Modern Physics 2 Final PDF

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ENTHUSE
IIT PHYSICS
MODERN PHYSICS-2
H.O. 92, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Mob. 97831-97831, 70732-22177 Ph. 0744-2423333
MODERN PHYSICS-2
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ATOMIC NUCLEUS
The atomic nucleus consists of two types of elementary particles, viz. protons and neutrons.
These particles are called nucleons. The proton (denoted by p) has a charge +e and a mass
mp = 1.6726 × 10–27 kg, which is approximately 1840 times larger than the electron mass. The
proton is the nucleus of the simplest atom with Z=1, viz the hydrogen atom.
The neutron (denoted by n) is an electrically neutral particle (its charge is zero). The neutron
mass is 1.6749 × 10–27 kg. The fact that the mass of a neutron exceeds the mass of a proton by
about 2.5 times the electronic masses is of essential importance. It follows from this that the
neutron in free state (outside the nucleus) is unstable (radioactive). With half life equal to 12
min, the neutron spontaneously transforms into a proton by emitting an electron (e–) and a
particle called the antineutrino    .
This process can be schematically written as follows : 0n1  1p1 + –1e0 + 
The most important characteristics of the nucleus are the charge number Z (coinciding with
atomic number of the element) and mass number A. The charge number Z is equal to the
number of protons in the nucleus, and hence it determines the nuclear charge equal to Ze. The
mass number A is equal to the number of nucleons in the nucleus (i.e., to the total number of
protons and neutrons). Nuclei are symbolically designated as X AZ or Z X A where X stands for
the symbol of a chemical element.
For example, the nucleus of the oxygen atom is symbolically written as O816 or 8O16 .
The shape of nucleus is approximately spherical and its radius is approximately related to the
mass number by
R = 1.2 A1/3 × 10–15 m = 1.2 × 10–15 × A1/3 m
Most of the chemical elements have several types of atoms differing in the number of neutrons
in their nuclei. These varieties are called isotopes. For example carbon has three isotopes 6C12,
13 14
6C , 6C . In addition to stable isotopes, there also exist unstable (radioactive) isotopes. Atomic
masses are specified in terms of the atomic mass unit or unified mass unit (u). The mass of a
neutral atom of the carbon 6C12 is defined to be exactly 12 u.
1u = 1.66056 × 10–27 kg = 931.5 MeV.
BINDING ENERGY
The rest mass of the nucleus is smaller than the sum of the rest masses of nucleons constituting
it. This is due to the fact that when nucleons combine to form a nucleus, some energy (binding
energy) is liberated. The binding energy is equal to the work that must be done to split the
nucleus into the particles constituting it.
The difference between the total mass of the nucleons and mass of the nucleus is called the
mass defect of the nucleus represented by m = [Zmp + (A–Z)mn] – mnuc
Multiplying the mass defect by the square of the velocity of light, we can find the binding
energy of the nucleus.
H.O. 92, Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Mob. 97831-97831, 70732-22177, Ph. 0744-2423333 www.nucleuseducation.in 1
1 1
MODERN PHYSICS-2
BE = mc = [(Zmp + (A–Z)mn)–mnuc]c
2 2
If the masses are taken in atomic mass unit, the binding energy is given by
BE = [(Zmp + (A–Z)mn)–mnuc] 931.5 MeV
Let us take example of oxygen nucleus. It contains 8 protons and 8 neutrons. We can discuss
concept of binding energy by following diagram.
ss decrea
ma ses en ses
ea erg
8 protons rel y
+
8 neutrons ma es
ab ss increas y Nucleus of
sorbs energ oxygen
8mp + 8mn > mass of nucleus of oxygen
B .E .
For nucleus we apply mass energy conservation, 8mp + 8mn = mass of nucleus +
c2
For general nucleus ZA X , mass defect = difference between total mass of nucleons and mass of
the nucleus
   m = [Zmp + (A–Z)mn]–M
B.E. = mc2 (joules) = (m)in amu × 931.5 MeV
Binding Energy per Nucleon
Stability of a nucleus does not depend upon binding energy of a nucleus but it depends upon
B.E. B.E.
binding energy per nucleon B.E./nucleon = Stability 
mass number A
8.8MeV Ni
B.E./ nucleon (MeV)
N Fe
C
He
Li
A (mass number)
(i) B.E./A is maximum for A =62 (Ni), It is 8.79460 ± 0.00003 MeV/nucleon, means most stable
nuclei are in the region of A=62.
(ii) Heavy nuclei achieve stability by breaking into two smaller nuclei and this reaction is called
fission reaction.
small mass
numbers
large mass
number
(iii) Nuclei achieve stability by combining and resulting into heavy nucleus and this reaction is
called fusion reaction.
small mass
numbers
large mass
number
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MODERN PHYSICS-2
(iv) In both reactions products are more stable in comparison to reactants and Q value is positive.
a  X  Y+ b
(bombarding particle) (at rest)
NUCLEAR COLLISIONS
We can represent a nuclear collision or reaction by the following notation, which means X (a,b)Y
a  X  Y+ b
(bombarding particle) (at rest)
We can apply :
(i) Conservation of momentum (ii) Conservation of charge (iii) Conservation of mass–energy
a  X  Y+b
For any nuclear reaction
K1 K2 K3 K 4
By mass energy conservation
(i) K1 + K2 + (m + mx)c2 = K3 + K4 + (mY + mb)c2
(ii) Energy released in any nuclear reaction or collision is called Q value of the reaction
(iii) Q = (K3 + K4) – (K1 + K2) = KP –KR = (mR – mP)c2
(iv) If Q is positive, energy is released and products are more stable in comparison to
reactants.
(v) If Q is negative, energy is absorbed and products are less stable in comparison to
reactants.
Q = (B.E.)product – (B.E.)reactants
Example
Let us find the Q value of fusion reaction
B .E . B .E .
4
He + 4He  8Be, if of He = X and of Be = Y Q = 8Y – 8X
A A
Q value for  decay
ZX Z–2Y + 2He4 
A A–4
Q = K + KY ....(i)
Momentum conservation, p Y = p ...(ii)
p2 p2 4 K
K = KY = 
2 m 4 2m  A  4  A  4
4K A A4
Q  K   K K  Q
A4 A4 A
For  decay A > 210 which means maximum part of released energy is associated with K.E. of
. If Q is negative, the reaction is endoergic. The minimum amount of energy that a ombarding
particle must have in order to initiate an endoergic reaction is called Threshold energy Eth,
given by
m 
Eth = –Q  1  1 where m1 = mass of the projectile.
 m2 
Eth = minimum kinetic energy of the projectile to initiate the nuclear reaction
m2 = mass of the target
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MODERN PHYSICS-2
Example
How much energy must a bombarding proton possess to cause the reaction
3Li + 1H 4Be + 0n
7 1 7 1
(Mass of 3Li7 atom is 7.01600, mass of 1H1 atom is 1.0783, mass of 4Be7 atom is 7.01693)
Solution
Since the mass of an atom includes the masses of the atomic electrons, the appropriate number
of electron masses must be subtracted from the given values.
Reactants : Total mass = (7.01600 – 3 me) + (1.0783 – 1 me) = 8.0943 – 4me
Products : Total mass = (7.01693 – 4me)+ 1.0087 = 8.02563 – 4me
The energy is supplied as kinetic energy of the bombarding proton. The incident proton must
have more than this energy because the system must possess some kinetic energy even after the
reaction, so that momentum is conserved with momentum conservation taken into account, the
minimum kinetic energy that the incident particle must possess can be found with the formula.
where, Q = – [(8.02563 – 4me) – (8.0943 –4 me)] 931.5 MeV = – 63.96 MeV
Eth = – 1   Q=–  1   (–63.96) = 73.1 MeV
m 1
 M  7
NUCLEAR FISSION
In 1938 Hahn and Strassmann, by attack of a particle observed splitting of a heavy nucleus
(A > 230) into two or more lighter nuclei. In this process certain mass disappears which is
obtained in the form of energy (enormous amount)
A + p  excited nucleus  B + C + Q
Hahn and Strassmann done the first fission of nucleus of U235.
When U235 is bombarded by a neutron it splits into two fragments and 2 or 3 secondary
neutrons and releases about 190 MeV ( 200 MeV) energy per fission (or from single nucleus)
Fragments are uncertain but each time energy released is almost same.
Possible reactions are
U235 + 0n1  Ba + Kr + 30n1 + 200 MeV or U235 + 0n1 Xe + Sr + 20n1 + 200 MeV
and many other reactions are possible.
• The average number of secondary neutrons is 2.5.
• Nuclear fission can be explained by using "liquid drop model" also.
• The mass defect m is about 0.1% of mass of fissioned nucleus
• About 93% of released energy (Q) is appear in the form of kinetic energies of products and
about 7% part in the form of  – rays.
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION :

The equation of fission of U235 is U235 + 0n1  Ba + Kr + 30n1 + Q.
These three secondary neutrons produced in the reaction may cause fission of three more U235
and give 9 neutrons, which in turn, may cause of nine more fission of U235 and so on.
Thus a continuous 'Nuclear Chain reaction' would start.
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MODERN PHYSICS-2
–6
If there is no control on chain reaction then in a short time (10 sec.) a huge amount of energy
will be released. (This is the principle of 'Atom bomb'). If chain is controlled then produced
energy can be used for peaceful purposes. For example nuclear reactor (Based on fission) are
generating electricity.
NATURAL URANIUM :
It is mixture of U235 (0.7%) and U238 (99.3%).
U235 is easily fissionable, by slow neutron (or thermal neutrons) having K.E. of the order of
0.03 eV. But U238 is fissionable with fast neutrons.
Note : Chain reaction in natural uranium can't occur. To improve the quality, percentage of U235
is increased to 3%. The proposed uranium is called 'Enriched Uranium' (97% U238 and 3% U235)
LOSSES OF SECONDARY NEUTRONS :
Leakage of neutrons from the system : Due to their maximum K.E. some neutrons escape
from the system.
Absorption of neutrons by U238 : Which is not fissionable by these secondary neutrons.
CRITICAL SIZE (OR MASS) :

In order to sustain chain reaction in a sample of enriched uranium, it is required that the number
of lost neutrons should be much smaller than the number of neutrons produced in a fission
process. For it the size of uranium block should be equal or greater than a certain size called
critical size.
REPRODUCTION FACTOR :
rate of production of neutrons
(K) =
rate of loss of neutrons
(i) If size of Uranium used is 'Critical' then K = 1 and the chain reaction will be steady or
sustained (As in nuclear reaction)
(ii) If size of Uranium used is 'Super critical' then K > 1 and chain reaction will accelerate
resulting in a explosion (As in atom bomb)
(iii) If size of Uranium used is 'Sub Critical' then K < 1 and chain reaction will retard and
will stop.
NUCLEAR REACTOR (K = 1) : Credit  To Enricho Fermi

Construction :
• Nuclear Fuel : Commonly used are U235 , Pu239. Pu239 is the best. Its critical size is less than
critical size of U235.
But Pu239 is not naturally available and U235 is used in most of the reactors.
• Moderator : Its function is to slow down the fast secondary neutrons. Because only slow
neutrons can bring the fission of U235. The moderator should be light and it should not absorb
the neutrons. Commonly, Heavy water (D2O, molecular weight 20 gm.) Graphite etc. are used.
These are rich of protons. Neutrons collide with the protons and interchange their energy. Thus
neutrons get slow down.
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MODERN PHYSICS-2
• Control rods :They have the ability to capture the slow neutrons and can control the chain
reaction at any stage. Boron and Cadmium are best absorber of neutrons.
• Coolant : A substance which absorb the produced heat and transfers it to water for further use.
Generally coolant is water at high pressure
FAST BREADER REACTORS

The atomic reactor in which fresh fissionable fuel (Pu239) is produced along with energy. The
amount of produced fuel (Pu239) is more than consumed fuel (U235)
• Fuel : Natural Uranium.
• Process: During fission of U235, energy and secondary neutrons are produced. These secondary
neutrons are absorbed by U238 and U239 is formed. This U239 converts into Pu239 after two beta
decay. This Pu239 can be separated, its half life is 2400 years.
238 
92U + 0n1 
 92U
239 2
  94Pu
239
(best fuel of fission)
This Pu can be used in nuclear weapons because of its small critical size than U235.
239
• Moderator : Are not used in these reactors.

