Module: 1

Theory of Communication

(Module: 1 = 40% weightage)

Concept and meaning of communication, Importance, Objectives, Postulates/Hallmarks,

Communication in organization, Methods, Barriers

Origin: The word “Communication” is derived from the Latin word ‘Communis’ which means to
make common, to share, to transmit or to impart.

Meaning of communication (http://dictionary.reference.com/): The exchange of thoughts,

messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.

Definition: Communication is defined as the two-way process in which exchange of knowledge

and information takes place between a sender and receiver through appropriate channel to get an
appropriate feedback.

Importance of communication: In Large size of organization, public relations aspect,

technological advancement, improves relationships, promotes efficiency and improves
performance.

Effective business communication enables an organization to market itself in a better perspective.

It helps create a favorable brand image and enhance its relationships with public and the media. It
helps an organization motivate and guide its employees and share the values of corporate culture.
With effective business communication, the employees can easily be told about the corporate
culture, visions, plans and strategies. It also allows an organization to achieve better business
negotiations and strengthen the bond with its customers. Therefore, to achieve success an
organization needs to have employees with excellent business communication skills. Effective
business communication is a two-way process and positive results can be achieved only with the
combined efforts of the organization and the individuals. To achieve success both of them must
understand and perform their role well.

Objectives: Primary objective: Information, Order and Instructions, Education and

Training, Advice, Suggestion, Persuasion, Warning.

Communication is a part and parcel of everyone’s life. All individuals need to communicate to
share their knowledge and information with others. However, the degree of its effectiveness depends
upon your personal communication skills. The better are your communication skills, the better a
person understands you. Effective communication skills enable a person to understand the mindset
of others and grasp the situation easily. It helps an individual get desired results even in an
unfamiliar situation. A good communicator is a highly motivated individual who always gives
importance to his goals and achieves them in the most efficient manner. He always understands his
role and knows how to convert his efforts integrated with skills into results. Not only
professionally, you also require effective communication skills in relationships to get the best out of
life. And, for the people who wish to achieve success in their life, communication skills work as the

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 1

stepping stones.

Secondary Objective: For motivation and employee morale

Communication is a basic tool for motivation, which can improve morale (The state of the spirits of
a person or group as exhibited by confidence, cheerfulness, discipline, and willingness to perform
assigned tasks) of the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty communication among
employees or between manager and his subordinates is the major cause of conflict and low morale
at work. Manager should clarify to employees about what is to be done, how well they are doing
and what can be done for better performance to improve their motivation. He can prepare a written
statement, clearly outlining the relationship between company objectives and personal objectives
and integrating the interest of the two.

Postulates /Hallmarks of Communication

#Postulates are the starting points/ foundations for reasoning, discussion or belief.
#Hallmarks are the stamps of authenticity in the particular field.

Postulates/ Hallmarks of effective communication

1. Open and honest communication: It leads more quickly to a mutual understanding and
respect for a difference in views, interests and needs. It gives the impression of authenticity
and integrity, essential foundations for true collaboration.

2. Empathy: Understanding other people's emotions is a key skill in the workplace. It can
enable us to resolve conflicts, to build more productive teams, and to improve our
relationships with co-workers, clients and customers.

3. Positivity: Positive communication has the power to convert even negative feelings
into positive ones and helps you create a positive impression for yourself. Positive
communication in the workplace enables both managers and employees to build teams of
cooperative and efficient workers. When each member of the team is able to communicate in
a positive fashion, they are able to trust each other, therefore increasing productivity and
lessening friction and tension.

Elements or Components of Communication

The components of the process of communication are as follows:

1. Sender: The one who sends a message is called the sender. The message is the first component
which arises in the sender’s mind. It could be in the form of an idea, an opinion, a thought or a
feeling.

2. Encoding: The message has to be put in a certain form of expression. So it is put in a code which
could be an accepted language or non-verbal means of communication. By encoding the sender
gives his message a definite form and a certain meaning which he tries to convey.

3. Medium (Verbal or non- verbal)/Channel (Anything through which the communication

travels)

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 The transmission medium/channel is the pathway by which the message flows. It is the vehicle that
carries the message from the sender to the receiver, and back.

4. The receiver: The one who receives the sender’s message is called the receiver.

5. Decoding: The message given by the sender is received by the receiver. After being received it
gets processed in the receiver’s brain. The brain filters the message through its own compartments
of the contents such as knowledge, emotions, prejudices (An adverse judgment or opinion formed
beforehand or without knowledge or examination of the facts) and gives it a unique meaning. It
analysis the meaning of the message, understands it and interprets it. Further, it also decides what
response is to be given and in what form it is to be given; either in the form of the spoken word or
written word or in non-verbal form suitable for the delivery of the response.

• Frame of Reference or context: (the surroundings, circumstances, environment,

background or settings which determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of an event).
• Frame of Reference is the common field of experience, or the common interests shared by the
communicators. A communication can be successful if the communicators try to adjust
their intellectual background, language, knowledge, social background with one another so
that there is a greater common ground of interest (frame of reference). Greater the frame of
reference, better and more successful is the communication.

6. Feedback: This is an important component of the communication process which helps the
sender to see whether his message is being received by the receiver in the same light as he intended
it to deliver. It further gives him an idea, either he should continue in the same way or modify it.

The feedback is the response given by the receiver of the message. It could be positive when
expressed by positive words such as ‘yes’, ‘I agree with you’ or by giving a nod suggesting an
agreement with the message given by the sender. It could also be negative when expressed by
using negative words like ‘no’, ‘I don’t agree’, ‘I don’t understand how to respond’, or shaking
the head sideways suggesting disapproval, refusal etc. Some times if there is no reply to the
sender’s message, then it is called as absence of feedback.

