigation systems include addition of chloride and/or acid to the water supply. The frequency of
chemical treatment is decided on the basis of degree of clogging and quality of water. As a general rule,
acid treatment is performed once in ten days and chlorine treatment once in fifteen days.

a) Acid Treatment. Hydrochloric acid is injected into the drip system at the rate suggested in the water
analysis report. The acid treatment is performed till a pH of 4 is observed at the end of lateral lengths.
After achieving a pH of 4, the system is closed for 24 hours. On the next day, the system is flushed by
opening the flush valve and lateral end caps.
b) Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine treatment in the form of bleaching powder is performed to inhibit the
growth of micro-organisms like algae and bacteria. The bleaching powder is dissolved in water and the
solution is injected into the system for about 30 minutes. Then the system is shut off for 24 hours. After
that the lateral end caps and flush valves are opened to flush out the water with impurities. The
recommended chlorine dosages are 0.5 to 1.0 ppm continuously or 20 ppm for 20 minutes at the end of
each irrigation cycle for algae, while for slimes, 1.0 ppm free residual chlorine is maintained at the end of
each laterals. For iron precipitation, 0.64 times the Fe ++ content are used to maintain 1.0 ppm free residual
chlorine at the end of each laterals. Efficiency of chlorine injection is related to pH of the water to be
treated. More chlorine is required at a high pH. The rate of injection of liquid chlorine or acid depends on
the system flow rate and can be determined by:

qc = K (u Qs) / c ……. (2.20)

where qc = rate of injection of chemical into the system, lph

K = conversion constant, 3.6 x 10-3 for metric units

u = desired dosage in irrigation water, ppm

Qs = irrigation system discharge capacity, lps and

c = concentration of the desired component in liquid chemical concentrate, kg/l.

Application of Fertilizers and Other Agro-chemicals

The drip irrigation method provides an opportunity for precise application of water soluble fertilizers and
other nutrients to the soil at appropriate time with the desired concentration. All chemicals applied
through irrigation system must meet the following criteria.

a) Avoid corrosion, softening of plastic pipe and tubing or clogging or any component of the system.

b) Should be safe for field use.

c) It has to be soluble or emulsifiable in water.

d) Should not react adversely to salts or other chemicals in the irrigation water.

Equipment and Methods for Fertilizer Injection

Fertilizers can be injected into the drip irrigation system by selecting appropriate equipment from a wide
range of available pumps, valves, tanks, venturies, meters and aspirators. Two injection points should be
provided, one before and one after the filter. This arrangement helps in by-passing the filter if filtering is
not required and thus avoids corrosion damage to the valves, filters and filter screens or to the sand media
of sand filters. Further, the discharge line from the fertilizer tank should have a filter and injection hose
line should be equipped with filter or a strainer. The capacity of the injection system depends upon the
concentration, rate and frequency of application of fertilizer solution. The amount of fertilizer to be
applied per application (P) can be calculated by:

P = (F X A) / N ……… (2.21)

where F = fertilizer requirement, kg/ha, A = area of field, ha and N = number of applications.

Package of Practices
On the basis of experiments conducted in India, water requirement, nutrient needs and plant protection
measures are recommended for growing cabbage and banana.

1. Name of the crop : Cabbage

Variety : Hari Rani Gole

Crop spacing : 45 cm x 60 cm

Crop season : October to January

Yield (t/ha) : 106.68

Life of the system : 5 years

Benefit cost ratio : 8.46

Table2.6. Water requirement of Cabbage Crop

Month Irrigation requirement Dripper discharge Time of operation of

(l/day/4 plants) (lph) drip system (min)

October 5.18 4 77

November 4.81 4 72

December 4.66 4 70

January 6.62 4 99

Total seasonal water requirement of cabbage = 4000 m 3/ha.

Use black plastic mulch film of 25 m thickness between the rows of the crop to check evaporation loss
and weed growth.
Nutrient and Plant Protection Measures
 Apply 200 kg N, 125 kg P and 150 kg K along with 25 tons of FYM per ha to meet the nutritional
requirement of crop. Full amount of FYM, half of N and full dose of P & K are applied as a basal
dose.
 Apply one fourth of the N 21 days after transplanting and the rest after 40 days as a top dressing.
 Application of liquid fertilizers (N, P, K) and micro-nutrients in five to six split doses are more
beneficial as compared to solid fertilizers.
 Apply Furadon 12.5 g/m2 to the nursery bed as well as Bavistin (0.2%) to prevent damping off.
After 10 days of germination, Dimecron 0.5 ml and Blitox 3 g per litre of water are sprayed at 10
days intervals up to the transplanting stage (3 to 4 leaves), which comes after about 25 days from
the date of sowing. After this time, Malathion 1 ml and Blitox 3 g per litre of water are sprayed at
10 days intervals.