• Coolant : Liquid sodium
NUCLEAR FUSION :
It is the phenomenon of fusing two or more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus.
A + B  C + Q (Energy)
The product (C) is more stable than reactants (A and B) & mc < (ma + mb)
and mass defect   m = [(ma + mb)– mc] amu
Energy released is E = (m) × 931 MeV
The total binding energy and binding energy per nucleon C both are more than of A and B.
 E = Ec – (Ea + Eb)
Fusion of four hydrogen nuclei into helium nucleus :
4(1H1)  2He4 + 2 + 0 + 2 + 26 MeV
• Energy released per fission >> Energy released per fusion.
Energy per nucleon in fission    24 
200
•  0.85MeV  << energy per nucleon in fusion   4  6MeV 
 235   
REQUIRED CONDITION FOR NUCLEAR FUSION

• High temperature :
Which provide kinetic energy to nuclei to overcome the repulsive electrostatic force between them.
• High Pressure (or density) :
Which ensure frequent collision and increases the probability of fusion. The required
temperature and pressure at earth (lab) are not possible. These condition exist in the sun and in
many other stars. The source of energy in the sun is nuclear fusion, where hydrogen is in
plasma state and there protons fuse to form helium nuclei.
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MODERN PHYSICS-2
HYDROGEN BOMB
It is based on nuclear fusion and produces more energy than an atom bomb.
Pair production Pair Annihilation
A  –photon of energy more than 1.02 MeV, when interact with a nucleus When electron and
produces pair of electron (e—) and positron (e+). The energy equivalent to positron combines they
rest mass of e— (or e+)=0.51 MeV. The energy equivalent to rest mass of pair annihilates to each other
— +
(e + e )= 1.02 MeV. and only energy is
For pair production Energy of photon  1.02 MeV. released in the form of
If energy of photon is more than 1.02 MeV, the extra energy (E–1.02) two gama photons. If the
MeV divides approximately in equal amount to each particle as the kinetic energy of electron and
energy or positron are negligible
(KE)e– or e+ = EPh 1.02 MeV then energy of each
2  photon is 0.5/ MeV
If E < 1.02 MeV, pair will not produce.
Example
In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U235 (235.0439) in 24 hours by slow neutrons
(1.0087 u). Assume that 35Kr92 (91.8973 u) and 56Ba141 (140.9139 amu) are produced in all
reactions and no energy is lost.
(i) Write the complete reaction
(ii) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour. Given 1u = 931 MeV.
Solution
The nuclear fission reaction is 92U235 + 0n1  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1
Mass defect m= [(mu + mn) – (mBa + mKr + 3mn)] = 256.0526 – 235.8373 =0.2153 u
6.02 1023
Energy released Q = 0.2153 × 931 = 200 MeV. Number of atoms in 1 g = = 2.56 × 1021
235
Energy released in fission of 1 g of U235 is E = 200 × 2.56 × 1021 = 5.12 × 1023 MeV
= 5.12 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10–13 = 8.2 × 1010 J
8.2 1010
= kWh = 2.28 × 104 kWh
3.6 10 6
Example
It is proposed to use the nuclear fusion reaction : 1H2 + 1H2 He4 in a nuclear reactor of 200
MW rating. If the energy from above reaction is used with at 25% efficiency in the reactor,
how many grams of deuterium will be needed per day. (Mass of 1H2 is 2.0141 u and mass of
4
2He is 4.0026 u)
Solution
Energy released in the nuclear fusion is Q = mc2 = m(931) MeV (where m is in amu)
Q = (2 × 2.0141 – 4.0026) × 931 MeV = 23.834 MeV = 23.834 × 106 eV
Since efficiency of reactor is 25%
25
So effective energy used =  23.834  106 1.6 10 19 J = 9.534 × 10–13 J
100
Since the two deuterium nuclei are involved in a fusion reaction,
9.534 1013
therefore, energy released per deuterium is .
2
7 7
MODERN PHYSICS-2
200 106  86400
For 200 MW power per day, number of deuterium nuclei required =
9.534 1023
2
= 3.624 × 1025
Since 2g of deuterium constitute 6 × 1023 nuclei, therefore amount of deuterium required is
2  3.624 1025
= =120.83 g/day
6 1023
Do yourself –1 :
(i) A heavy nucleus having mass number 200 gets disintegrated into small fragments of mass
number 80 and 120. If binding energy per nucleon for parent atom is 6.5 MeV and for
daughter nuclei is 7 MeV and 8 MeV respectively, then the energy released in the decay
will be X × 105 eV, then X will be
(ii) The nucleus 92U238 is unstable against -decay with a half-life of about 4.5 × 109 years.
Then the kinetic energy of the emitted -particle in MeV is [m (92U238) = 238.05081u;
m(2He4) = 4.00260 u; m(90Th234) = 234.04363u]
(iii) In a nuclear fusion reactor, the reaction occur in two stages :
(A) Two deuterium (1D2) nuclei fuse to form a tritium (1T3) nucleus with a proton as a
byproduct. The reaction may be represented as D(D,p) T.
(B) A tritium nucleus fuses with another deuterium nucleus to form a helium (2He4)
nucleus with a neutron as a by product.The reaction is represented as T(D,n) .
Given m(1D2) = 2.014102 u (atom)
m(1T3) = 3.016049 u(atom)
m(2He4) = 4.002603 u (atom)
m(1H1) = 1.007825 u (atom)
m (0n1) = 1.008665 u
(a) The energy released in the 2nd stage of fusion reaction, is :
(A) 4.033 MeV (B) 17.587 MeV (C) 40.33 MeV (D) 1.7587 MeV
(b) The energy released in the combined reaction per deuterium, is ;
(c) What percentage of the mass energy of the initial deuterium is released ?
(A) 0.184 % (B) 0.284 % (C) 0.384 % (D) 0.484 %
(iv) The heavier nuclie tend to have larger N/Z ratio because–
(A) a neutron is heavier than a proton
(B) a neutron is an unstable particle
(C) a neutron does not exert electric repulsion
(D) coulomb forces have longer range compared to the nuclear forces
(v) In an endoergic nuclear reaction an incoming particle collides with stationary nucleus -
(A) kinetic energy of incoming particle is greater than Q-value of reaction in ground frame
(B) kinetic energy of incoming particle is equal to the Q-value of reaction in center of mass
frame
(C) linear momentum of particle-nucleus system is conserved
(D) energy is released in the process
8 8
MODERN PHYSICS-2
RADIOACTIVITY
The process of spontaneous disintegration shown by some unstable atomic nuclei is known as
natural radioactivity. This property is associated with the emission of certain types of
penetrating radiations, called radioactive rays, or Becquerel rays (rays). The elements
or compounds, whose atoms disintegrate and emit radiations, are called radioactive elements.
Radioactivity is a continuous, irreversible nuclear phenomenon.
Radioactive Decays
Generally, there are three types of radioactive decays
(i)  decay (ii)  and  decay (iii)  decay
•  decay
In  decay, the unstable nucleus emits an  particle. By emitting  particle, the nucleus
decreases it's mass energy number and move towards stability. Nucleus having A>210 shows 
decay.By releasing  particle, it can attain higher stability and Q value is positive.
B.E.
A
A A=210
•  decay
In beta decay (N/Z) ratio of nucleus is changed. This decay is shown by unstable nuclei. In beta
decay, either a neutron is converted into proton or proton is converted into neutron. For better
understanding we discuss N/Z graph. There are two type of unstable nuclides
Region of
stable nuclei
N N=Z
45°
Z
• A type
For A type nuclides (N/Z)A > (N/Z)stable Move towards stability
To achieve stability, it increases Z by conversion of neutron into

proton A
N
1 1 –1
0n  1p + e +  , ZX  Z+1Y +
A A
e 1  
  particle 
–
This decay is called  decay.
Kinetic energy available for e–and  is, Q  K  K  Z
K.E. of satisfies the condition 0 < K < Q

• B type
For B type nuclides (N/Z)B  (N/Z)stable B
To achieve stability it decreases Z by the conversion of a proton into N
Move towards
stability
neutron.
That is, p  n  e    , Z X A Z 1 Y A   e  
 positron   neutrino   particle 
Z
9 9
MODERN PHYSICS-2
•  decay : when an  or  decay takes place, the Co 67
daughter nucleus is usually in higher energy state,  

67
Ni*
such a nucleus comes to ground state by emitting E =1.17MeV 
a photon or photons. E =1.33MeV 


E=2.5MeV
Order of energy of  photon is 100 KeV,

e.g. 27 Co 
67 67
28 Ni *     28 Ni* 28 Ni   photon
67 67
 higher energy state
Features –particles –particles –rays

Helium nucleus or doubly Electromagnetic wave
Fast moving electrons
Identity ionised helium atom (2He4 ) (photons)
(–0 or –)
Charge Twice of proton (+2e)4mp Electronic charge (– e) Neutral
(rest mass of ) =
Mass mp–mass of proton (rest mass of electron) rest mass = 0
1% of c to 99% of c
1.4 × 107 m/s to
(All possible values between
2.2 × 107 m/s Only c = 3 × 108 m/s
this range)
(Only certain value
b–particles come out with –photons come out with
between this range). same speed from all types of
Speed different speeds from the
Their speed depends on nucleus.
same type of nucleus.
nature of the nucleus. So, cannot be a
So that it can not be a
So that it is a characteristic speed.
characteristic speed.
characteristic speed.
K.E. MeV MeV MeV

Line and discrete Continuous
Line and discrete
Energy spectrum (or linear) (or linear)
Ionization 100 times of –rays 1

10,000 times 1 1 (or times of )
power (>>) times of ) 100
of –rays (or
100
1 1
Penetration times of –rays times of –rays
10000 100 1(100 times of )
power (>>) (100 times of )
Effect of electric Deflection (More than )

Deflection No deflection
or magnetic field
Explanation By Tunnel effect By weak nuclear With the help of energy
of emission (or quantum mechanics) interactions levels in nucleus
Laws of Radioactive Decay