The Process of Communication

Sender Encoded Medium Channel Receiver Decoded

Message message

Common Frame of reference

Feedback

Communication is a dynamic process, ongoing and ever changing. It requires two parties; one is
the sender of the message and the other is the receiver of it. So it is a two way process. It involves
essential component: message, sender, encoding, channel or medium, receiver, decoding and
feedback.
First, an idea is born in the sender’s mind. Then the sender encodes it in a verbal or a non-verbal
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 3
form. He may choose an accepted language, a verbal form of expression as a code. The sender
transmits his messages in the chosen form of verbal or non-verbal expression. The receiver receives
it. After grasping the message, he tries to understand and interpret it according to his perception.
Thus, after decoding it he prepares his response. He puts it in a code and conveys it back to the
sender. This response by the receiver is called a feedback. After the feedback or the response is given
by the receiver of it who has to decode the response. He analyses it and decides for himself whether
the receiver received his message in the same light as he intended to convey. When this happens
there takes place an effective, mutually successful communication. In this way, one cycle of the
communication process is complete. A second cycle will start and complete in the same manner.
Thus, a series of cycles will continue till an obstacle or a barrier arises in the communication
between two parties.

Example: The Teacher (sender) discusses a subject (message) with the students (receiver) using
appropriate language (medium) in the classroom (channel) and the students respond (feedback).

Conclusion: Communication is a universal process. It is common to all people all over the world
irrespective of various castes, creed, race, nationalities and religions. The language of expression
may be different but the basic process of communication remains the same everywhere.
(Important Tips: Define communication/draw diagram and explain
it/example/conclusion)

Organization Communication (Channel)

Organizational Communication can be broadly classified into formal and informal

Communication.
Formal communications: The messages that move along its prescribed and regulated pathways
are known as formal communications. These communications may be oral or written. A formal
communication can be from a superior to a subordinate, from a subordinate to a superior, intra
administrative, or external.
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Formal communications take place externally to the organization i.e. with outside groups, such as
suppliers, clients, unions, government agencies and community groups. Formal communications
may be mandatory, indicative or explanatory. Mandatory communication implies an order or
command to be followed and goes by various euphemistic names such as instructions, briefing, etc.,
this kind of communication is mostly vertical and usually one way from top to downward. The
indicative or explanatory communication may exist between any levels and may be vertical as
well as horizontal.

Informal communications: The informal and unofficially transmission of information, tea time
gossip, casual gatherings, lunch time meetings or rumor from person to person. It grows out of the
social interactions among people who work together. These are not bound by any chart on the wall
but are bound by conventions, customs and culture. Such communication provides useful
information for events to come, in the form of grapevine.

Grapevine: The usual implication is that the information is passed from person to person by word
of mouth, perhaps in a confidential manner among friends or colleagues. It can also imply an
overheard conversation or anonymous sources of information. These channels may not be very
reliable as they may be company rumors or just gossip. Such channels are more active in
organizations that are not transparent. As employees want to know what is going on in their
organization, they seek out unofficial sources of information. The grapevine is not always negative
for an organization and can in fact be helpful as it helps in positive group building by acting as a
safety valve for pent-up emotions. It may help in building up organizational solidarity and
harmony. Managers can use the grapevine to get a feel for the morale of the organization,
understand the anxieties of the work force, evaluate formal communication efforts and see if they
are working.

Vertical Organizational Communication can also be classified as:

1. Upward Communication
2. Downward communication

Vertical: Upward Communication

The communication from lower level of organization to top level is called upward communication.
The organization needs suggestions as well as feedback from the employee of organization in
routine work, through that the management come to know the needs and wants of their employee.
Upward channel includes business proposals, suggestions box, exit interviews, grievance
committees etc. Since upward communication involves the transfer of information from
subordinates to their seniors, it promotes better working relationships within the organization by
giving the subordinate staff opportunities to share their views and ideas with their supervisors. It
facilitates employee involvement in the decision making process. Nevertheless, in any organization
there has to be a balance between downward and upward communication channels.

Effective upward communication is possible only when organizations empower their employees
and allow them to participate freely in decision-making.

The techniques described below are used to promote upward communication in

organizations:
1. The grievance redressal procedure: Enables employees to appeal to management and seek

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redressal of their grievances.
2. Open-door policy: Allows employees to approach managers at any time and discuss their
problems with them.
3. Counseling, attitude questionnaires and exit interviews: The Personnel Department can
conduct nondirective counseling programs to help employees with their work-related problems as
well as work and family conflicts. Attitude questionnaires may be administered periodically to find
out employees’ attitudes towards the workplace and the workload. Exit interviews may be held for
the employees quitting the organization to find out their reasons for leaving and their suggestions
for improving the workplace.
4. Participative techniques: Upward communication can be achieved through formal
participation programs like union-management committees, suggestion boxes, junior boards and
quality circles or through informal involvement of employees. Research has shown that employees
who participate in these programs are more satisfied with their job, show greater commitment
toward the job, and perform better than non-participating employees.

Vertical: Downward Communication

Downward communication is a communication from seniors to juniors or from superiors to
subordinates. It establishes linkages between people by facilitating flow of information between
them. Downward communication is essential for the functioning of any organization as it involves
the transfer of information, instruction, advice, request, feedback and ideas to it subordinate staff.
It increases staff awareness and facilitates implementation of new policies, guidelines, decisions
and evaluation and appraisal of the performance of employees. However, too much downward
communication can lead to reaction from subordinates and can hamper better employee-employer
relationship. Thus, the objective of downward communication should be to help employees
understand their jobs better and align their goals with organizational goals.

Downward communication depends on different types of print and oral media to disseminate
information. Handbooks, manuals, magazines, newspapers, bulletin boards, notices, posters,
reports and memos are different kinds of written media used by organizations. Direct orders or
instructions from top executives, speeches, meetings, public address systems, telephones and
closed-circuit television are examples of oral media used for downward communication.

Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication is a communication that takes place within the same level, e.g. the
communication between the employees or between the board or director. In simple, the same level of
communication is called horizontal communication. The main objective of this type of
communication is developing teamwork and promoting group co-ordination within an
organization. Horizontal communication is less formal and structured than both downward and
upward communication. It may be carried out through informal discussions, management gossip,
telephone calls, memos, routine meetings etc. It functions as Co-ordination, problem solving,
sharing information, advice, support, for conference etc.

Advantages: Team spirit, elimination of misunderstanding, time saving. (Please elaborate the
points for big answer)

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 6

Limitations or disadvantage: If there is rivalry among two executives of same status then this
channel of communication might create many problems. Strained relationships or jealousy between
people on same level, clash between horizontal and vertical communication, barrier of technical
jargon, leads to gossip. (Please elaborate the points in details for big answer)

Methods of communication

Verbal Non-verbal

I. Verbal: Communication between two individuals or group with the help of words or
speeches is called verbal communication.