2. Name of the Crop : Banana

Variety : Dwarf Cavendish

Crop spacing : 2mx2m

Crop season : June to May

Yield (t/ha) : 39.08

Life of the system : 5 years

Benefit cost ratio : 5.25

The seasonal cost of drip irrigation system could be substantially reduced by adopting a plant geometry of
3 m x 1.33 m without substantial reduction in yield.

Table 2.7. Water Requirement of Banana (50% Wetting Area)

Month Irrigation requirement Dripper discharge Time of operation of

(l/day/plant) (lph) dripper system (min)

June 5.12 4 76.80

July 5.29 4 79.20

August 7.52 4 112.8

September 7.40 4 111.0

October 10.9 4 163.2

November 11.0 4 165.3

 December 10.9 4 164.1

January 11.7 4 175.8

February 13.3 4 199.2

March 14.5 4 217.2

April 18.6 4 279.0

May 17.4 4 261.0

Total seasonal water requirement of banana = 8312 m 3/ha.

Use 50 m black LLDPE mulch film to cover 50% of the plant area i.e. 2 m 2 for controlling evaporation
and weed growth.

Nutrient and Plant Protection Measures.

 Apply 15 kg FYM, 300 g super-phosphate and 200 g of murate of potash (MOP) as initial dose
at the time of pit digging.
 Apply Furadon @ 5 g/pit at the time of planting.
 During first and second months, apply 100 g Groumore and 100 g MOP.
 Apply 100 g each of Grow more and Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) in the third month.
 During the 4th and 6th months, apply 100 g MOP and 100 g CAN.
 In the 5th month, apply only 100 g of CAN.
 Spray Dithane M-45 @ 0.20% for protection against Sigatoka disease.

2.9. Accessories of Drip System

Pipes: Black PVC pipes retain their long mechanical qualities. In these pipes, the flow coefficient is
high and radiation is nil and hence no algal growth inside; incidents of damage by rodents are also few.

Couplings and Fittings: Among various couplings and fittings available, plastic ones are easy to
fix, reliable and cheaper. Those are tested to working pressure of 6 atm. to fit the laterals and a pressure of
10 atm. on the main line.
Valves: Safety valves are installed on the pumps. Air and vacuum relief valves, isolating butterfly
valves or pressure regulators are required to provide safe and dependable long-term operation. The nature
of valving depends on the level of automation, degree of pressure regulation and number of sets required.

The standard riser assemblies consist of 2.5 cm PVC angle valves safety screen strainers and vacuum
relief valves. The most trouble-free and reliable are manual and check valves, followed by automatic
valves.

Water Meter: Water meter allows to check accuracy of the system by monitoring total hours of
irrigation operation and actual delivery of number of litres per hour to the block. When average discharge
is below 85% of the initial, a thorough evaluation is needed.

Cut-off Switch: On centrifugal pump, a low pressure cut-off switch or a flow switch can be
installed, so that if the pumps run out of water, it will automatically shut down before damage occurs.

Fitting Accessories: Other fitting accessories are hose collars, plugs, elbows, tee, caps etc.

2.10. Design Problems on Drip Irrigation.

Problem 2.6.The following data are given. Design the drip irrigation system.
Crop: banana, spacing: 1.5 x 1.35 m, area: 1 ha (100 m x 100 m),

Slope: 0.4%, water source: well, static head : 10 m,

Peak pan evaporation rate : 12 mm/day, soil: clay, clay content : 60%,

Field capacity : 48%, wilting point : 25%, bulk density: 1.3 g/cc,

Effective root zone depth : 60 cm and wetted area : 60%.

Solution. The following steps are followed:

Step-1. Calculation of depth of irrigation

Evapo-transpiration of crop is: ETc = ETo x Kc = Ep x Kp x Kc
 where ETo = reference evapotranspiration, mm/day

Ep = open pan evaporation, mm/day

Kp = pan coefficient,

Kc = crop coefficient.

ETc = 12 x 0.7 x 1.0 = 8.4 mm/day.

Step-2. Volume of water to be applied

Volume = Net area x depth = Area x % wetted area x depth = 1.5 x 1.35 x 0.6 x 8.4 = 10.2 litre.
Wetted percent area depends upon growth stage, shaded area or crop canopy.

Step-3. Number of emitters per plant

Available discharge ranges: 2, 4, 8 and 10 lph. Let us select emitters of 4 lph discharge.

No of emitter per banana plant = 1, No. of micro-tube with stake = 1.

Step-4. Duration of irrigation.

It = 10.2 / 4 = 2.55 hours = 2 hours 33 minutes.

Step-5. No. of emitters per lateral.