1. The radioactive decay is a spontaneous process with the emission of ,  and  rays. It is not
influenced by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, electric and magnetic fields.
10 10
MODERN PHYSICS-2
2. The rate of disintegration is directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms present at
that time i.e., rate of decay number of nuclei.
dN
Rate of decay =  (number of nuclei) i.e.  N
dt
dN
where  is called the decay constant. This equation may be expressed in the form  dt .
N
N
dN t
 N 
N N   0 dt  n    t
 N0 
0
where N0 is the number of parent nuclei at t=0. The number that survives at time t is therefore
2.303 N 
N=N0e–t and t = log10  0  this function is plotted in figure.
  Nt 
N0
–t
N'=N0(1–e )
0.63N0
N N0
2
Graph : Time versus N (or N')
N
0.37N0= e 0
–t
N=N0e
(0,0) Th Ta time
• Half life (Th) : It is the time during which number of active nuclei reduce to half of initial value.
N0
If at t = 0 no. of active nuclei N0 then at t = Th number of active nuclei will be
2
–t
From decay equation N = N0e
N0  n  2 0.693 0.7
= N0e–Tn  Th = = 
2   
• Mean or Average Life (Ta) : It is the average of age of all active nuclei i.e.
sum of times of existance of all nuclei in a sample 1
Ta = =
initial number of active nuclei in that sample 
(i) At t = 0, number of active nuclei = N0 then number of active nuclei at
N
t = Ta is N  N 0e Ta  N 0e 1  0  0.37 N 0  37% of N 0
e
(ii) Number nuclei which have been disintegrated within duration Ta is
N' = N0 – N = N0 – 0.37 N0 = 0.63 N0 = 63% of N0
1 Th Th
• Ta = = = = 1.44 Th
  n  2 0.693
• Within duration Th  50% of N0 decayed and 50% of N0 remains active
• Within duration Ta  63% of N0 decayed and 37% of N0 remains active
11 11
MODERN PHYSICS-2
ACTIVITY OF A SAMPLE (OR DECAY RATE)
dN
It is the rate of decay of a radioactive sample R    N  or R = R0e–t
dt
• Activity of a sample at any instant depends upon number of active nuclei at that instant.
R  N (or active mass), R  m
• R also decreases exponentially w.r.t. time same as the number of active nuclei decreases.
• R is not a constant with N, m and time while , Th and Ta are constant
R0 R
• At t = 0, R = R0 then at t = Th  R = and at t = Ta  R = 0 or 0.37 R0
2 e
• Similarly active mass of radioactive sample decreases exponentially. m = m0e–t
0.693  N AV 
• Activity of m gm active sample (molecular weight Mw) is R = N =  m
Th  MW 
here NAV = Avogadro number = 6.023 × 1023
 SI UNIT of R : 1 becquerel (1 Bq)= 1 decay/sec
Other Unit is curie : 1 Ci = 3.70 × 1010 decays/sec
1 Rutherford : (1 Rd) =106 decays/s
Specific activity : Activity of 1 gm sample of radioactive substance. Its unit is
Ci/gm e.g. specific activity of radium (226) is 1 Ci/gm.
Example
The half–life of cobalt–60 is 5.25 yrs. After how long does its activity reduce to about one eight
of its original value?
Solution
The activity is proportional to the number of undecayed atoms: In each half–life, the remaining
1 1 1 1
sample decays to half of its initial value. Since          , therefore, three half–lives
2 2 2 8
or 15.75 years are required for the sample to decay to 1/8th its original strength.
Example
A count rate meter is used to measure the activity of a given sample. At one instant the meter
shows 4750 counts per minute. Five minutes later it shows 2700 counts per minute.
(i) Find the decay constant. (ii) Also, find the half–life of the sample.
Solution
dN dN
Initial activity Ai =  N 0  4750 ...(i) Final activity Af =  N  2700 ...(ii)
dt t 0 dt t 5
4750 N
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get = 0
2700 Nt
12 12
MODERN PHYSICS-2
2.303 N 2.303 4750
The decay constant is given by   log 0  log  0.113 min 1
t Nt 5 2700
0.693 0.693
Half–life of the sample is T= = = 6.14 min
 0.113
• Parallel radioactive disintegration
Let initial number of nuclei of A is N0 then at any time number of nuclei of B
dN d 
A, B & C are given by N0 = NA + NB + NC  A   N B  NC  
dt dt
A
A disintegrates into B and C by emitting  particle. 

dN B dN d
Now,  1 N A and C   2 N A   N B  N C     1   2  N A C
dt dt dt
dN A
   1   2  N A   eff  1   2  teff  1 2
tt

dt t1  t2
Example
The mean lives of a radioactive substances are 1620 and 405 years for –emission and –
emission respectively. Find out the time during which three fourth of a sample will decay if it is
decaying both by –emission and –emission simultaneously.
Solution
When a substance decays by  and  emission simultaneously, the average rate of
disintegration av is given by
av= +when  = disintegration constant for –emission only  = disintegration constant
for –emission only
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mean life is given by Tm = , av= +     
 Tm T T 1620 405 324
N0 1 100
av × t = 2.303 log , t = 2.303 log  t = 2.303 × 324 log 4 = 449 years.
Nt 324 25
Example
A radioactive decay is given by A 
t 8 yrs
B 1/2
Only A is present at t=0. Find the time at which if we are able to pick one atom out of the
sample, then probability of getting B is 15 times of getting A.
Solution
A   B
at t  0 N0 0
at t  t N N0  N
N
Probability of getting A, PA =
N0
13 13
MODERN PHYSICS-2
N N N N N N
Probability of getting B, PB = 0 PB = 15 PA  0  15  N0 = 16N  N= 0
N0 N0 N0 16
1
Remaining nuclei are th of initial nuclei, hence required time t=4 half lives =32 years
16
Radioactive Disintegration with Successive Production
 

 rate of production   A  B
dN A
   N A ....(i)
dt
dN A  rate of production
when NA in maximum  0    N A  0 , NA max = =
dt  

R

t t
  dt , Number of nuclei is NA  1  et 
dN A
By equation (i) 
0
  N A 0 
Example
1

  A  B
21
10 per sec 30
A shows radioactive disintegration and it is continuously produced at the rate of 1021 per sec.
Find maximum number of nuclei of A.
Solution
1
At maximum, rproduction = rdecay  1021 = N  N=30 × 1021
30
Soddy and Fajan's Group Displacement Laws :
(i) –decay : The emission of one –particle reduces the mass number by 4 units and atomic
number by 2 units. If parent and daughter nuclei are represented by symbols X and Y
respectively then,
ZX
A
Z–2YA–4 + 2He4()
(ii) –decay : Beta particles are said to be fast moving electrons coming from the nucleus of a
radioactive substance. Does it mean that a nucleus contains electrons? No, it is an established
fact that nucleus does not contain any electrons. When a nucleus emits a beta particle, one of its
neutrons breaks into a proton, an electron (i.e., –particle) and an antineutrino n  p  e  
where n= neutron p = proton e = –particle
14 14
MODERN PHYSICS-2
Thus emission of a beta particle is caused by the decay of a neutron into a proton. The daughter
nucleus thus has an atomic number greater than one (due to one new proton in the nucleus) but
same mass number as that of parent nucleus. Therefore, representing the parent and daughter
nucleus by symbols X and Y respectively, we have ZXA Z+1YA +   
(iii) –decay : When parent atoms emit gamma rays, no charge is involved as these are neutral rays.
Thus there is no effect on the atomic number and mass number of the parent nucleus. However
the emission of –rays represents energy. Hence the emission of these rays changes the nucleus
from an excited (high energy) state to a less excited (lower energy) state.
 (electromagnetic
radiation)
ve potential


+ve potential
Lead
Do yourself –2 :
(i) The energy in MeV required to extract a neutron from a carbon nucleus with mass number 13 is
-[m (6C13) = 13.00335u ; m (6C12) = 12.0000u, mn = 1.00867 u ; mp = 1.00783u]
(ii) Half life of radioactive substance A is two time that of B. Initially number of nuclei of A and
B are NA and NB respectively. After three half lives of A number of nuclei of both are equal.
NB
Then the ratio is –
NA
7
(iii) Starting with a sample of pure 66Cu, of it decays into Zn in 15 min. The corresponding half-
8
life is -
1
(A) 5 min (B) 7 min (C) 10 min (D) 15 min
2
(iv) A radioactive material has a half-life of 10 days. What fraction of the material would remain
after 30 days -
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.25 (C) 0.125 (D) 0.33
(v) Energy released in Radioactive decay process
XY+y
is given as –
(A) Rest energy of Y and y minus rest energy of (X)
(B) Sum of Binding energy of Y and y minus binding of X
(C) Rest energy of X minus sum of rest energy of Y and y
(D) Binding energy of X minus sum of binding energy of Y and y
(vi) In which of the following decays the atomic number decreases –

(A) - decay (B) + - decay (C) – - decay (D)  - decay
15 15
MODERN PHYSICS-2
Answers for Do yourself
Do yourself – 1 :
(i) 2000 (ii) 4 (iii) (a) (B) (b) (D) (c) (C)
(iv) (C, D) (v) (A, B, C)
Do yourself –2 :
(i) 5 (ii) 8 (iii) A (iv) C (v) (B, C) (vi) (A, B)
16 16
MODERN PHYSICS-2
SOME WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Example#1
The probability that a certain radioactive atom would get disintegrated in a time equal to the
mean life of the radioactive sample is-
(A) 0.37 (B) 0.63 (C) 0.50 (D) 0.67
Solution Ans. (B)
1
N0 (1  et )  
Required probability P(t) =  1  e     1  e1  0.63
N0
Example#2
The positions of 12 D, 42 He and 37 Li are shown on the binding energy curve as shown in figure.
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)
8 4
He
2
7
6 7
Li
3
5
4
3
2 2
D
1
1
2 4 6 8 10
Mass Number (A)
The energy released in the fusion reaction. 12 D  37 Li  2 42 He  10 n
(A) 20 MeV (B) 16 MeV (C) 8 MeV (D) 1.6 MeV
Solution Ans. (B)
Released energy = 2 × 4 × 7 – 2 × 1 – 7 × 5.4 = 16 MeV
Example#3
How many head-on elastic collisions must a neutron have with deuterium nuclei to reduce it
energy from 6.561 MeV to 1 keV ?
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 3 (D) 5
Solution Ans. (A)
Energy loss 4m1m2 4(1)(2) 8
  
Initial KE (m1  m2 ) 2
(1  2)2 9
8 8 8
After 1st collision E1  E0 , After 2nd collision E2  E1 , After nth collision En  En 1
9 9 9
Adding all the losses
8 8 1
E =E1 + E2 + ....... + En = (E0 + E1 + ...... En–1); here E1 = E0 – E1 = E0 – E0 = E0
9 9 9
2
8 1 1
E2 = E1 – E2 = E1 – E1 = E1 =   E0 and so on
9 9 9
17 17
MODERN PHYSICS-2
 1 
 2 n 1
  1 n 
8 1 1 1  1
 E =  E0  E0    E0  ....    E0  =  9  E0  1  n  E0
9  9 9 9   1 
1  9 
 9 
6.561  0.001 1 1 1
E0 = 6.561 MeV, E = (6.561 – 0.001) MeV   1 n  = n n=4
6.561 9 6561 9
Example#4
Statement-1: Radioactive nuclei emit -particles (fast moving electrons)
and
Statement-2: Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
(A) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is True ; Statement–2 is a correct explanation for
Statement–1
(B) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is True ; Statement–2 is NOT a correct explanation for
Statement–1
(C) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is False.
(D) Statement–1 is False, Statement–2 is True.
Solution Ans. (C)
Example#5
A vessel of 831cc contains 13 H at 0.6 atm and 27°C. If half life of 13 H is 12.3 years then the
activity of the gas is-
(A) 3.04 × 1013 dps (B) 582 Ci (C) 2.15 × 1013 dps (D) 823 Ci
Solution Ans. (B,C)
PV (0.6 105 )(831106 )
Number of moles of gas n   =0.02
RT (8.31)(300)
(0.693)nN A (0.693)(0.02)(6.02 10 )
23
Activity = N = 
T1/2 12.3  3.15 107
2.15 1013
= 2.15 × 10 dps 
13
=582 Ci
3.7 1010
Example#6
Choose the CORRECT statement(s)
(A) Mass of products formed is less than the original mass in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
reactions.
(B) Binding energy per nucleon increases in -decay and -decay.
(C) Mass number is conserved in all nuclear reactions.
(D) Atomic number is conserved in all nuclear reactions.
Solution Ans. (ABC)
Fusion and fission are always exothermic and  &  decay will result in more stable product.
Mass number is conserved but atomic number is not conserved.
A X  B Y  C Z , N = M + 0 and A may not be equal to B + C
N M 0
18 18
MODERN PHYSICS-2
Example#7 to 9
Einstein in 1905 propounded the special theory of relativity and in 1915 proposed the general
theory of relativity. The special theory deals with inertial frames of reference. The general
theory of relativity deals with problems in which one frame of reference. He assumed that a
fixed frame is accelerated w.r.t. another frame of reference of reference cannot be located.
Postulates of special theory of relativity
• The laws of physics have the same form in all inertial systems.
• The velocity of light in empty space is a universal constant the same for all observers.
Einstein proved the following facts based on his theory of special relativity. Let v be the
velocity of the speceship w.r.t. a given frame of reference. The observations are made by an
observer in that reference frame.
• All clocks on the spaceship will go slow by a factor 1  v2 / c2
• All objects on the spaceship will have contracted in length by a factor 1  v2 / c2
• The mass of the spaceship increases by a factor 1  v2 / c2
• Mass and energy are interconvertable E = mc2
• The speed of a material object can never exceed the velocity of light.
• If two objects A and B are moving with velocity u and v w.r.t. each other along the x-axis, the
uv
relative velocity of A w.r.t. B =
1  uv / c 2
7. One cosmic ray particle approaches the earth along its axis with a velocity of 0.9c towards the
north pole and another one with a velocity of 0.5c towards the south pole. The relative speed of
approach of one particle w.r.t. another is-
(A) 1.4 c (B) 0.9655 c (C) 0.8888c (D) c
8. The momentum of an electron moving with a speed 0.6 c is (Rest mass of electron is
9.1 × 10–31kg)
(A) 1.6 × 10–22 kgms–1 (B) 2 × 10–22 kgms–1
(C) 5.46 × 10–31 kgms–1 (D) 5.46 × 10–22 kgms–1
9. A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of rest mass 1kg that move apart at speeds
of 0.6c relative to the original body. The rest mass of the original body is-
(A) 2 kg (B) 2.5 kg (C) 1.6 kg (D) 2.25 kg
Solution
7. Ans. (B)
uv 0.9c  0.5c 1.4c
Relative speed =    0.9655c
uv (0.9c)(0.5c) 1.45
1 2 1
c c2
19 19
MODERN PHYSICS-2
8. Ans. (B)
3 
(9.11031 )   3 108 
p = mv =
m0v
 5  = 2 × 10–22 kg ms–1
1 v / c
2 2
3
2
1  
5
9. Ans. (B)
m01c 2 m02 c 2 1 1
m0c2 =   m0 =   2.5kg
v
2
v
2 0.8 0.8
1   1  
c c
Example#10
Neutrons in thermal equilibrium with matter at 27°C can be thought to behave like ideal gas.
Assuming them to have a speed of vrms, what is their De broglie wavelength  (in nm). Fill
 156 
  in the OMR sheet. [Take mn = 1.69 × 10 kg. k = 1.44 × 10 J/K, h = 6.60 × 10
–27 –23 –34