Two types of verbal communication

Oral Written

❖ Oral: Oral communication is very important for a business organization. It takes place
when a person conveys a message to the other person directly in the spoken form.

2. Written: Anything which is transmitted in the written form is called written

communication. It includes journals, bulletins, newspapers, letters, circulars, memo etc.

Oral communication:

Merits or advantages:
It is a direct medium. Good intonation (the rise and fall of voice in speaking) helps to express
the meaning correctly. Personal or individual issues may be sorted out. It enjoys the freedom
of expression. Immediate feedback or response is possible. Helps communicate effectively with
small groups of people. Body language can be effectively used. Ideal for access to illiterates.
Repetition can be used for emphasis.

Limitation or demerits or disadvantages: For a legal point of view, it has little value as there is
not permanent record. For long distance communication, it is difficult to use it without access to
telephone or other instruments. Revision and review are difficult. It is difficult to trace
responsibility.

Written Communication:

Merits or advantages
It provides a written record. It can serve as a legal document. There are less chances of missing any
point. There is more scope for analysis and evaluation. Highly technical topics can be presented
using words and diagrams. Written material provides a permanent record that can be referred to
from time to time or passed on to others. Written material can be duplicated in large quantities or
distributed on the Internet relatively inexpensively. It is easy to distribute written material to

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many people. Written material is preferred when it is desirable to get the same information to a
group of people. Written material may be useful for documenting the success or progress of some
project or activity.

Limitation or demerits or disadvantages

People seldom take the time and effort to read technical materials. The preparation of written
documents is time-consuming. Once prepared in large quantities, printed documents are difficult
to change. Written material provides little feedback for the sender. Technical documents are often
too long and complex for the majority of readers. A portion of the population may not be able to
read written material. Too much reliance on written material as a communication method may
obscure (not know) the true needs of potential users.

Difference between Oral and written communication:

Oral Written
It is free from all formalities.
It is formal in nature.
Oral communication cannot Being permanent in nature, it can
serve as an evidence because no be preserved to prove evidence.
record can be kept.

It can be delivered quickly. It is time consuming and slow in

nature.

It can be misunderstood. There are less chances of

misunderstanding.

There is less accuracy. More accuracy is possible while

preparing the statement.

It may be casual. It carries importance.

In oral communication there Written communication depends

are no symbols. It is easy. on the use of symbols and
requires precise selection of
symbols otherwise it may lead to
misunderstanding.

II Non-verbal communication: Transmission of messages by a medium other than speech or

writing.
Man does not communicate through words alone, or only through writing, speaking and listening.
There is another aspect of communication: the non-verbal aspect. Depending on the situation we
have to make a more or less conscious effort in the use/choice of word. The non-verbal part of
communication is very much subtle and instructive. It also forms the larger part of the overall
communication activity. It requires serious consideration.

According to Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP), (7 percent verbal (words) 38 percent vocal
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 8
(volume, pitch, rhythm, etc) 55 percent body movements (mostly facial expressions).
Or
“We cannot not communicate”
Paul Watzlawick, a renowned communication theorist stated that it is not possible not to
communicate. He considers all human behavior as communication.
Or
How would you justify the “Mehrabian Model” which says that in communication: 7%
of meaning is in the words that are spoken, 38% of the meaning is paralinguistic and 55%
of the meaning is conveyed through facial expression?

Transmission of Non-Verbal cues

• BODY (Kinesics) Personal Appearance, Posture, Gestures, Facial expression and

Eye contact
• VOICE (Para language) Volume, Pace/Rate , Pauses, Pitch, Voice Modulation and
Pronunciation and articulation
• SPACE (Proxemics)
• TIME (Chronemics)
• SILENCE

❖ Body (Kinesics): Body language is non-verbal communication that involves body

movement without the use of words. Body signs, cues and symbols are universally
acknowledged and interpreted. This is called as kinesics.

1. Personal Appearance: It is one of the many non-verbal techniques humans use to

express themselves to the world. Our physical appearance can’t be neglected. The first
impression is created by the person’s appearance. Clothing, hairstyle, personal hygiene,
use of cosmetics and accessories, footwear etc. are a part of personal appearance. Our
attire or dress must suit the occasion and the profession we choose. Informal attire at a
formal function would definitely raise eyebrows at our sense of manners and etiquettes.
2. Postures: Graceful Posture is a great asset in any business. It plays a role in your
communication efforts. A slumped posture indicates that you have low spirits, are
fatigued or that you feel inferior. Whereas, an erect posture shows high spirits and
confidence. If you lean forward it implies that you are open and interested. Leaning
away shows disinterest or that you are defensive. Maintaining a rigid posture is
interpreted by many to mean that you are defensive, while a relaxed posture translates
to openness. Crossed arms and legs indicated a defensive, proactive position, while
uncrossed arms and legs indicate a willingness to listen.
3. Gestures: Gestures express more than words. Be acutely aware of your body
projections. Gestures, or movements of the head, hands, arms, and legs can be used to
convey specific messages that have linguistic translations. For example, a person might
use waving hand rather than saying "hello", or nod his head in agreement, which
means "yes" or "okay." These gestures can be very useful in the workplace because they
are a quick way to convey thoughts and feelings without a need to speak or write.
Additionally, many such gestures are generally widely understood, although they may
carry different meanings in other cultures.

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 4. Facial Expression: The main role of the face in non-verbal communication is to
express emotions. The face communicates many things, from our emotional state at that
moment, to how attentive we are to the person we are talking to. A smile tells people we
are happy to meet them, and a frown warms them off. A downcast look indicates that we
are sad or depressed. Different parts of the face reveal different things. For example, we
read fear in people's eyes, and happiness in their cheeks and mouth, as well as in the
eyes. We see surprise in the movement of the forehead, eyes and mouth. We perceive
anger from the whole face, not just from the brows and color of the face. Facial
expressions change constantly according to the situation.
5. Eye contact (Oculesics): Eyes are the most expressive features on human beings.
Oculesics is the study of the role of eyes in non-verbal communication. Eye contact is
the link between the speaker and the listener. It is an immediate and effective means of
establishing contact with the listener. Eye contact can indicate a lot of emotions
ranging from interest, attention, and involvement. For example: People from some
cultures may lower their gaze to convey respect, whereas this may be understood as
evading or even insulting in other cultures. Yet, direct eye contact may be seen as
insulting in some cultures, whereas it conveys attention in others.