Length of field = 100 m, The submain is laid at the centre so that the length of the lateral will be
50 m and the emitter spacing is 1.35 m. No. of emitters per lateral = 50/1.35 = 37. One lateral at
the centre of 2-rows can be used and 2 No. of micro tubes per emitter can be fitted on either sides.
So, No. of micro tubes ( 1 m long) per lateral = 37 x 2 = 74 = 74 m.

Step-6. Discharge through one lateral.

Qlateral = 74 x 4 = 296 litres per hour = 0.0822 litres per second.

Step-7. Number of laterals per manifold.

Let the pump discharge = 2.5 lps. = 9000 lph.

 No. of laterals that can be operated = 9000 / 296 = 30.4 = 30 (say)

Width of the field = 100 m, No. of laterals along the width depends upon row spacing.

Distance between two laterals = 3 m, No. of laterals on one side = 100/3 = 33.33 = 34 (say).

Therefore, number of laterals on both sides = 34 x 2 = 68.

Number of manifolds = 68 / 30 = 2.27 = 3 (say).

Therefore, number of laterals per manifold = 68/3 = 22.7 = 23 (say).

Step-8. Size of lateral.

Allowing 10% variation in operating head of emitters, allowable head variation is 1 m (10% of 10
m). Head loss in lateral is given by equation (2.9) as follows:

Hfl = 5.35 Qlateral 1.852 .Llateral /Dlateral 4.871

1.0 = 5.35 x 0.08221.852 x 50 / Dlateral 4.871

Dlateral = 1.218 cm = 12.18 mm, next available higher diameter is 16 mm. Therefore, selected
lateral diameter = 16 mm.

Step-9. Size of manifold.

Discharge of manifold, Qmanifold = Qlateral x No of laterals = 296 x23 = 6808 litre/h = 1.891 l/s

Length of manifold = 23 x 3 = 69 m = 70 m (say).

The manifold is designed in this case for a down slope of 0.4%., head gain = 0.004 x 70 =
0.28 m. Allowable head variation in manifold is 15%. Hence total allowable head
variation = 1.5 m (15% of 10 m) + 0.28 m = 1.78 m. Again applying equation (2.9), we
get:
1.78 = 5.35 x 1.8911.852 x 70 / Dmanifold4.871 , Dmanifold = 3.65 cm =36.5 mm.

As the next available higher diameter of manifold is 50 mm, therefore selected size of manifold =
50 mm. Head loss due to friction in 50 mm manifold pipe = 0.48 m.
Step-10. Size of main line.

Let length of main line = 100 m and Dmain = 5.0 cm.

Here, Qmain = Qmanifold = 6808 litre/h = 1.891 l/s. Again applying equation (8),

Hfmain = 5.35 x 1.8911.852 x 100/ 5.04.871 = 0.686 m.

Head gain due to placement of the manifold down slope = 0.004 x 100 = 0.4 m.

Net head loss in the main line = 0.686 – 0.4 = 0.286 m.

Step-11. Total dynamic head

H = Head at the inlet of the manifold + H fmain + Hstatic + Hlocal = 11.48 + 0.286 +10 + 2.18 = 23.95
m. (Hlocal = 10% of all other heads).

Step-12. Power of the pump

P = Qmain (lps) x H (m) / (75 x ) = 1.891 x 23.95 / (75 x 0.60) = 1.00 HP

(pump efficiency is assumed to be 60%).

Therefore, a pump of one HP can be selected.

Problem 2.7. Data given

Area = 6 hectares = 200 x 300 m2 (Nearly flat)

Water to be pumped from a river near the farm and the water level in the river is 25 m below the level of
the farm.

Crop = citrus (spacing 5 m x 5 m)

Dry climate

Effect of wind negligible (citrus has good transpiration control)

No rainfall

Soil type = clay loam

Infiltration rate of soil (average) = 10 mm

ET crop (peak) = 8 mm/ day

Groundwater contribution = nil

Effective root zone depth, D = 1.5 m

Field capacity of soil, FC = 30% by weight

Permanent wilting point, PWP = 15% by weight

Bulk density of soil, W = 1.4 g/cm3

Critical point for drip irrigation system, CP = 0.8 i.e., allowable depletion = 20%

Application efficiency, Ea = 90%

Lateral spacing, Sl = 5 m

Emitter spacing, Se = 5 m.

Solution.
 Fig. 2.6. Drip system design example

Step 1. Net depth of water to be applied in one irrigation,

Dnet = (FC – PWP) x W x (1 – CP) x D x 1000

100

= (30 – 15) x 1.4 x (1 – 0.8) x 1.5 x 1000

100

= 63 mm.

Step 2. Gross depth of water to be applied in one irrigation,

 Dgross = dnet = 63 = 70 mm.

Ea 0.9

Step 3. Irrigation Interval,

Peak ETcrop = 8 mm/day

Adding losses of 2 mm/day,

Peak ETcrop = 10 mm/day

Irrigation interval = dnet = 63 = 6 days.