 11 
Jsec]
Solution Ans. 2
3kT h h h
vrms  ;     
m p mn  vrms 3kTmn
6.6 1034 2.2 1010
 
3 1.44 1023 1.69 1027  300 1.2 1.3
156 156  2.2 1010 220 1010 22
    nm  2
11 111.2 1.3 11 11
20 20
MODERN PHYSICS-2
KEY CONCEPTS
1. NUCLEAR DIMENSIONS :
R = Ro A1/3 Where Ro = is an empirical constant = 1.1 × 10–15 m ;
A = Mass number of the atom
2. RADIOACTIVITY :
The phenomenon of self emission of radiation is called radioactivity and the substances which
emit these radiations are called radioactive substances. It can be natural or artificial (induced).
3. α, β, γ RADIATION :
(i) α - particle :
(a) Helium nucleus (2He4) (b) energy varies from 4 Mev to 9 Mev ;
6 7
(c) Velocity 10 – 10 m/s (d) low penetration
(ii) β - particle :
(a) electron or positron (b) Have much less energy ;
(c) more penetration ; (d) higher velocities than a particles
(iii) γ- radiation : Electromagnetic waves of very high energy and maximum pentration.
4. LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION :

(A) DISPLACEMENT LAW : In all radioactive transformation either an a or b particle (never
both or more than one of each simultaneously) is emitted by the nucleus of the atom.
(i) α - emission : zXA → z–2YA–4 + 2α4 + Energy
(ii) β - emission : zXA → b + z+1YA+n (antinuetrino)
(iii) γ - emission : emission does not affect either the charge number or the mass number .
(B) STATISTICAL LAW : The disintegration is a random phenomenon. Which atom disintegrates
first is purely a matter of chance. Number of nuclei disintegrating per second is given ;
(disintegrations /gm is called specific activity) .
dN dN
(i) αN ⇒ = −λN = activity.
dt dt
Where N = Number of nuclei present at time t ; λ = decay constant
(ii) N = N0e–λt ; N0 = number of nuclei present in the beginning.
0.693
(iii) Half life of the population T1/2 =
λ
N
at the end of n half-life periods the number of nuclei left N = no .
2
Σlife time of all atoms 1
(iv) Mean life of an Atom = ; Tav =
total number of atmos λ
(v) CURIE : The unit of activity of any radioactive substance in which the number of
disintegration per second is 3.7 ×1010 .
21 21
MODERN PHYSICS-2
5. ATOMIC MASS UNIT ( a.m.u. OR U) :
1
1 amu = × (mass of carbon – 12 atom) = 1.6603 × 10–27 kg
12
6. MASS AND ENERGY :

The mass m of a particle is equivalent to an energy given by E = mc2 ;
c = speed of light . 1 amu = 931 Mev
7. MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY OF A NUCLEUS :

The nucleus is less massive than its constituents. The difference of masses is called mass defect
∆M = mass defect = [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn] – MzA.
Total energy required to be given to the nucleus to tear apart the individual nucleons
composing the nucleus , away from each other and beyond the range of interaction forces is
called the Binding Energy of a nucleus.
B.E. = (∆M)C2.
(∆ M) C2
B.E. per nucleon =
A
Greater the B.E per nucleon, greater is the stability of the nucleus
8. NUCLEAR FISSION :
(i) Heavy nuclei of A , above 200 , break up into two or more fragments of comparable
masses.
(ii) The total B.E. increases and excess energy is released.
(iii) The man point of the fission energy is liberated in the form of the K.E. of the fission
fragments. eg. 235
92 U + o n1 →92
236
U →141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3o n + energy
92 1
9. NUCLEAR FUSION (Thermo nuclear reaction) :

(i) Light nuclei of A below 20, fuse together , the B.E. per nucleon increases and hence the
excess energy is released .
(ii) These reactions take place at ultra high temperature ( ≅ 107K to 109K)
(iii) Energy released exceeds the energy liberated in the fission of heavy nuclei.
eg. 411 P →42 He + 20+1 e. (Position)
(iv) The energy released in fusion is specified by specifying Q value .
i.e. Q value of reaction = energy released in a reaction .
Note : (i) In emission of β– , Atomic number (Z) increases by 1.
(ii) In emission of β+ , Atomic number (Z) decreases by 1.
22 22
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (S-1)
1. The binding energies per nucleon for deuteron (1H2) and helium (2He4) are 1.1 MeV and
7.0 MeV respectively. The energy released when two deuterons fuse to form a helium nucleus
(2He4) is ___.
2. A radioactive decay counter is switched on at t = 0. A β-active sample is present near the

counter. The counter registers the number of β-particles emitted by the sample. The counter
registers 1 × 105 β-particles at t = 36 s and 1.11 × 105 β-particles at t = 108 s. Find T½ of this
sample.
40 9 40
3. An isotopes of Potassium 19 K has a half life of 1.4 × 10 year and decays to Argon 18 Ar which
is stable. (i) Write down the nuclear reaction representing this decay. (ii) A sample of rock
taken from the moon contains both potassium and argon in the ratio 1/7. Find age of rock.
4. At t = 0, a sample is placed in a reactor. An unstable nuclide is produced at a constant rate R in

the sample by neutron absorption. This nuclide β– decays with half life τ. Find the time
required to produce 80% of the equilibrium quantity of this unstable nuclide.
5. Suppose that the Sun consists entirely of hydrogen atom and releases the energy by the nuclear
4
reaction, 411 H 
→2 He with 26 MeV of energy released. If the total output power of the Sun is
assumed to remain constant at 3.9 × 1026 W, find the time it will take to burn all the hydrogen.
Take the mass of the Sun as 1.7 × 1030 kg.
6. The positron is a fundamental particle with the same mass as that of the electron and with a
charge equal to that of an electron but of opposite sign. When a positron and an electron
collide, they may annihilate each other. The energy corresponding to their mass appears in two
photons of equal energy. Find the wavelength of the radiation emitted. [Take : mass of electron
= (0.5/C2)MeV and hC = 1.2×10–12 MeV.m where h is the Plank's constant and C is the velocity
of light in air]
7. When two deuterons (1H2) fuse to from a helium nucleus 2He4, 23.6 MeV energy is released.
Find the binding energy of helium if it is 1.1 MeV for each nucleon of deuterium.
8. A π+ meson of negligible initial velocity decays to a µ+ (muon) and a neutrino. With what
kinetic energy (in eV) does the muon move? (The rest mass of neutrino can be considered zero.
The rest mass of the π+ meson is 150 MeV and the rest mass of the muon is 100 MeV.) Take
neutrino to behave like a photon. Take 2 = 1.41.
9. Consider the following reaction: 12 H +12 H = 24 He + Q Mass of the deuterium atom = 2.0141u.
Mass of helium atom = 4.0024 u. This is a nuclear ....... reaction in which the energy Q released
is ........ MeV.
10. Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being produced at a constant rate α. The element has a
decay constant λ. At time t = 0, there are N0 nuclei of the element.
(i) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at time t.
(ii) If α = 2N0λ, calculate the number of nuclei of A after one half–life of A and also the
limiting value of N as t → ∞.
23 23
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (S-2)
1. U238 and U235 occur in nature in an atomic ratio 140 : 1. Assuming that at the time of earth’s
formation the two isotopes were present in equal amounts. Calculate the age of the earth.
(Half life of u238 = 4.5 × 109 yrs & that of U235 = 7.13 × 108 yrs)
2. The kinetic energy of an α–particle which flies out of the nucleus of a Ra226 atom in radioactive
disintegration is 4.78 MeV. Find the total energy evolved during the escape of the α-particle.
3. A small bottle contains powdered beryllium Be & gaseous radon which is used as a source of
α–particles. Neutrons are produced when α–particles of the radon react with beryllium. The
yield of this reaction is (1/ 4000) i.e. only one α–particle out of 4000 induces the reaction.
Find the amount of radon (Rn222) originally introduced into the source, if it produces
1.2 × 106 neutrons per second after 7.6 days. [T1/2 of Rn = 3.8 days]
4. An experiment is done to determine the half – life of radioactive substance that emits one
β-particle for each decay process. Measurement show that an average of 8.4 β are emitted each
second by 2.5 mg of the substance. The atomic weight of the substance is 230. Find the half life
of the substance.
5. A wooden piece of great antiquity weighs 50 gm and shows C14 activity of 320 disintegrations
per minute. Estimate the length of the time which has elapsed since this wood was part of living
tree, assuming that living plants show a C14 activity of 12 disintegrations per minute per gm.
The half life of C14 is 5730 yrs.
6. Show that in a nuclear reaction where the outgoing particle is scattered at an angle of 90° with
the direction of the bombarding particle, the Q-value is expressed as Q = KP
 mP   mI 
1 +  − K I 1 +  Where, I = incoming particle, P = product nucleus, T = target nucleus,
 MO   MO 
O = outgoing particle.
7. A body of mass m0 is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. The mass of the body is
decreasing exponentially with disintegration constant λ. Assuming that the mass is ejected
backward with a relative velocity u. Initially the body was at rest. Find the velocity of body
after time t.
8. A radionuclide with disintegration constant λ is produced in a reactor at a constant rate α nuclei

per sec. During each decay energy E0 is released. 20% of this energy is utilised in increasing
the temperature of water. Find the increase in temperature of m mass of water in time t.
Specific heat of water is S. Assume that there is no loss of energy through water surface.
24 24
MODERN PHYSICS-2
248 13
9. The element Curium 96 Cm has a mean life of 10 seconds. Its primary decay modes are
spontaneous fission and α decay, the former with a probability of 8% and the latter with a
probability of 92%. Each fission releases 200 MeV of energy . The masses involved in α decay
are as follows :
248 244
96 Cm = 248.072220u. 94 Pu = 244.064100u & 42 He = 4.002603u
Calculate the power output from a sample of 1020 Cm atoms. (l u = 931 MeV/c2)
10. A small quantity of solution containing 24Na radionuclide (half life 15 hours) of activity
1.0 microcurie is injected into the blood of a person. A sample of the blood of volume 1 cm3
taken after 5 hours shows an activity of 296 disintegration per minute. Determine the total
volume of blood in the body of the person. Assume that the radioactive solution mixes
uniformly in the blood of the person.
(1 Curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second)
11. At a given instant there are 25% undecayed radio-active nuclei in a sample. After 10 sec the
number of undecayed nuclei remains to 12.5%. Calculate :
(i) mean-life of the nuclei and
(ii) the time in which the number of undecayed nuclear will further reduce to 6.25% of the
reduced number.
25 25
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (O-1)
1. Let u be denote one atomic mass unit. One atom of an element of mass number A has mass
exactly equal to Au
(A) for any value of A (B) only for A = 1
(C) only for A = 12 (D) for any value of A provided the atom is stable
2. The surface area of a nucleus varies with mass number A as