Non-verbal Behavior Interpretation

Brisk, erect walk Confidence
Standing with hands on hips Readiness, aggression
Sitting with legs crossed, kicking foot slightly Boredom
Sitting, legs apart Open, relaxed
Arms crossed on chest Defensiveness
Walking with hands in pockets shoulders hunched Dejection
Hand to cheek Evaluation, thinking
Touching, slightly rubbing nose Rejection, doubt, lying
Rubbing the eye Doubt, disbelief
Hands clasped behind back Anger, frustration, apprehension
Locked ankles Apprehension
Head resting in hand, eyes downcast Boredom
Rubbing hands Anticipation
Sitting with hands clasped behind head, legs crossed Confidence, superiority
Open Palm Sincerity, openness, innocence
Pinching bridge of nose, eyes closed Negative evaluation
Tapping or drumming fingers Impatience
Steepling fingers Authoritative
Patting/fondling hair Lack of self-confidence, insecurity
Tilted head Interest
Stroking chin Trying to make a decision
Looking down, face turned away Disbelief

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Biting nails Insecurity, nervousness

Pulling or tugging at ear Indecision

A positive body language includes smile, open posture, forward lean, eye contact,
gestures and nods.

❖ Paralanguage/Meta communication (Volume, Pace/Rate, Pauses, Pitch, Voice

Modulation and Pronunciation and articulation):
• Pitch is the highness or lowness of a person’s vocal tone.
• Volume is the loudness or softness of a person’s vocal tone.
• Pace/Rate is the speed at which a person speaks.
• Modulation or Intonation is the variety, melody, or inflection of a person’s voice.
• Vocal interferences are extraneous words or sounds that interrupt fluent speech.
❖ Paralanguage refers to the vocal elements of communication. Vocal elements of language
differ from verbal elements. Vocal elements involve sound and its manipulation for certain
desired or undesired effects. In speaking, both language (verbal aspects or words) and
paralanguage (vocal aspects or sounds) play significant roles in conveying our meaning.
Voice is the first and foremost component of speech. Likewise, pitch variation is necessary
to make speech effective. On different occasions, a communicator speaks at different speeds
with proper word stress to give intended meaning to the sentences. Though paralanguage is
‘like’ language, it cannot be completely relied upon. It may even mislead the listener.

❖ Proxemics (Space Distancing): A branch of non-verbal communication concerned with

the study of personal space and other spatial (nature of space) aspects of human. Through
the distance that is chosen when communicating to one another, people express their degree
of intimacy and trust towards that person. Therefore, for a person from a culture where the
personal distance is generally close, a person from a culture where personal distance is
generally greater may appear as evading and possibly mistrusting. Whereas the person
from the culture where personal distance is generally greater may feel threatened by the
‘intrusion’ into his personal space.
• Distance wise it can be stated as follows:
• Intimate: Physical contact/touch to 18 inches
• Personal : 18 inches to 4 feet
• Social: 4 to 12 feet
• Public: 12 feet to as far as we can see and hear.

❖ Time (Chronemics): Chronemics is the study of time usage in non-verbal communication.

Chronemics states that the way in which we perceive time, structure our time and react to
time is a powerful communication tool. Time perceptions can be expressed through
punctuality, willingness to wait, speed of speech or even the amount of time people are
willing to listen.

❖ Silence: Silence can convey our feelings and thoughts. One can communicate better with
silence than with spoken words. A short silence or a pause between spoken words and
sentences is used to emphasize a certain important point of communication. A skillfully
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 placed pause during conversation has the power to make the listener more alert. Silence can
be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can provide a link
between messages. It can create tension and uneasiness or create a peaceful situation.
Silence can also be judgmental by indicating favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.
Silence can be very embarrassing if it is not possible to interpret it. It can be awkward in a
group, when no one knows how to break it. On the telephone, it can cause much discomfort,
as one cannot see the other and therefore has no clue from facial expressions as to the reason
for the other’s silence.

❖ Transmission of Non-Verbal cues through Senses

• Tactile
• Visual ( Graphs, Maps, Charts)
• Auditory
• Olfactory
• Gustatory

❖ Tactile(Haptics): Haptics refers to the study of touching as a tool of non-verbal

communication. The various forms of touching that can be included in non-verbal
communication includes handshakes, holding hands, kissing, back patting, high fives or
even brushing an arm. Also someone fidgeting with their own hands, or running their
fingers through their hair is also involuntarily sending a message. It is important for you to
remember when communicating with people from other countries and other cultures that
their non-verbal communications differ from yours just as their language may be unlike
yours. Touching may be a very acceptable and a very common form of non-verbal
communication in the country where you are transacting business; you should understand
this and be prepared for it. For example: Canadians hand shake hands, Japanese bow,
Middle Easterners of the same sex kiss on the cheek, Latins embrace.

❖ Visual: Graphs, Maps, charts, Sign and Symbol are all substitute for written words to enhance
the meaning is called visual aids. It creates greater impact on the viewer. It clarifies the matter
instantly. It requires less space and has to be specific with reference to the matter it presents.
This type of communication is quite useful as a traffic control device, for conveying ideas
related to Geography, for scrutinizing and comparing, for conveying more information in a
very short span of time. And auditory symbols are useful for conveying messages to the people
at distant places.
Limitations for Visuals:
It cannot convey lengthy messages
It is not elaborate.
Visual communication is not a two-way process.

