The Sieve of Eratosthenes

Result:
A composite number a will always have a prime divisor p satisfying
√
p ≤ a.

Proof: If a is composite, then a = bc where 1 < b < a and 1 < c < a.

Without loss of generality, assume b ≤ c. Thus, b2 ≤ bc = a. That is,
√
b ≤ a. Since b > 1, b has at least one prime factor p by FTA. Thus,
√
p ≤ b ≤ a.

Since p|b and b|a, it follows that p|a.

√
Illustration: Is 509 prime? Note that 509 ∼ =√22.56 and the prime
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19 less than equal 509. But all these
numbers does not divide 509. Therefore, 509 is prime.

Math 106 Number Theory 1 / 7

Find the canonical form of 2093.
√
Solution: Note that √ 2093 ∼
= 45.75, the only prime numbers that
divide 2093 less than 2093 are 7, 13 and 23. Thus, 2093 = 7(13)(23).
Remark:
√
If an integer a > 1 is not divisible by a prime number p ≤ a, then a is
a prime number.

Math 106 Number Theory 2 / 7

Theorem: (Euclid)
There is an infinite number of primes.

Proof: Let p1 , p2 , · · · , pn be primes in ascending order and suppose

that there is a last prime, say pn . Consider the positive integer

P = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1.

Since P > 1, FTA says that P is divisible by some prime p, that is p|P .
But p1 , p2 , · · · , pn are the only primes. So, p = pk for some 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
Hence, p|p1 p2 · · · pn . Consequently, p|(P − p1 p2 · · · pn ). Thus, p|1 which
means that p = 1. This is a contradiction since p > 1. Therefore, the
number of primes is infinite.

Math 106 Number Theory 3 / 7

For a prime, we define p] to be the product of all primes less than or
equal to p. The numbers of the form p] + 1 are called Euclidean
numbers.

Here are some Euclidean numbers:

3] + 1 = 2 · 3 + 1 = 7
5] + 1 = 2 · 3 · 5 + 1 = 31

Math 106 Number Theory 4 / 7

Theorem
n−1
If pn is the nth prime number, then pn ≤ 22 .

Proof: Apply induction on n. When n = 1,

0
2 = p1 ≤ 22 = 21 which is true.
Assume that for n > 1, the result holds for all integers up to n. Let
M = p1 p2 · · · pn + 1. By FTA, M has a prime divisor p which is
different from each pi , with 1 ≤ i ≤ n. That is, pn+1 ≤ p ≤ M . So that
pn+1 ≤ p1 p2 · · · pn + 1
2 n−1
≤ 2 · 22 · 22 · · · 22 +1
1+2+···+2n−1
=2 +1
2n −1 n −1 n −1
=2 + 1 ≤ 22 + 22
n −1 n
= 2 · 22 = 22 .
n n−1
So, pn+1 ≤ 22 . Therefore, pn ≤ 22 .
Math 106 Number Theory 5 / 7
Corollary
n
Forn n ≥ 1, there are at least n + 1 primes less than 22 .

Proof: From the previous theorem, p1 , p2 , · · · , pn+1 are all primes less
n
than 22 .

Bertrand’s Conjecture
For n ≥ 2, there is at least one prime between n and 2n.

Consider a sequence of primes 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 23, 43, 83, 163, 317, 631,
1259, 2503, 5003, 9973, 19937, 39869, 79699, 159389, . . ., each of which is
less than twice the preceding.

Math 106 Number Theory 6 / 7

Definition
A repunit is an integer written as a string of 1’s, such as 11, 111, or
10n − 1
1111. Each integer have the form .
9

Math 106 Number Theory 7 / 7