ETcrop 10

Step 4. System capacity

Divide the 6 ha area into 6 equal parts each of 1 ha area. Assume that one of the six parts will be irrigated
in 10 hours in one day. Also assume that fraction of the total area wetted = 0.4.

(a) Main

A = 1 (ha) x 0.4 = 4000 m2

dgross = 70 mm = 0.07 m

t = 10 x 3600 =36000 seconds

Capacity (Flow rate), Q = 0.07 x 4000 = 7.8 x 10-3 m3 / s = 7.8 l/s

36000

(b) Lateral

For 1 ha area, there are 20 laterals, 10 on each side of the sub-main (Fig.2.6).

Length of each lateral = 98 m

Capacity of each lateral, Q Lateral = 7.8 = 0.39 l/s

20

(c) Emitter

Capacity of the Emitter is its discharge,

 Emitter discharge = Net depth of water x Wetted area of one tree

Duration of application

QEmitter = d net x At

QEmitter = 0.07 x (5 x 5 x 0.4) = 0.07 m3/hr

10

QEmitter = 70 l/hr

For each tree, 2 emitters will be provided each of 35 l/hr capacity 1 m apart with the tree at the centre.
Therefore, there will be 40 emitters at each lateral.

Step 5. Design of Lateral

Total number of laterals for the entire farm = 120

Length of each lateral, L = 98 m

Flow rate, QLateral = 0.39 l/s

Lateral is a multiple outlet pipe with 40 outlets and hence

F = 0.338 (Table 1.4)

Now, the head loss due to friction,

Hf = K L Q1.75 D- 4.75 F

where, Hf = Friction loss (m),

K = a constant; 7.85 x 105 for SI units for water at 200C,

L = pipe length (m),

Q = flow rate (l/s),

D = inner diameter of pipe (mm),

F = factor for multiple outlet pipe flow,

For the lateral assume D = 20 mm = 2 cm

Hf = 7.85 x 105 x 98 x 0.391.75 x 20- 4.75 x 0.338 = 3.31 m.

Step 6. Design of Sub-main

Total number of sub-mains for the entire farm = 6

Length of each Sub-main, L = 48 m

Flow rate, Q = 7.8 l/s

Sub-main is also a multiple outlet pipe with 20 outlets (10 laterals on either side) and hence

F = 0.342 (Table 1.4)

Assume that the inner diameter of Sub-main, D = 80 mm = 8 cm

Hf = K L Q1.75 D- 4.75 F

Hf = 7.89 x 105 x 48 x 7.81.75 x 80-4.75 x 0.342 = 0.43 m.

Step 7. Design of Main

Maximum length of main, L = 200 m (Refer to the layout Fig.2.6).

Flow rate, QMain = 7.8 l/s.

Main is not a multiple outlet pipe and hence

F=1

Assume that the inner diameter of main, D = 80 mm = 8 cm

Hf = K L Q1.75 D- 4.75 F

Hf = 7.89 x 105 x 200 x 7.81.75 x 80-4.75 x 1= 5.2 m.

Step 8. Total Head Requirement of the System

Assume that the head required at the farthest emitter for operation = 6 m.

Assume that bend losses + Filter losses = 1 m.

Total head requirement of the system,

Hsys = Head Required for Operation + Friction Losses + Bend Losses + Filter Loss

= 6 + (3.31 + 0.43 + 5.2) + 1 = 15.94 m.

Step 9. Selection of Pump

Assume that the Suction and Delivery pipes of the pump are GI pipes of 8 cm inner diameter.

Friction loss in 8 cm diameter GI pipes for a flow rate of 7.8 l/s.

= 6 m per 100 m pipe length.

Total Head for the Pump,

HTotal = Suction Head + Friction Loss in Suction Pipe + Delivery Head + Friction Loss in Delivery
Pipe + Velocity Head + Total Head Requirement of the System

HTotal = Hs = Hfs + Hd + Hfd + V2d + Hsys

Assume that the pump will be fixed 5 m above the river water level.

Hs = 5 m

Hd = 20 m

Hfs = 6 x 5 = 0.30 m

100

Hfd = 6 x 20 = 1.2 m

100

V2d = [7.8 x 10-3 x 4/( x 0.082)]2 = 0.079 m

2g 2 x 9.81

HTotal = 5 + 0.3 + 20 + 1.2 + 0.079 + 15.94 = 42.519 = 42.5 m.

QPump = 7.8 l/s

Water Horse Power of the Pump, WHP = QPump x HTotal = 7.8 x 42.5

75 75

= 7.8 x 42.5 = 4.42 HP.

75

Assume that Total Efficiency,

 =  Drive x  Pump x  Motor = 0.75

Horse Power of Electric Motor = WHP = 4.42 = 5.89 HP = 6 HP.

 0.75