❖ Auditory signals: may be single tones, sounds (mixture of tones), or spoken messages. Tones
and sounds may be continuous, periodic, or unevenly timed. They usually come from horns,
bells, sirens, whistles, buzzers, or loudspeakers.
❖ Olfactics(Smell): Olfactics is the study of nonverbal communication through scent and smell.
Although this is a much neglected aspect of body language, it is nonetheless important because
people give a lot of psychological significance to the way they smell and get attracted to those
whose fragrance appeal to them. That is why, in developed countries, people spend billions of
dollars on scent. Many people daily use scent, deodorant and aftershave apart from a lot of
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 12
 antiseptics and sanitizers to smell pleasant. Body odors, especially with bad smell, repel people.
Many consider bad smell from mouth or armpits as unsophisticated and uncivilized.
❖ Gustatory cues: Gustatory is related to sense of taste. Gustatory communication allocates
positive or negative feelings regarding a particular food item. We are happy to eat our favorite
dishes. But during illness, the same food seems to be tasteless. The feelings linked with taste
may change with age. The distinctive flavor of a dish in a restaurant might remind you of
home cooked food and make you nostalgic.

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 Barriers in Communication/Problem and Solutions

Communication is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching
the intended recipient or from having the desired effect on the recipient is called as Barriers.

BARRIERS IN COMMUNICATION & CAUSE/ OVERCOME

Physical/Internal Mechanical Linguistic/Semantic Socio- Psychological

Cultural

Physical/ Internal Socio-Cultural

• External noise • Language
• Physical stress • Dressing
• Environmental stress • Body Language
• Time/Distance • Food
• Intricate lines of communication/Structure • Use of space/time
of organization • Attitude(Ethnocentrism)
• Stereotypes

Mechanical
• Transmission interruption
• No access to vital machines/devices
• Power failure
• Poor maintenance/defects in
machinery/Noisy machinery

Psychological
• Status barrier
Linguistic/ Semantic • Unjust assumptions
• Different languages • Prejudice
• Faulty translation • Closed mind
• Use of jargon • Resistance to change
• Multiple meanings • Halo and horns effect
• Connotative & Denotative meanings • Emotions
• Different accents • Self-image

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 14

I)Physical Barriers/ Internal:

• External noise
• Physical stress
• Environmental stress
• Time/Distance
• Intricate lines of communication/Structure of organization

i)External Noise: It becomes very difficult to pass on the message orally, when there is external
noise. Sometimes loud music or traffic creates a barrier in the communication process.
ii)Physical Stress: Due to sleeplessness, ill health, consumption orally, when there is external
noise.
iii) Environmental stress: Wrong choice of font colours in a power point presentation might
cause strain to the eyes of the viewer and the message might not be received properly. Similarly,
high temperature, humidity, bad ventilation etc. may hamper the sending and receiving of
messages.
iv) Time: The difference between the time zones of two countries often acts as a barrier to
communication. So if an organization has clients in different parts of the world, communication
will be difficult, if both parties are not able to find a common time to communicate.
Distance: Physical barriers erected at work places like cubicles, cabins, partitions, large furniture
etc. can create the physical barrier of distance even in a small organization.
v) Intricate lines of communication: In large organizations, the chains of communication are
long and intricate. Thus increases chances of distortion, thus disrupting communication.

Overcome the physical barrier: 1)Open office plan 2) minimize noise 3)Use of technology
4)mutual adjustment 5) Providing environmental comfort.

II)Mechanical Barrier: These arises when means of communication becomes faulty or develop a
technical snag.
• Transmission interruption
• No access to vital machines/devices
• Power failure
• Poor maintenance/defects in machinery/Noisy machinery

1) Transmission interruption : There are many forms of transmitted communication like

email, fax machines, cell phones etc. All of these operate by receiving a transmitted signal.
If any interruption is there; it is called as mechanical communication barrier.
2) No access to vital machines/devices: Sometimes certain devices or instruments such as
TV,radios and telephones are required for communication. Also certain devices are used for
personal communication such as hearing aids, amplifiers, signalling devices etc. Without
these tools, there is a mechanical communication barrier.
3) Power failure: Power failures may mean a longer period without communication. Any
power failure may cause a mechanical communication barrier.
4) Poor maintenance/defects in machinery: Defects in machinery or noise at work place
due to machine creates a mechanical communication barrier.

Overcome Mechanical barrier: Ensure good working condition, Arrange adequate

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 15
 backup.

III)Language Barriers/Semantic Barrier:

• Different languages
• Faulty translation
• Use of jargon
• Multiple meanings
• Connotative & Denotative meanings
• Different accents

1)Language barriers: Language Barrier takes place when two persons do not understand the
language of communication. Perhaps they are from different native background so their language
is different. Sometimes the use of technical terms also brings about the language barrier.
2)Faulty translation: Most of the times, it is seen that when people translate a language, they
apply the grammatical rules of their mother tongue to that language. This results in literal
translation of words without understanding the deeper meaning.
3) Use of Jargon: The term Jargon refers to specialized vocabulary that people to the same
professional group might use. It should be used only when communication with people belonging
to same profession. When used with a lay person, it may cause confusion and misunderstanding.
4) Multiple meanings: Very often the same word might mean different things. Example: I
pushed the missive in the letterbox after seeing the main door ajar.(Here, the sender has used
vocabulary which is beyond comprehension of the receiver)
In simple terms, I pushed the letter in the letter box after seeing the main door slightly open.

5)a. Denotative Barriers

Direct meaning of any word which must be shared by two people to understand each other is the
denotative meaning. The barriers that arise due to the definition or meaning of a word used
differently by sender and receiver is denotative barriers of communication. They disagree on the
meaning of a word as they are unaware of the other persons' meaning. For example, the meaning
of braces which is used to define the metallic structure to adjust teeth in American English whereas

it means a part of clothing in British English.

5)b. Connotative Barriers

The implied meaning of a word is known as Connotative meaning. Connotative barrier in
communication refers to the difference of meaning according to different abstract situations,
contexts, actions and feelings. Both the communicators know both meanings of the word, but use
only one meaning according to the context, which might be being used differently in the
context. For example, the word astonish can be used to describe surprise as well as startle. The
words, when used by someone, can have any of the meaning. The context in which it is used will
only let the receiver know what the sender means.
Homophones, homonyms and homographs
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 16
*Homophones
Homophones are the words with same pronunciation but different meaning which might have
different spelling too. For example: Words buy, by and bye. They have same pronunciation, but
different meanings and spellings.
*Homonyms
Homonyms are the words which have the same pronunciation and their spellings are mostly
same, but the intended meaning is different. For example, the noun "bear" and the verb
"bear" has different meanings but same pronunciation and spelling.
*Homographs
Homographs are the words that have the same spelling but the pronunciation and meaning
are different. For example, "The research lead to the discovery of lead". In this sentence,
both the words have the same spelling, but different pronunciation and different meanings.
6)Different Accent: In India, we find people use English with their regional language. Hence the
sound or the accent of the word changes completely. Example: Snack/Snake, Simple becomes
Simble in southern part of our country.