(A) A2/3 (B) A1/3 (C) A (D) None
3. Consider the nuclear reaction X200 → A110 + B90

If the binding energy per nucleon for X, A and B is 7.4 MeV, 8.2 MeV and 8.2 MeV
respectively, what is the energy released ?
(A) 200 MeV (B) 160 MeV (C) 110 MeV (D) 90 MeV
4. The binding energy per nucleon for C12 is 7.68 MeV and that for C13 is 7.5 MeV. The energy
required to remove a neutron from C13 is
5. The following nuclear reaction is an example of 12

6 C + 24 H →16
8 O + energy
(A) fission (B) fusion (C) alpha decay (D) beta decay
6. Fast neutrons may most easily be slowed down by which one of the following methods?
(A) passing them through a substance rich in hydrogen
(B) allowing them to collide elastically with heavy nuclei
(C) using lead shielding
(D) passing them through an increasing potential gradient space
7. A certain radioactive nuclide of mass number mx disintegrates, with the emission of an electron
and g radiation only, to give second nuclide of mass number my. Which one of the following
equation correctly relates mx and my?
(A) my = mx + 1 (B) my = mx – 2 (C) my = mx – 1 (D) my = mx
8. In an a-decay the Kinetic energy of α particle is 48 MeV and Q-value of the reaction is
50 MeV. The mass number of the mother nucleus is: (Assume that daughter nucleus is in
ground state)
(A) 96 (B) 100 (C) 104 (D) none of these
9. In the uranium radioactive series the initial nucleus is 92U238, and the final nucleus is 82Pb206.
When the uranium nucleus decays to lead, the number of α-particles emitted is. and the number
of β-particles emitted...
(A) 6, 8 (B) 8, 6 (C) 16, 6 (D) 32, 12
26 26
MODERN PHYSICS-2
10. Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number curve for nuclei is shown in figure. W, X, Y
and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that would release energy is :
(A) Y → 2Z (B) W → X + Z (C) W → 2Y (D) X → Y + Z
11. The half–life of 131I is 8 days. Given a sample of 131I at time t = 0, we can assert that :
(A) no nucleus will decay before t = 4 days (B) no nucleus will decay before t = 8 days
(C) all nuclei will decay before t = 16 days (D) a given nucleus may decay at any time after t = 0
R2
12. Activity of a radioactive substance is R1 at time t1 and R2 at time t2(t2 > t1). Then the ratio
R1
is:
t2 t −t 
(A) (B) e −λ (t1 + t 2 ) (C) e  1 2  (D) eλ (t1 −t 2 )
t1  λ 
13. A particular nucleus in a large population of identical radioactive nuclei did survive 5 half lives
of that isotope. Then the probability that this surviving nucleus will survive the next half life :
1 1 1 1 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
32 5 2 10 2
14. A certain radio active substance has a half life of 5 years. Thus for a nucleus in a sample of the
element, the probability of decay in ten years is
(A) 50% (B) 75% (C) 100% (D) 60%
15. The activity of a sample reduces from A0 to A0 / 3 in one hour. The activity after 3 hours
more will be
A0 A A0 A
(A) (B) 0 (C) (D) 0
3 3 9 9 3 27
16. Half life of radium is 1620 years. How many radium nuclei decay in 5 hours in 5 gm radium?
(Atomic weight of radium = 223)
(A) 9.1 × 1012 (B) 3.23 × 1015 (C) 1.72 × 1020 (D) 3.3 × 1017
27 27
MODERN PHYSICS-2
17. The activity of a sample of radioactive material is A1 at time t1 and A2 at time t2 (t2 > t1). Its
mean life is T.
A − A2
(A) A1t1 = A2t2 (B) 1 = constant (C) A2 = A1 e(t1 − t 2 )/T (D) A2 = A1e(t1 /T t 2 )
t 2 − t1
18. A fraction f1 of a radioactive sample decays in one mean life, and a fraction f2 decays in one
half-life.
(A) f1 > f2
(B) f1 < f2
(C) f1 = f2
(D) May be (A), (B) or (C) depending on the values of the mean life and half life
19. The decay constant of the end product of a radioactive series is

(A) zero (B) infinite
(C) finite (non zero) (D) depends on the end product.
20. A radioactive substance is dissolved in a liquid and the solution is heated. The activity of the
solution
(A) is smaller than that of element
(B) is greater than that of element
(C) is equal to that of element
(D) will be smaller or greater depending upon whether the solution is weak or concentrated.
21. In a certain nuclear reactor, a radioactive nucleus is being produced at a constant rate = 1000 /s.
The mean life of the radionuclide is 40 minutes. At steady state, the number of radionuclide
will be
(A) 4 × 104 (B) 24 × 104 (C) 24 × 105 (D) 24 × 106
22. In the above question, if there were 20 × 105 radionuclide at t = 0, then the graph of N v/s t is
(A) (B) (C) (D)
28 28
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (O-2)
1. The binding energies of nuclei X and Y are E1 and E2 respectively. Two atoms of X fuse to
give one atom of Y and an energy Q is released. Then:
(A) Q = 2E1 – E2 (B) Q = E2–2E1 (C) Q = 2E1 + E2 (D) Q = 2E2 + E1
2. If each fission in a U235 nucleus releases 200 MeV, how many fissions must occurs per second
to produce a power of 1 KW
(A) 1.325 × 1013 (B) 3.125 × 1013 (C) 1.235 × 1013 (D) 2.135 × 1013
3. A star initially has 1040 deuterons. It produces energy via the processes, 1H2 + 1H2 → 1H3 + p
and 1H2 + 1H3 → 2He4 + n. If the average power radiated by the star is 1016 W, the deuteron
supply of the star is exhausted in a time of the order of :
(A) 106 s (B) 108 s (C) 1012 s (D) 1016 s
4. The binding energies of the atom of elements A & B are Ea & Eb respectively. Three atoms of
the element B fuse to give one atom of element A. This fusion process is accompanied by
release of energy e . Then Ea, Eb are related to each other as
(A) Ea+ e = 3Eb (B) Ea = 3Eb (C) Ea – e = 3Eb (D) Ea + 3Eb + e = 0
5. The rest mass of the deuteron , 12 H , is equivalent to an energy of 1876 MeV, the rest mass of a
proton is equivalent to 939 MeV and that of a neutron to 940 MeV. A deuteron may
disintegrate to a proton and a neutron if it :
(A) emits a γ - ray photon of energy 2 MeV (B) captures a γ - ray photon of energy 2 MeV
(C) emits a γ - ray photon of energy 3 MeV (D) captures a γ - ray photon of energy 3 MeV
6. The number of α and β– emitted during the radioactive decay chain starting from 226
88 Ra and
206
ending at 82 Pb is
(A) 3α & 6β− (B) 4α & 5β– (C) 5α & 4β– (D) 6α & 6β–
7. The radioactive sources A and B of half lives of 2 hr and 4 hr respectively, initially contain the
same number of radioactive atoms. At the end of 2 hours, their rates of disintegration are in the
ratio :
(A) 4 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 (C) 2 :1 (D) 1 : 1
8. In a radioactive element the fraction of initial amount remaining after its mean life time is
1 1 1 1
(A) 1 – (B) 2 (C) (D) 1– 2
e e e e
29 29
MODERN PHYSICS-2
9. Two radioactive material A1 and A2 have decay constants of 10λ0 and λ0. If initially they have
same number of nuclei, the ratio of number of their undecayed nuclei will be (1/e) after a time
1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D) 1
λ0 9λ 0 10λ 0
10. 90% of a radioactive sample is left undecayed after time t has elapsed. What percentage of the
initial sample will decay in a total time 2t:
(A) 20% (B) 19% (C) 40% (D) 38%
11. A radioactive material of half-life T was produced in a nuclear reactor at different instants, the
quantity produced second time was twice of that produced first time. If now their present
activities are A1 and A2 respectively then their age difference equals:
T A A1 T A A2
(A) ln 1 (B) T ln (C) ln 2 (D) T ln
ln 2 A 2 A2 ln 2 2A1 2A1
12. There are two radionuclei A and B. A is an alpha emitter and B is a beta emitter. Their
distintegration constants are in the ratio of 1 : 2. What should be the ratio of number of atoms
of two at time t = 0 so that probabilities of getting α and β particles are same at time t = 0.
(A) 2 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 (C) e (D) e–1
13. The half-life of substance X is 45 years, and it decomposes to substance Y. A sample from a
meteorite was taken which contained 2% of X and 14% of Y by quantity of substance. If
substance Y is not normally found on a meteorite, what is the approximate age of the
meteorite?
(A) 270 years (B) 135 years (C) 90 years (D) 45 years
14. A radioactive substance is being produced at a constant rate of 10 nuclei/s. The decay constant
of the substance is 1/2 sec–1. After what time the number of radioactive nuclei will become 10?
Initially there are no nuclei present. Assume decay law holds for the sample.
1
(A) 2.45 sec (B) log (2) sec (C) 1.386 sec (D) sec
ln(2)
15. The radioactivity of a sample is R1 at time T1 and R2 at time T2. If the half life of the specimen
is T. Number of atoms that have disintegrated in time (T2 – T1) is proportional to
(A) (R1T1 – R2T2) (B) (R1 – R2) T (C) (R1 – R2)/T (D) (R1 – R2) (T1 – T2)
16. At time t = 0, N1 nuclei of decay constant λ1 & N2 nuclei of decay constant λ2 are mixed. The
decay rate of the mixture is :
N 
(A) N1N2 e − ( λ1 +λ2 ) t (B) +  1  e − ( λ1 −λ2 ) t
 N2 
(
(C) + N1λ1e −λ1t + N 2 λ 2 e −λ2 t ) (D) + N1λ1 N2λ2 e − ( λ1 +λ2 ) t
30 30
MODERN PHYSICS-2
17. A radioactive nuclide can decay simultaneously by two different processes which have decay
constants λ1 and λ2. The effective decay constant of the nuclide is λ, then :
1 1 1
(A) λ = λ1 + λ2 (B) λ = 1/2(λ1 + λ1) (C) = + (D) λ = λ1λ 2
λ λ1 λ 2
18. The radioactive nucleus of an element X decays to a stable nucleus of element Y. A graph of
the rate of formation of Y against time would look like
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)
19. The half life of a neutron is 800 sec. 108 neutrons at a certain instant are projected from one
space station towards another space station, situated 3200 km away, with a velocity 2000 m/s.
Their velocity remains constant during the journey. How many neutrons reach the other
station?
(A) 50 × 106 (B) 25 × 106 (C) 80 × 105 (D) 25 × 105
20. A radioactive source in the form of a metal sphere of diameter 3.2 × 10–3 m emits b-particle at a
constant rate of 6.25 × 1010 particle/sec. The source is electrically insulated and all the
β-particle are emitted from the surface. The potential of the sphere will rise to 1 V in time
(A) 180 µ sec (B) 90 µ sec (C) 18 µ sec (D) 9 µ sec
21. An energy of 24.6 eV is required to remove one of the electrons from a neutral helium atom.
The energy (In eV) required to remove both the electrons form a neutral helium atom is
(A) 38.2 (B) 49.2 (C) 51.8 (D) 79.0
22. When a nucleus with atomic number Z and mass number A undergoes a radioactive decay
process:
(A) both Z and A will decrease, if the process is α decay
(B) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the process is β+ decay
(C) Z will decrease but A will not change, if the process is β– decay
(D) Z and A will remain unchanged, if the process is γ decay.
23. When the atomic number A of the nucleus increases