How will you overcome the language difficulties?

The language of the sender and the receiver must be a common language.
Avoid using jargon or special terms belonging to a profession.
Be sure that you have an adequate knowledge of the language.
Learn to organize your thoughts, feelings to be expressed coherently.
Try to achieve clarity of them before finding words to express them.
Try to avoid repetition of your message unless it is required for emphasizing the message.
Use direct, simple, short and meaningful sentences.
Give sufficient time to the listener to respond.

IV) Socio-Cultural Barriers:

• Language
• Dressing
• Body Language
• Food
• Use of space/time
• Attitude(Ethnocentrism)
• Stereotypes

Every culture has its own beliefs and values, attitudes and dreams. A person has to adapt himself
to the cultural environment of that society which comprises of a particular life style, a typical
language, typical habits, festivals, religious practices, manners and etiquettes. Cultural differences
have to be merged and similarities have to be encouraged. This will result in more effective human
activities.

1)Language: There are billions of people in the world who do not understand English or cannot
communicate in English properly. Not speaking properly can cause various misunderstandings

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 17

and be a barrier to communication. Example of Snakes/Snacks

2)Dressing: Each country has its own dress code for different occasions. Example: Indian women
like wearing Sarees here but they might wear skirts or trousers abroad. Not following the dress
code might invite disapproving looks and would cause prejudice in people’s mind.

3)Body Language: Every culture has its own rules about proper behavior which affect verbal and
non verbal communication. Keeping eye contacts or not, keeping appropriate distance between each
other and many more rules of politeness differs from culture to culture.

4)Food: People from different cultures have their unique food habits and preferences. Those who
prefer vegetarian food might not be comfortable sitting next to a person having non-vegetarian
food. Not only food but also manner of eating food differs. In India, people are comfortable using
bare hands to eat while in westerns countries they feel comfortable using spoons, forks and knives.

5)Use of space and time: In some cultures, people stand close to each other during
communication. For example: Arabs stand too close to each other during communication and they
often touch the other person. While Britishers are known to keep a distance and would feel
uncomfortable if people stand too close to them. Time: Some cultures are conscious of time and
punctuality is appreciated. While in other cultures, time does not play a very crucial role and being
late is socially accepted. Example: Americans get offended if guests reach late than the scheduled
time for occasions/meetings. Whereas in India and Middle East, time is treated more casually.

6)Stereotyping: It is the process of creating a picture of a whole culture, over generalizing all
people belonging to the same culture as having similar characteristics and categorizing people
accordingly. It is a belief about a certain group and is mostly negative. Stereotyping can be done on
the basis of many things like nationality, gender, race, religion, ethnicity, age, etc.

7)Attitude or Ethnocentrism: It is the process of dividing cultures as “us” and “them”. The
people of someone's own culture are categorized as in-group and the other culture is out-group.
There is always greater preference to in-group. There is an illusion of out-group as evil and
inferior. This evaluation is mostly negative. If the culture is similar to us, then it is good and if is
dissimilar, it is bad. Other’s culture is evaluated and assessed with the standard being their own
culture. Ethnocentrism affects the understanding of message, and encourages hostility(ill feeling).

**Cross cultural barriers

Cross cultural barriers arise as every culture is characterized by its defined set of values and an
ethos typical to the country. The same situation is viewed differently by different persons because
its cultural interpretations are diverse.
Working in other cultures means understanding that culture’s concept of greeting, ,hygiene,
personal space, scope, privacy, gestures, timing sense, politeness, agreement and disagreements,
likes and dislikes and closing communication.
Example: An American instructor will expect the students to ask diverse questions in the class
whereas Indian instructor will expect the students to sit quietly listening to him throughout the

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 18

lecture.

Overcome Cultural barriers

Motivating change in the outlook towards any particular culture.
Creating readiness to embrace unfamiliar but desirable cultural exchanges.
Sensitizing employees to embrace unfamiliar but desirable cultural exchanges.
Overcoming resistance to change by mentally preparation.
Creating vision of cultural confluence(two cultures going together).
Developing support for cultural adaptation.
Developing cultural synergy which means multicultural team members have to use their cultural
differences as a source of creativity. Build upon similarities and fuse differences.
Create an environment for everyone to excel. Integrate minor culture in the main culture of the
organization.

V) Psychological Barriers:
The human mind is very complex and unsteady. It keeps on changing its thoughts and emotions.
The psychological barriers arise mainly because of inadequacies in Human nature and various
psychological states that take place in the mind of a human being. No two thoughts in the mind are
exactly same. Therefore, many communication gaps take place due to these changes in the human
mind or the human nature.

List of Psychological Barriers

• Status barrier
• Unjust assumptions
• Prejudice
• Closed mind
• Resistance to change
• Halo and horns effect
• Emotions
• Self-image

1)Status Barrier: Status is the official or social position or condition. Sometimes it is the status
which does not allow a senior or commanding person to frankly communicate with a junior or
lower status person. On the other hand, the junior feels awkward or pressurized to communicate
freely with the senior or superior.
But in some other cases because of status insecurity open or free communication does not occur
particularly between employer and employees. The status of a person does create a barrier in
communication.

2) Unjust Assumptions: Assumptions are personal inferences made by the speaker and not
factual Statements. Our bias, prejudice and opinions prompt us to make unjust or unfair
assumptions about others. Some people, have the superiority complex and they assume others to be
inferior in all respects. Such a feeling can create barriers in communication.

3) Prejudice: Prejudice means the preoccupied mind about some person or event. If the mind is
preoccupied, the person is always viewed in the same manner. In case of prejudice, good thoughts
of an unlike person are also not positively appreciated. Because of prejudice negative thoughts come
about a certain person and that hampers communication.
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 19
4) Closed Mind:
A closed mind is the one which closes itself voluntarily to any new idea, thought or information. It
simply refuses to accept or receive other person’s opinions or any other new information. Such a
mind will depend only on it own pool of thoughts.
A person is required to have an open mind free of any prejudice or bias first to receive any
knowledge. After receiving, the mind processes it, and decides which one to be retained and which
one to be forgotten.

5) Resistance to change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their
established opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel
insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations. People bound by traditions have their own
emotions, attitudes, standards and convictions and do not accept anything that goes against their
cherished ideas.

6) Halo and Horn Effect: We like some people (Halo effect) and dislike (Horn effect) some. We
have our own reasons to like or dislike them. We generally believe readily in those whom we like.
We trust them without much doubt. We not only listen to them intently but also get influenced by
them. On the other hand, we have no faith in those whom we do not like. We do not believe them.
We do not pay attention to what they say. Even when we try to pay attention when they say
something we do not accept it, though it may be crucial or beneficial to us. Moreover, we have a
tendency to overrate a person good-This attitude of mind is called as Halo effect and a tendency to
oppose ideas of people whom we do not like- such kind of attitude of the mind is called the Horn
effect. It becomes barrier in our communication with others.
Example of Boss

7)Emotions: The human existence has little significance without various emotions. There are
positive as well as negative emotions. The human mind is like a melting pot of all these emotions
which are in a constant flux of change. Happiness, joy, wonder, love, affection, appreciation,
empathy is some of the positive emotions. On the other hand, jealousy, hatred, anger, fear; are some
of the negative emotions. Our conscious mind controls our emotions. When emotions overwhelm, a
person cannot think.
Example: When a person gets angry he cannot think rationally. He uses words which otherwise he
may have never used. The result may be an undesirable misunderstanding. The listener may get
hurt and may get disturbed by the emotional outburst of the sender. Thus, emotions act as a barrier
in communication.

8) Self Image: Self image can explain the person’s attitudes and behaviors towards himself, his
work and life in general. He decides himself his likes and dislikes, his opinions, his principles and
his own behavior. The constant use of ‘I’ in his conversation with others reveals most of his
personality traits. Thus, he creates a certain image of himself not only in his own mind but also in
the mind of the listener.

Overcome Psychological barrier and also other barriers:

The above mentioned barriers exist in all of us to a lesser or greater degree. One can minimize them
only by becoming aware of them and trying to reduce them with conscious efforts.

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 20

Case Study on Communication Barrier, Objective type questions, Identify the barriers
with solutions provided.

May2002
Read the following case study and answer the questions that follows: (5 Marks)
Vinod was a foreman in a large fiberglass product factory. As he was talking to his employees, he
often talked in a very loud voice because he was talking over factory noise. Vinod was a very active,
aggressive man and always in a hurry. Madhu and Shyam were called in to Vinod's office for an
explanation of a new procedure. Vinod talked to them in the same very loud voice he used in the
factory. The loudness of his voice made it hard to concentrate on the message. Vinod was in a
hurry as usual. He talked very fast, didn't pause for questions, and left in a hurry. His parting
words were,"Please go back to the line and explain to your co-workers how we are going to
implement this procedure". Madhu and Shyam left his office very confused, frustrated and not
very knowledgeable about the new procedure they were assigned to implement.
(i)Why was Vinod's message so hard to understand? What suggestions would you have
for Vinod ?
(ii) How should Madhu and Shyam prepare for their next conversation with Vinod ?

(i)Vinod's message was too hard to understand because he was speaking in very high pitched tone
and speedily. He was not taking pauses between his though shifts. The loudness of voice made it
difficult to understand the message. As he was speaking too fast, the message became complex and
difficult to understand.
Vinod should moderate his pitch and should speak with a considerate speed. He should pause for a
while before shifting to next idea or instruction. Also, Vinod should ask whether the listeners are
understanding his conversation and should try to give the listener an opportunity to suggest
something or ask a doubt. Even if Vinod is busy. He should value the importance of effective
communication.
(ii)Madhu and Shyam should try to become assertive when they plan their next interaction with
Vinod. Madhu and Shyam can take down notes when Vinod is speaking. Moreover, they should
plan to meet Vinod. Because confusion will lead to chaos failure of plan or procedure. Also they
should try to ask Vinod a written copy of new procedure to be implemented.
State whether the following statements are true or false. (Write down only answers) (5
Marks)
(1)The living nature of the English language causes semantic barriers.
(2) Stage-fright is a very rare phenomenon.
(3)Crossing one's arms across one's chest is a sign of defensiveness.
(4) The first component in the process of communication is encoding.
(5) One should write to impress, not express.
(6)Written communication has legal validity.
(7)It is easier to change an opinion than to change a belief.
(8)Television is an example of a medium of communication.
(9)Pacing up and down the stage while speaking in public makes a good impression.
(10) One cannot not communicate.

(1) True (2) False 3) True

(4) False (5) False (6) True
(7) True (8) True (9) False

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 21

(l0) True

Dec.2002
Read the following case example and answer the following questions. (5 Marks)
Jayantibhai, a Mumbai businessman, was quite impressed when, during his visit to Italy, he found
factory hands working to the accompaniment of soft music which was piped through the public
address system. He was quite determined, to introduce this 'modern innovation' in his factory in
Thane and did so immediately on his return from his foreign tour. He however forgot that the
machines in his factory were old and noisy. Moreover, as the factory hands would like only film
music it was this that was blared through the loud speakers. The results of the 'modern innovation'
were instantaneous decrease in efficiency and fall in production. The foremen and supervisors
could hardly talk to the workers, nor could the workers communicate with one another.
(i) Identify the various barriers in communication taken place between Jayantibhai and
his workers.
(ii) What would you suggest to achieve effective communication in the above case
example? (Write the answer in about four sentences).
(iii) Explain: 'Factory hands working to the accompaniment of soft music'.
Answers:
(i)Jayantibhai failed to understand the mood and likes and dislikes of the workers. Moreover, he
couldn't evaluate whether the introduction of music in his factory is practical from the overall
perspective. Forman and supervisors cannot talk to workers and vice versa. Jayantibhai suffered
from 'stereo type' and 'false assumptions'. On the contrary, workers couldn't understand the
importance of introduction of music.