(A) initially the neutron-proton ratio is constant = 1
(B) initially neutron-proton ratio increases and later decreases
(C) initially binding energy per nucleon increases and later decreases
(D) the binding energy per nucleon increases when the neutron-proton ratio increases.
31 31
MODERN PHYSICS-2
24. Let mp be the mass of a proton, mn the mass of a neutron, M1 the mass of a 1020 Ne nucleus and
40
M2 the mass of a 20 Ca nucleus. Then
(A) M2 = 2M1 (B) M2 > 2M1 (C) M2 < 2M1 (D) M1 < 10(mn + mp)
25. The decay constant of a radio active substance is 0.173 (years)–1. Therefore :
(A) Nearly 63% of the radioactive substance will decay in (1/0.173) year.
(B) half life of the radio active substance is (1/0.173) year.
(C) one -forth of the radioactive substance will be left after nearly 8 years.
(D) all the above statements are true.
26. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

(A) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is less than the sum of the rest masses of its separated
nucleons.
(B) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is greater than the sum of the rest masses of its separated
nucleons.
(C) In nuclear fusion, energy is released by fusion of two nuclei of medium mass
(approx. 100 amu)
(D) In nuclear fusion, energy is released by fragmentation of a very heavy nucleus.
27. The graph shown by the side shows the variation of potential energy φ of a proton with its
distance ‘r’ from a fixed sodium nucleus, as it approaches the nucleus, placed at origin O. Then
the portion.
(A) AB indicates nuclear repulsion (B) AB indicates electrostatic repulsion

(C) BC indicates nuclear attraction (D) BC represents electrostatic interaction
28. A nitrogen nucleus 7N14 absorbs a neutron and can transform into lithium nucleus 3Li7 under
suitable conditions, after emitting :
(A) 4 protons and 3 neutrons
(B) 5 protons and 1 negative beta particle
(C) 1 alpha particles and 2 gamma particles
(D) 1 alpha particle, 4 protons and 2 negative beta particles
(E) 4 protons and 4 neutrons
32 32
MODERN PHYSICS-2
29. The instability of the nucleus can be due to various causes. An unstable nucleus emits
radiations if possible to transform into less unstable state. Then the cause and the result can be
(A) a nucleus of excess nucleons is a active
(B) an excited nucleus of excess protons is b– active
(C) an excited nucleus of excess protons is b+ active
(D) an nucleus of excess neutrons is b– active
30. In β-decay, the Q-value of the process is E. Then

(A) K.E. of a β-particle cannot exceed E.
(B) K.E. of anti neutrino emitted lies between Zero and E.
(C) N/Z ratio of the nucleus is altered.
(D) Mass number (A) of the nucleus is altered.
31. Consider the following nuclear reactions and select the correct statements from the options that
follow.
Reaction I : n → p + e– + v Reaction II : p → n + e+ + v
(A) Free neutron is unstable, therefore reaction I is possible
(B) Free proton is stable, therefore reaction II is not possible
(C) Inside a nucleus, both decays (reaction I and II) are possible
(D) Inside a nucleus, reaction I is not possible but reaction II is possible.
32. When the nucleus of an electrically neutral atom undergoes a radioactive decay process, it will
remain neutral after the decay if the process is :
(A) α decay (B) β– decay (C) γ decay (D) K-capture
33. In the following, column I lists some physical quantities & the column II gives approx. energy
values associated with some of them. Choose the appropriate value of energy from column II
for each of the physical quantities in column I and write the corresponding letter A, B, C etc.
against the number (i), (ii), (iii), etc. of the physical quantity in the answer book. In your
answer, the sequence of column I should be maintained.
Column I Column II
(i) Energy of thermal neutrons (A) 0.025 eV
(ii) Energy of X-rays (B) 0.5 eV
(iii) Binding energy per nucleon (C) 3 eV
(iv) Photoelectric threshold of metal (D) 20 eV
(E) 10 keV
(F) 8 MeV
33 33
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (JM)
1. If N0 is the original mass of the substance of half-life period t1/2 = 5 years, then the amount of
substance left after 15 years is- [AIEEE - 2002]
N N N N
(1) 0 (2) 0 (3) 0 (4) 0
8 16 2 4
2. At a specific instant emission of radioactive compound is deflected in a magnetic field. The

compound can emit-
(i) electrons (ii) protons (iii) He2+ (iv) neutrons
The emission at the instant can be- [AIEEE - 2002]
(1) i, ii, iii (2) i, ii, iii, iv (3) iv (4) ii, iii
3. Which of the following radiations has the least wavelength ? [AIEEE - 2003]
(1) γ-rays (2) β-rays (3) α-rays (4) X-rays
4. When U238 nucleus originally at rest, decays by emitting an alpha particle having a speed u, the
recoil speed of the residual nucleus is- [AIEEE - 2003]
4u 4u 4u 4u
(1) (2) − (3) (4) −
238 234 234 238
5. A radioactive sample at any instant has its disintegration rate 5000 disintegration per minute.
After 5 minutes, the rate is 1250 disintegrations per minute. Then, the decay constant (per
minute) is- [AIEEE - 2003]
(1) 0.4 ln 2 (2) 0.2 ln 2 (3) 0.1 ln 2 (4) 0.8 ln 2
6. A nucleus with Z = 92 emits the following in a sequence : α, α, β–, β–, α, α, α, α, β–, β–, α, β+,
β+, α. The Z of the resulting nucleus is- [AIEEE - 2003]
(1) 76 (2) 78 (3) 82 (4) 74
7. Which of the following cannot be emitted by radioactive substances during their decay ?
[AIEEE - 2003]
(1) Protons (2) Neutrinos (3) Helium nuclei (4) Electrons
8. In the nuclear fusion reaction,
2
1 H + 13 H → 42 He + n
given that the repulsive potential energy between the two nuclei is 7.7 × 10–14 J, the
temperature at which the gases must be heated to initiate the reaction is nearly [Boltzmann's
constant k = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K]- [AIEEE - 2003]
7 5 3 9
(1) 10 K (2) 10 K (3) 10 K (4) 10 K
34 34
MODERN PHYSICS-2
9. If the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV, the energy required to
remove the electron from the first excited state of Li2+ is- [AIEEE - 2003]
(1) 30.6 eV (2) 13.6 eV (3) 3.4 eV (4) 122.4 eV
10. A nucleus disintegrates into two nuclear parts which have their velocities in the ratio 2 : 1 The
ratio of their nuclear sizes will be- [AIEEE - 2004]
1/3 1/2 1/2 1/3
(1) 2 : 1 (2) 1 : 3 (3) 3 : 1 (4) 1 : 2
11. The binding energy per nucleon of deuteron ( 12 H) and helium nucleus ( 42 He) is 1.1 MeV and
7MeV respectively. If two deuteron nuclei react to form a single helium nucleus, then the
energy released is- [AIEEE - 2004]
(1) 13.9 MeV (2) 26.9 MeV (3) 23.6 MeV (4) 19.2 MeV
12. The intensity of gamma radiation from a given source is I. On passing through 36 mm of lead,
it is reduced to I/8. The thickness of lead, which will reduce the intensity to I/2 will be-
[AIEEE-2005]
(1) 6 mm (2) 9 mm (3) 18 mm (4) 12 mm
13. Starting with a sample of pure 66Cu, 7/8 of it decays into Zn in 15 min. The corresponding half-
life is- [AIEEE - 2005]
1
(1) 10 min (2) 15 min (3) 5 min (4) 7 min
2
14. If radius of the 13 Al nucleus is estimated to be 3.6 fermi, then the radius of 125
27
52 Te nucleus be
nearly- [AIEEE - 2005]

(1) 6 fermi (2) 8 fermi (3) 4 fermi (4) 5 fermi
15. A nuclear transformation is denoted by X(n, α) → 37 Li . Which of the following is the nucleus
of element X ? [AIEEE - 2005]
12 10 9 11
(1) 6 C (2) 5 B (3) B
5 (4) 4 Be
1
16. An alpha nucleus of energy mv2 bombards a heavy nuclear target of charge Ze. Then the
2
distance of closest approach for the alpha nucleus will be proportional to- [AIEEE - 2006]
2 4
(1) v (2) 1/m (3) 1/v (4) 1/Ze
17. When 3Li7 nuclei are bombarded by protons and the resultant nuclei are 4Be8, the emitted
particles will be- [AIEEE - 2006]
(1) alpha particles (2) beta particles (3) gamma photons (4) neutrons
35 35
MODERN PHYSICS-2
18. The energy spectrum of β-particles [number N(E) as a function of β-energy E] emitted from a
radioactive source is- [AIEEE - 2006]
(1) (2) (3) (4)
19. If the binding energy per nucleon in 37 Li and 24 He nuclei are 5.60 MeV and 7.06 MeV
respectively, then in the reaction : p + 37 Li → 2 42 He energy of proton must be- [AIEEE - 2006]
(1) 28.24 MeV (2) 17.28 MeV (3) 1.46 MeV (4) 39.2 MeV
20. If M0 is the mass of an oxygen isotope 8O17, Mp and Mn are the masses of a proton and a
neutron, respectively, the nuclear binding energy of the isotope is- [AIEEE - 2007]
2 2
(1) (Mo – 8Mp)c (2) (Mo – 8Mp – 9Mn)c
2
(3) Moc (4) (Mo – 17Mn)c2
21. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus [AIEEE-2007]

(1) both the neutron number and the proton number change
(2) there is no change in the proton number and the neutron number
(3) only the neutron number changes
(4) only the proton number changes
22. The half-life period of a radioactive element X is same as the mean life time of another
radioactive element Y. Initially they have the same number of atoms. Then- [AIEEE - 2007]
(1) X will decay faster than Y (2) Y will decay faster than X
(3) Y and X have same decay rate initially (4) X and Y decay at same rate always
23. This question contains Statement-1 and Statement-2. Out of the four choices given after the
statements, choose the one that best describes the two statements.
Statement-1 : Energy is released when heavy nuclei undergo fission or light nuclei undergo fusion.
Statement-2 : For heavy nuclei, binding energy per nucleon increases with increasing Z while
for light nuclei it decreases with increasing Z. [AIEEE - 2008]
(1) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true.
(2) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for
Statement-1.
(3) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for
Statement-1.
(4) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false.
36 36
MODERN PHYSICS-2
24.
The above is a plot of binding energy per nucleon Eb, against the nuclear mass M; A, B, C, D,
E, F correspond to different nuclei. Consider four reactions : [AIEEE - 2009]
(i) A + B → C + ε (ii) C → A + B + ε
(iii) D + E → F + ε (iv) F → D + E + ε
where e is the energy released ? In which reactions is e positive ?
(1) (ii) and (iv) (2) (ii) and (iii) (3) (i) and (iv) (4) (i) and (iii)
Directions : Questions number 25 – 26 are based on the following paragraph.