(ii)Jayantibhai should conduct a meeting of all the staff working in the factory and he should
address the workers about the purpose behind introducing music in the factory. Secondly, he
should ask the workplace. Workers should also report their problems to Jayantibhai and also find an
alternative.

(iii) Labourers were working to tune of soft music.

Dec. 2003
Read the following case study and answer the questions that follow:(5 Marks)
A student took a summer job in rural Maharashtra which involved interviewing farmers about
water supply availability. The first few days he went to the field wearing a suit and tie. He also
used a lot of technical words in his questions. He got little co-operation from the farmers. He
decided to change his strategy-he began wearing Kurta and Pyjamas and started speaking to the
farmers in native Marathi. The farmers were much more co-operative.
(i) Why do you think the farmers were uncooperative? What barriers do you feel were
operating at this point?
(ii) Why were the farmer’s cooperative later? What does this tell you about effective
communication?
Answers:
(i)There was lack of common frame of reference between farmers and the student (employee). As
the student’s appearance, language, and strategy of communication was beyond comprehension
level of the farmer, the farmers couldn't share mutual bonding with him. On the part of the
student and the farmers, the linguistic and psychological barriers were exercising a strong
Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 22
 influence in their communication. The student's use of high technical jargon was not
understandable for the farmers. Farmer’s couldn't share mutual understanding with the student
because his appearance (tie, shoes, etc.) created a 'cognitive dissonance' in the farmer.
(ii)The farmers were co-operative lather because the student used common frame of reference in his
communication with them. Also, farmers were happy to see the student wearing costumes likes,
they wear and speaking the language they speak. There was bond of association between the
student and the farmers. In effective communication, Medium and channel plays very important
role. The absence of common frame of reference can create barriers to communication.

May 2005
Identify the barriers in the following situations. How can they be overcome? (6 Marks)
(1) Dharamdas was never known to have made a mistake in his account and was well known for his
clear head for mathematical work. His manager was, therefore puzzled when he was told that
Dharamdas just could not work with the new calculating machine with which he was required to
work.

(2)Manager Prabhu believed that managers can only communicate with their clerks by using a
"Memo" paper. The clerks were used to receiving 'memos' for coming late, for not doing their work
properly, for taking leave without permission. Typist Gonsalves received a "Memo" of
congratulations when his first son was born. There is a lot of resentment.

(3) Mr. Babu had been a successful manufacturer for twenty years. He used glass containers for his
products. When a salesman visited him to show a new plastic container which was more durable
and which cost less. Mr. Babu refused to listen to him and mockingly asked the salesman if he

knew more about his business than he did.

Answers:
(1) Mechanical barrier: Dharmdas should learn the techniques of using the new calculating
machine.
(2) Manager is suffering 'status' or 'attitude' (psychological barrier) problem.
While communicating with subordinates. Manager should know when to use oral communication
and when to use written communication.

(3)Mr. Babu is suffering from psychological barrier because he is showing resistance to change.
Mr. Babu should listen to the salesman properly and should be receptive to new ideas. Mr. Babu
should not try to become old stick in the mud.
Dec. 2005
(a) Identify the barriers in the following conversations, and discuss how you could
eliminate or overcome them. (8 Marks)
(i) "I don't agree with you. I have studied and taught this subject for years and I can't be wrong".
(ii) "I am not going to attend that lecture. The seniors say that the teacher is no good".

Answers:
(1) Psychological Barrier
Solution: (1) Be receptive to new ideas

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 23

(2) Manager the change
(3) Learn the art of Listening
(4) There can be multiple perspectives to deal with a subject, the communication should
understand

(2)Psychological barrier:
Solution:
(1) Student should attend the lecture first and then form an opinion.
(2)"Heard melodies are sweet and those unheard are more sweeter" the student should understand
the importance of this statement.

May 2006

Identify the barriers: (8Marks)

(i) Director in his cabin calling the manager to inform the factory inmates (Language
barrier/physical barrier/status barrier/cross cultural barrier).
(ii) Construction activity near a college building (Linguistic barrier/psychological
barrier/social barrier/noise barrier).
(iii) A student forgetting his identity card for the examination centre (Environmental
barrier/social barrier/psychological barrier/ linguistic barrier).
(iv) Inability of school students to grasp a lecture on health care by a medical
practitioner (Linguistic barrier/status barrier/physical barrier/personal barrier).

Answers:
(1)Status barrier (2) Noise barrier(3)Psychological(4) Linguistic

Dec. 2006
Identify the barriers: (10 Marks)
(i) Student unable to understand clear instructions in Hindi. (Cross-cultural barrier, language
barrier, status barrier).
(ii) A Nigerian not able to converse with Indian (cross-cultural barrier, semantic
barrier, physical barrier).
(iii) A wedding hall/ auditorium near a college building (linguistic barrier, physical
barrier, psychological barrier.)
(iv) A student unable to answer question paper even though well prepared
(Psychological barrier, status barrier, cross-cultural barrier).
(v) Inability of school children to understand President's speech (Status barrier,physical barrier,
environmental barrier).
Answers:
1.Language barrier
2.Semantic, Cross-cultural
3.Physical barrier
4. Psychological barrier
5. Physical Barrier

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 24

Exercise to solve:
Identify the type of communication barrier in the following communication situations:
1.Rohit could not listen to me properly because of illness.
2.The acoustic of the auditorium made it difficult for the audience to understand what the speaker
was saying.
3. Mr. Ramdas never welcomes new ideas because he considers himself as the best and the perfect
person in his field.
4.Shivani could not understand whether I listened to her properly or not because of the wall
between us.
5.Kartik was shouting from too far to recognize his words.
6.The sweat-ridden audience started making unnecessary facial expressions that the speaker had to
shorten his speech.
7.During the fair, nobody could listen what the other was saying.
8.Mayur requested Sneha to stop telling the story because he was feeling sleepy.
9.I drafted the message and clicked the 'SEND' button but the message sending failed because the
server was down.

Notes:

Reference notes by: Dr. Joseph Rodrigues (FrCRCE) 25