M
A nucleus of mass M + ∆m is at rest and decays into two daughter nuclei of equal mass
2
each. Speed of light is c.
25. The speed of daughter nuclei is :- [AIEEE-2010]

∆m ∆m 2∆m ∆m
(1) c (2) c (3) c (4) c
M + ∆m M + ∆m M M
26. The binding energy per nucleon for the parent nucleus is E1 an that for the daughter nuclei is
E2. Then:- [AIEEE - 2010]
(1) E1 = 2E2 (2) E2 = 2E1 (3) E1 > E2 (4) E2 > E1
27. A radioactive nucleus (initial mass number A and atomic number Z) emits 3 α-particles and 2
positrons. The ratio of number of neutrons to that of protons in the final nucleus will be:-
[AIEEE - 2010]
A−Z−4 A − Z−8 A−Z−4 A − Z − 12
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Z−2 Z−4 Z−8 Z−4
28. The half life of a radioactive substance is 20 minutes. The approximate time interval (t2 – t1)
2 1
between the time t2 when of it has decayed and time t1 when of it had decayed is :-
3 3
[AIEEE - 2011]
(1) 20 min (2) 28 min (3) 7 min (4) 14 min
37 37
MODERN PHYSICS-2
29. After absorbing a slowly moving neutron of mass mN (momentum ~0) a nucleus of mass M
breaks into two nuclei of masses m1 and 5m1(6m1 = M + mN), respectively. If the de Broglie
wavelength of the nucleus with mass m1 is λ, then de Broglie wavelength of the other nucleus
will be:- [AIEEE - 2011]
λ
(1) 25 λ (2) 5λ (3) (4) λ
5
30. Statement-1: A nucleus having energy E1 decays be β– emission to daughter nucleus having
energy E2, but the β– rays are emitted with a continuous energy spectrum having end point
energy E1–E2.
Statement-1: To conserve energy and momentum in β-decay at least three particles must take
part in the transformation. [AIEEE - 2011]
(1) Statement-1 is incorrect, statement-2 is correct
(2) Statement-1 is correct, statement-2 is incorrect
(3) Statement-1 is correct, statement-2 correct; statement-2 is the correct explanation of
statement-1
(4) Statement-1 is correct, statement-2 is correct; statement -2 is not the correct explanation of
statement-1.
31. Assume that a neutron breaks into a proton and an electron. The energy released during this
process is : [AIEEE - 2012]
–27
(Mass of neutron = 1.6725 × 10 kg
Mass of proton = 1.6725 × 10–27 kg
Mass of electron = 9 × 10–31 kg)
(1) 5.4 MeV (2) 0.73 MeV (3) 7.10 MeV (4) 6.30 MeV
32. Ina hydrogen like atom electron make transition from an energy level with quantum number n
to another with quantum number (n–1). If n>>1, the frequency of radiation emitted is
proportional to :
1 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
n n2 n 3/2 n3
33. A sample of radioactive material A, that has an activity of 10 mCi(l Ci = 3.7 × l010 decays/s),
has twice the number of nuclei as another sample of a different radioactive maternal B which
has an activity of 20 mCi. The correct choices for half-lives of A and B would then be
respectively : [JEE Main-2019]
(1) 20 days and 5 days (2) 20 days and 10 days
(3) 5 days and 10 days (4) 10 days and 40 days
38 38
MODERN PHYSICS-2
34. At a given instant, say t = 0, two radioactive substances A and B have equal activities. The ratio
RB
of their activities after time t itself decays with time t as e–3t. If the half-life of A is ln2, the
RA
half-life of B is : [JEE Main-2019]
n2 ln2
(1) (2) (3) 2l n 2 (4) 4l n 2
2 4
35. Using a nuclear counter the count rate of emitted particles from a radioactive source is
measured. At t = 0 it was 1600 counts per second and t = 8 seconds it was 100 counts per
second. The count rate observed, as counts per second, at t = 6 seconds is close to :
[JEE Main-2019]
(1) 400 (2) 360 (3) 150 (4) 200
36. Consider the nuclear fission

Ne20 → 2He4 + C12
Given that the binding energy/nucleon of Ne20, He4 and C12 are, respectively, 8.03 MeV,
7.07 MeV and 7.86 MeV, identify the correct statement [JEE Main-2019]
(1) energy of 12.4 MeV will be supplied (2) 8.3 MeV energy will be released
(3) energy of 11.9 MeV has to be supplied (4) energy of 3.6 MeV will be released
37. In a radioactive decay chain, the initial nucleus is 232

90 Th . At the end there are 6 α-particles and
4 β-particles which are emitted. If the end nucleus, is AZ X , A and Z are given by:
[JEE Main-2019]
(1) A = 202; Z = 80 (2) A = 200; Z = 81 (3) A = 208; Z = 80 (4) A = 208; Z = 82
38. The activity of a radioactive sample falls from 700 s–1 to 500 s–1 in 30 minutes. Its half life is
close to : [JEE Main-2020]
(1) 52 min (2) 66 min (3) 72 min (4) 62 min
39 39
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (JA)
1. The volume V and mass M of a nucleus are related as [JEE 2003 (Scr)]
(A) v ∝ m (B) v ∝ 1/m (C) v ∝ m3 (D) v ∝ 3
m
2. The nucleus of element X (A = 220) undergoes α-decay. If Q-value of the reaction is 5.5 MeV,
then the kinetic energy of α-particle is : [JEE 2003 (Scr)]
(A) 5.4 MeV (B) 10.8 MeV (C) 2.7 MeV (D) None
3. A radioactive sample emits n β-particles in 2 sec. In next 2 sec it emits 0.75 n β-particles, what
is the mean life of the sample? [JEE 2003]
4. A 280 days old radioactive substance shows an activity of 6000 dps, 140 days later it’s activity
becomes 3000dps. What was its initial activity. [JEE 2004 (Scr)]
(A) 20000 dps (B) 24000 dps (C) 12000 dps (D) 6000 dps
5. The age of a rock containing lead and uranium is equal to 1.5 × 109 yrs. The uranium is
decaying into lead with half life equal to 4.5 × 109 yrs. Find the ratio of lead to uranium present
in the rock, assuming initially no lead was present in the rock. (Given 21/3 = 1.259). [JEE 2004]
6. Helium nuclei combines to form an oxygen nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of oxygen
nucleus is if m0 = 15.834 amu and mHe = 4.0026 amu [JEE' 2005 (Scr)]
(A) 10.24 MeV (B) 0 MeV (C) 5.24 MeV (D) 4 MeV
7. Highly energetic electrons are bombarded on a target of an element containing 30 neutrons.

The ratio of radii of nucleus to that of helium nucleus is (14)1/3. Find [JEE 2005]
(a) atomic number of the nucleus
(b) the frequency of Kα line of the X-ray produced. (R = 1.1× 107 m–1 and c = 3 × 108 m/s)
8. Given a sample of Radium-226 having half-life of 4 days. Find the probability, a nucleus
disintegrates within 2 half lives. [JEE 2006]
(A) 1 (B) 1/2 (C) 3/4 (D) 1/4
9. Match the following Columns [JEE 2006]

Column 1 Column 2
(A) Nuclear fusion (P) Converts some matter into energy
(B) Nuclear fission (Q) Generally occurs for nuclei with low atomic number
(C) β–decay (R) Generally occurs for nuclei with higher atomic number
(D) Exothermic nuclear reaction (S) Essentially proceeds by weak nuclear forces
40 40
MODERN PHYSICS-2
10. In the options given below, let E denote the rest mass energy of a nucleus and n a neutron. The
correct option is [JEE 2007]
(A) E ( 236
92 U ) > E ( 137
53 I ) + E ( 39 Y ) + 2E(n)
97
(B) E ( 236
92 U ) < E ( 137
53 I ) + E ( 39 Y ) + 2E(n)
97
(C) E ( 236
92 U ) < E ( 140
56 Ba ) + E ( 39 Kr ) + 2E(n)
94
(D) E ( 236
92 U ) = E ( 140
56 Ba ) + E ( 39 Kr ) + 2E(n)
94
11. Some laws/processes are given in Column I. Match these with the physical phenomena given
in Column II and indicate your answer by darkening appropriate bubbles in the 4 × 4 matrix
given in the ORS. [JEE 2007]
Column I Column II
(A) Transition between two atomic energy levels (P) Characteristic X-rays
(B) Electron emission from a material (Q) Photoelectric effect
(C) Mosley’s law (R) Hydrogen spectrum
(D) Change of photon energy into kinetic energy of (S) b-decay
electrons
12. Assume that the nuclear binding energy per nucleon (B/A) versus mass number (A) is as shown
in the figure. Use this plot to choose the correct choice(s) given below : [JEE 2008]
(A) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying in the range of 1 < A < 50 will release
energy
(B) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying in the range of 51 < A < 100 will release
energy
(C) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of 100 < A < 200 will release energy when
broken into two equal fragments
(D) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of 200 < A < 260 will release energy when
broken into two equal fragments
13. A radioactive sample S1 having an activity of 5μCi has twice the number of nuclei as another
sample S2 which has an activity of 10μCi. The half lives of S1 and S2 can be : [JEE 2008]
(A) 20 years and 5 years, respectively (B) 20 years and 10 years, respectively
(C) 10 years each (D) 5 years each
41 41
MODERN PHYSICS-2
Paragraph for Question Nos. 14 to 16
Scientists are working hard to develop nuclear fusion reactor. Nuclei of heavy hydrogen, 12 H ,
known as deuteron and denoted by D, can be thought of as a candidate for fusion reactor. The
D-D reaction is 12 H +12 H →32 He + n + energy. In the core of fusion reactor, a gas of heavy
hydrogen is fully ionized into deuteron nuclei and electrons. This collection of 12 H nuclei and
electrons is known as plasma. The nuclei move randomly in the reactor core and occasionally
come close enough for nuclear fusion to take place. Usually, the temperatures in the reactor
core are too high and no material wall can be used to confine the plasma. Special techniques are
used which confine the plasma for a time t0 before the particles fly away from the core. If n is
the density (number/volume) of deuterons, the product nt0 is called Lawson number. In one of
the criteria, a reactor is termed successful if Lawson number is greater than 5 × 1014 s/cm3. It
may be helpful to use the following :
e2
Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 × 10–5 eV/K ; = 1.44 × 10–9eVm.
4πε0
14. In the core of nuclear fusion reactor, the gas becomes plasma because of [JEE-2009]
(A) strong nuclear force acting between the deuterons
(B) Coulomb force acting between the deuterons
(C) Coulomb force acting between deuteron-electron pairs
(D) the high temperature maintained inside the reactor core
15. Assume that two deuteron nuclei in the core of fusion reactor at temperature T are moving
towards each other, each with kinetic energy 1.5 kT, when the separation between them is large
enough to neglect Coulomb potential energy. Also neglect any interaction from other particles
in the core. The minimum temperature T required for them to reach a separation of 4 × 10–15 m
is in the range [JEE-2009]
9 9 9 9
(A) 1.0 × 10 K < T < 2.0 × 10 K (B) 2.0 × 10 K < T < 3.0 × 10 K
9 9
(C) 3.0 × 10 K < T < 4.0 × 10 K (D) 4.0 × 109 K < T < 5.0 × 109 K
16. Results of calculations for four different designs of a fusion reactor using D-D reaction are
given below. Which of these is most promising based on Lawson criterion? [JEE-2009]
12 –3 –3
(A) deuteron density = 2.0 ×10 cm , confinement time = 5.0 × 10 s
(B) deuteron density = 8.0 × 1014 cm–3 , confinement time = 9.0 ×10–1 s
(C) deuteron density = 4.0 × 1023 cm–3, confinement time = 1.0 × 10–11 s
(D) deuteron density = 1.0 ×1024 cm–3 , confinement time = 4.0 x 10–12 s
42 42
MODERN PHYSICS-2
dN(t)
17. To determine the half life of a radioactive element, a student plots a graph of n versus
dt
dN(t)
t. Here is the rate of radioactive decay at time t. If the number of radioactive nuclei of
dt
this element decreases by a factor of p after 4.16 years, the value of p is [JEE-2010]
18. The activity of a freshly prepared radioactive sample is 1010 disintegrations per second, whose
mean life is 109 s. The mass of an atom of this radioisotope is 10–25 kg. The mass (in mg) of the
radioactive sample is [JEE-2011]
19. A freshly prepared sample of a radioisotope of half–life 1386 s has activity 103 disintegrations
per second. Given that n 2 = 0.693, the fraction of the initial number of nuclei (expressed in
nearest integer percentage) that will decay in the first 80s after preparation of the sample is.
[JEE–2013]
Paragraph for Questions 20 and 21

A
The mass of a nucleus X is less than the sum of the masses of (A – Z) number of neutrons
Z
and Z number of protons in the nucleus. The energy equivalent to the corresponding mass
difference is known as the binding energy of the nucleus. A heavy nucleus of mass M can break
into two light nuclei of masses m1 and m2 only if (m1 + m2) < M. Also two light nuclei of
masses m3 and m4 can undergo complete fusion and form a heavy nucleus of mass M' only if
(m3 + m4) > M'. The masses of some neutral atoms are given in the table below :- [JEE-2013]
210
20. The kinetic energy (in keV) of the alpha particle, when the nucleus 84 Po at rest undergoes
alpha decay, is :-
(A) 5319 (B) 5422 (C) 5707 (D) 5818
43 43
MODERN PHYSICS-2
21. The correct statement is :-
(A) The nucleus 36 Li can emit an alpha particle
210
(B) The nucleus 84 Po can emit a proton
(C) Deuteron and alpha particle can undergo complete fusion
70
(D) The nuclei 30 Zn and 82
34 Se can undergo complete fusion
22. Match List I of the nuclear processes with List II containing parent nucleus and one of the end
products of each process and then select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List I List II [JEE-2013]
8 O →7 N + ....
15 15
P. Alpha decay 1.
Q. β+ decay 2. 238
92 U →90
234
Th + ....
R. Fission 3. 185
83 Bi →184
82 Pb + .....
S. Proton emission 4. 239

94 Pu →140
57 La + ....
Codes :
P Q R S
(A) 4 2 1 3
(B) 1 3 2 4
(C) 2 1 4 3
(D) 4 3 2 1
23. A nuclear power plant supplying electrical power to a village uses a radioactive material of half
life T years as the fuel. The amount of fuel at the beginning is such that the total power
requirement of the vi lage is 12.5% of the electrical power available form the plant at that time.
If the plant is able to meet the total power needs of the village for a maximum period of nT
years, then the value of n is [JEE Advanced-2015]
24. Match the nuclear processes given in column I with the appropriate option(s) in column II
[JEE Advanced-2015]
Column I Column II
235
(A) Nuclear fusion (P) Absorption of thermal neutrons by 92 U
60
(B) Fission in a nuclear reactor (Q) 27 Co nucleus
(C) β-decay (R) Energy production in start via hydrogen
conversion to helium (S) Heavy water
(D) γ-ray emission (T) Neutrino emission
44 44
MODERN PHYSICS-2
25. A fission reaction is given by 236
92 U→140
54 Xe + Sr + x + y , where x and y are two particles.
94
38
236
Considering 92 U to be at rest, the kinetic energies of the products are denoted by KXe KSr, Kx
236
(2MeV) and Ky (2MeV), respectively. Let the binding energies per nucleon of 92 U 140
54 Xe and
94
38 Sr be 7.5 MeV, 8.5 MeV and 8.5 MeV respectively. Considering different conservation laws,
the correct option(s) is(are) [JEE Advanced 2015]
(A) x = n, y = n, KSr = 129 MeV, KXe = 86 MeV
(B) x = p, y = e–, KSr = 129 MeV, KXe = 86 MeV
(C) x = p, y = n, KSr = 129 MeV, KXe = 86 MeV
(D) x = n, y = n, KSr = 86 MeV, KXe = 129 MeV
26. The isotope 12

5 B having a mass 12.014 u undergoes β-decay to 12
6 C.12
6 C has an excited state of
the nucleus (12

6 C*) at 4.041 MeV above its ground state. If
12
5 B decays to 12
6 C * , the maximum
kinetic energy of the β-particle in units of MeV is (1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2, where c is the speed of
light in vacuum). [IIT JEE 2016]
27. The electrostatic energy of Z protons uniformly distributed throughout a spherical nucleus of
3 Z(Z− 1) e 2
radius R is given by E = [IIT JEE 2016]
5 4πε 0 R
The measured masses of the neutron, 11 H,15 15
7 N and 8 O are 1.008665 u, 1.007825 u, 15.000109 u
15 15
and 15.003065 u, respectively. Given that the radii of both the 7 N and 8 O nuclei are same, 1
u = 931.5 MeV/c2 (c is the speed of light) and e2/(4πε0) = 1.44 MeV fm. Assuming that the
15 15
difference between the binding energies of 7 N and 8 O is purely due to the electrostatic
energy, the radius of either of the nuclei is (1 fm = 10–15m)
(A) 2.85 fm (B) 3.03 fm (C) 3.42 fm (D) 3.80 fm
28. An accident in a nuclear laboratory resulted in deposition of a certain amount of radioactive

material of half-life 18 days inside the laboratory. Tests revealed that the radiation was 64 times
more than the permissible level required for safe operation of the laboratory. What is the
minimum number of days after which the laboratory can be considered safe for use?
[IIT JEE 2016]
(A) 64 (B) 90 (C) 108 (D) 120
45 45
MODERN PHYSICS-2
29. 131
I is an isotope of Iodine that β decays to an isotope of Xenon with a half-life of 8 days. A
small amount of a serum labeled with 131I is injected into the blood of a person. The activity of
the amount of 131I injected was 2.4 × 105 Becquerel (Bq). It is known that the injected serum
will get distributed uniformly in the blood stream in less than half an hour. After 11.5 hours,
2.5 ml of blood is drawn from the person's body, and gives an activity of 115 Bq. The total
volume of blood in the person's body, in liters is approximately (you may use ex ≈ 1 + x for
|x| << 1 and ln 2 ≈ 0.7). [IIT JEE 2017]
30. In an experiment the initial number of radioactive nuclei is 3000. It is found that 1000 ± 40
nuclei decayed in the first 1.0 s. For |x| << 1, ln (1 + x) = x up to first power in x. The error λ∆,
in the determination of the decay constant λ, in s–1, is [IIT JEE 2018]
(A) 0.04 (B) 0.03 (C) 0.02 (D) 0.01
232 232
31. In a radioactive decay chain, 90 Th nucleus decays to Pb82 nucleus. Let Nα and Nβ be the
number of α and β particles, respectively, emitted in this decay process. Which of the following
statements is (are) true? [IIT JEE 2018]
(A) Nα = 5 (B) Nα = 6 (C) Nβ = 2 (D) Nβ = 4
40
32. In a radioactive sample, 19 K nuclei either decay into stable 40 20 Ca nuclei with decay constant
4.5 × 10 per year or into stable 18 Ar nuclei with decay constant 0.5 × 10–10 per year. Given
–10 40
that in this sample all the stable 40 40 40

20 Ca and 18 Ar nuclei are produced by the 19 K nuclei only. In
time t × 109 years, if the ratio of the sum of stable 40 40 40

20 Ca and 18 Ar nuclei to the radioactive 19 K
nuclei is 99, the value of t will be.
[Given: ln 10 = 2.3] [IIT JEE 2019]
(A) 1.15 (B) 2.3 (C) 4.6 (D) 9.2
33. Suppose a 226

88 Ra nucleus at rest and in ground state undergoes α-decay to a 222
86 Rn nucleus in its
222
excited state. The kinetic energy of the emitted a particle is found to be 4.44 MeV. 86 Rn
nucleus then goes to its ground state by γ-decay. The energy of the emitted γ photon is __ keV.
226 222
[Given: atomic mass of 88 Ra = 226.005 u, atomic mass of 86 Rn = 222.000 u atomic mass of
α particle = 4.000 u. 1 u = 931 MeV/c . c is speed of the light]
2
[IIT JEE 2019]
46 46
MODERN PHYSICS-2
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE # (S-1)
40 40
1. 23.6 MeV 2. T1/2 = 10.8 sec 3. (i) K→ Ar + +1 +e0 + v (ii) 4.2 ×109 years
19 18
ln 5
4. t=( )τ 5. 8/3 × 1018 sec 6. 2.48 × 10–12m 7. 28 Mev
ln 2
8. 9.00×106 9. Fusion, 24 10. (a) N=

1
λ
( α − ( α − λ N0 ) e−λt ) (b)
3N 0
2
EXERCISE # (S-2)
1. 6.04×109yrs 2. 4.87 MeV 3. 3.3 × 10–69 4. 1.7×1010 years
5. 5196 6. 7. v = uλt
α
00 2E 0 [α t − (1 − e −λt )]
8. ∆T = λ 9. ≅ 33.298 MW 10. 6 litre
mS
11. (i) t1/2 = 10sec; tmean = 14.43 s (ii) 40 second
EXERCISE # (O-1)
1. C 2. A 3. B 4. A 5. B 6. A 7. D
8. B 9. B 10. C 11. D 12. D 13. C 14. B
15. B 16. B 17. C 18. A 19. A 20. C 21. C
22. C
EXERCISE # (O-2)
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. C 7. C
8. C 9. B 10. B 11. C 12. A 13. B 14. C
15. B 16. C 17. A 18. E 19. B 20. C 21. D
22. A,B,D 23. A,C 24. C,D 25. A,C 26. A,D 27. B,C 28. C,E
29. A,C,D 30. A,B,C 31. A,B,C 32. C,D 33. (i)A, (ii) E, (iii) F, (iv) C
EXERCISE # (JM)
1. (1) 2. (1) 3. (1) 4. (3) 5. (1) 6. (2) 7. (1)
8. (4) 9. (1) 10. (4) 11. (3) 12. (4) 13. (3) 14. (1)
15. (2) 16. (2) 17. (3) 18. (3) 19. (2) 20. (2) 21. (2)
22. (2) 23. (4) 24. (3) 25. (3) 26. (4) 27. (3) 28. (1)
29. (4) 30. (3) 31. Bonus 32. (4) 33. (1) 34. (2) 35. (4)
36. (3) 37. (4) 38. (4)
47 47
MODERN PHYSICS-2
EXERCISE # (JA)
2
1. A 2. A 3. 1.75n = N0 (1–e–4λ), 6.95 sec, 4. B
4
ln( )
3
5. 0.259 6. A 7. v = 1.546×1018Hz 8. C
9. (A) P,Q; (B) P,R; (C) S, P; (D) PQR 10. A 11. (A) R,P; (B) Q,S (C) P; (D) Q
12. B,D 13. A 14. D 15. A 16. B 17. 8 18. 1
19. 4 20. A 21. C 22. C 23. (3)
24. (A) →(R, T) ; (B) →(P, S) ; (C) →( Q, T); (D) →( R)
25. A 26. 8 or 9 27. C 28. C 29. 5 30. C 31. C
32. D 33. 135.00
48 48
IIT PHYSICS
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NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION :

CRITICAL SIZE (OR MASS) :

NUCLEAR REACTOR (K = 1) : Credit  To Enricho Fermi

FAST BREADER REACTORS

• Moderator : Are not used in these reactors.

REQUIRED CONDITION FOR NUCLEAR FUSION

To achieve stability, it increases Z by conversion of neutron into

K.E. of satisfies the condition 0 < K < Q

daughter nucleus is usually in higher energy state,  

a photon or photons. E =1.33MeV 

Order of energy of  photon is 100 KeV,

 higher energy state

Features –particles –particles –rays

Charge Twice of proton (+2e)4mp Electronic charge (– e) Neutral

K.E. MeV MeV MeV

Ionization 100 times of –rays 1

Effect of electric Deflection (More than )

Laws of Radioactive Decay

(vi) In which of the following decays the atomic number decreases –

4. LAWS OF RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION :

6. MASS AND ENERGY :

7. MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY OF A NUCLEUS :

9. NUCLEAR FUSION (Thermo nuclear reaction) :

2. A radioactive decay counter is switched on at t = 0. A β-active sample is present near the

4. At t = 0, a sample is placed in a reactor. An unstable nuclide is produced at a constant rate R in

8. A radionuclide with disintegration constant λ is produced in a reactor at a constant rate α nuclei

2. The surface area of a nucleus varies with mass number A as

3. Consider the nuclear reaction X200 → A110 + B90

5. The following nuclear reaction is an example of 12

(A) Y → 2Z (B) W → X + Z (C) W → 2Y (D) X → Y + Z

19. The decay constant of the end product of a radioactive series is

(A) (B) (C) (D)

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

23. When the atomic number A of the nucleus increases

26. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

(A) AB indicates nuclear repulsion (B) AB indicates electrostatic repulsion

30. In β-decay, the Q-value of the process is E. Then

2. At a specific instant emission of radioactive compound is deflected in a magnetic field. The

nearly- [AIEEE - 2005]

(1) (2) (3) (4)

21. In gamma ray emission from a nucleus [AIEEE-2007]

Directions : Questions number 25 – 26 are based on the following paragraph.

25. The speed of daughter nuclei is :- [AIEEE-2010]

36. Consider the nuclear fission

37. In a radioactive decay chain, the initial nucleus is 232

7. Highly energetic electrons are bombarded on a target of an element containing 30 neutrons.

9. Match the following Columns [JEE 2006]

Paragraph for Questions 20 and 21

S. Proton emission 4. 239

26. The isotope 12

the nucleus (12

28. An accident in a nuclear laboratory resulted in deposition of a certain amount of radioactive

that in this sample all the stable 40 40 40

time t × 109 years, if the ratio of the sum of stable 40 40 40

33. Suppose a 226

8. 9.00×106 9. Fusion, 24 10. (a) N=

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