MAJOR PROJECT

Que1. A man produces the following kinds of sperm in equal proportions: AB, Ab, aB, and ab. What
is his genotype with reference to the genes specified?

Ans:- “AaBb”

The genotype is AaBb the alleles that will be produce will be AB, Ab, aB,ab

Since there are two diallelic characters in the genotype the person must be heterozygous for

both genes.

The genetic composition of an organisms is called its genetic makeup.

The sperms are haploid and are of these types :- AB, Ab , aB and ab.

The genotype of the person producing the sperms with genotypes.

AB, Ab, Ab and ab is AaBb.

Que2. In each somatic cell of a particular animal species, there are 46 postmitotic chromosomes.
How many should be in a (a) mature egg (b) spermatid (c) brain cell

Ans :- Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes which means in total there are 46 numbers of

Chromosomes in a cell.

All somatic cells like Brain cell, skin cell or any other cell of the body which is somatic contains

23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes in total. While the gametes which are the sperm

and ovum are haploid which means they have only 23 chromosomes .

Brain cells of the human body are somatic cells.

All somatic cells of the human body are diploid which means that they contain two copies of

Each chromosomes .

Que3 – A woman has a rare abnormality of the eyelids called ptosis, which makes it impossible

for her to open her eyes completely. The condition has been found to depend on a single

dominant gene (P). The woman’s father gas ptosis, but her mother had normal eyelids. Her

father’s mother had normal eyelid. (a) What are probable phenotype genotypes of the woman, her
father and her mother

(b) What proportion of her children will be expected to have ptosis if she marries a man

with normal eyelid

(c) Using symbol P and p, summarize the expected results when the woman marries a man having
ptosis.
Ans :- The womans mother has homozygous genotype.

Dihybrid cross is the cross between two different genes that differ in two observed traits.

Gregor Johann Mendel was the first person who discovered the basic principles of heredity during
the mid-19th century. Hence, he is known as the “Father of Modern Genetics”. He conducted
experiments in his garden on pea plants and observed their pattern of inheritance from one
generation to the next generation.

Mendel laid the basic groundwork in the field of genetics and eventually proposed the laws of
inheritance. Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment and Law of Dominance are the
three laws of inheritance proposed by Gregor Mendel. These laws came into existence from his
experiments on pea plants with a variety of traits.

Mendel first studied the inheritance of one gene in the plant through monohybrid cross. He
considered only a single character (plant height) on pairs of pea plants with one contrasting trait.
Later, he studied the inheritance of two genes in the plant through dihybrid cross.

Mendel studied the following seven characters with contrasting traits:

Stem height: Tall/dwarf

Seed shape: Round/wrinkled

Seed colour: Yellow/green

Pod colour: Green/yellow

Pod shape: Inflated/constricted

Flower colour: Violet/white

Flower position: Axial/terminal

Que4. In a strain of bacteria, all organisms are usually killed when a given amount of

streptomycin is introduced into the medium. Mutations sometimes occur that make the

bacteria resistant to streptomycin. Resistant mutants are of two types : some can live with or

without streptomycin; others cannot live unless this drug is present in the medium. Given a

nonresistant strain, outline a n experimental procedure by which resistant strains of the two

types might be established.

Ans :- Chromosomally acquired streptomycin resistance is frequently due to mutations in the gene

encoding the ribosomal protein S12, rpsL.

Antimicrobial resistsnce happens when germs like bacteria and fumgi develop the ability to

Defeat the drugs designed to kill them. That means the germs are not killed and continue

To grow.
Que5 - If a DNA molecule of size 20 kb has 3 restriction sites such as that complete digestion

produces 6 fragments of unequal size. In a partial digestion experiment the DNA was same

labelled at 5’ end. Determine how many labelled and how many unlabelled fragments will be

formed?

Ans:- DNA is linear then the number of fragments generated is (N+I)

Where N = number of recognition sites or sequences.

Hence , the number of fragments generated is 5 . If we digest a linear DNA molecule with a

Restriction enzyme having four recognition sites on the DNA.

Restriction enzymes are DNA – cutting enzymes . Each enzyme recognitions one or a few target

Sequences and cut DNA at or near those sequences.

Many restriction enzyme make staggered cuts, producing ends with single – stranded DNA

Overhangs.

Que6 - A protein D is encoded by a gene, which is 5 Kb long and has three Hind III restriction

enzymes sites. The first one is 0.5 Kb from the transcription start site, the second one is 2.5

Kb from the first site and the third one is 0.5 Kb internal to the stop codon. The second site

polymorphic. In order to find out whether fetal cells contain the normal or the mutated gene,
totalgenomic DNA from fetal cells was isolated, completely digested with Hind III, separated in
agarose gel, transferred to membrane and detected by a probe against the region between the
second and third restriction site. Which one of the following band patterns will be obtained if the
fetal cell is heterozygous?

Ans :- DNA is found in chromosomes. In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes always remain in the
nucleus, but proteins are made at ribosomes in the cytoplasm or on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER).

RNA is a small molecule that can squeeze through pores in the nuclear membrane. It carries the
information from DNA in the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm and then helps assemble the
protein. In short:

DNA → RNA → Protein

Discovering this sequence of events was a major milestone in molecular biology. It is called the
central dogma of biology. The two processes involved in the central dogma are transcription and
translation.

Proteins are chains of amino acids. The amino acid sequence in a protein determines how it will fold
up into a specific structure. The shape or structure determines the function of a protein in the cell. A
single amino acid has two ends and a reactive group. The reactive group is different for each amino
acid. Amino acids link together in a chain to form proteins.

There are several roles proteins can play in the life of a cell. They can be enzymes and catalyze
reactions, structural proteins and influence the shapes of cells and tissues, or regulatory proteins and
regulate the expression of other genes.

Q7 - The diagram below represents a 2kb insert successfully introduced in between two

BamHI sites of a 3.8 kb vector in desired orientation. The Hind III site on the insert and

EcoRI site on the vector is also indicated. If the insert was introduced in opposite direction,

What would be the size of fragments obtained after

Ans:- Restriction enzymes are found in bacteria (and other prokaryotes). They recognize and bind to
specific sequences of DNA, called restriction sites. Each restriction enzyme recognizes just one or a
few restriction sites. When it finds its target sequence, a restriction enzyme will make a double-
stranded cut in the DNA molecule. Typically, the cut is at or near the restriction site and occurs in a
tidy, predictable pattern.

A restriction enzyme is a DNA-cutting enzyme that recognizes specific sites in DNA. Many restriction
enzymes make staggered cuts at or near their recognition sites, producing ends with a single-
stranded overhang.

If two DNA molecules have matching ends, they can be joined by the enzyme DNA ligase. DNA ligase
seals the gap between the molecules, forming a single piece of DNA.

Que8 - You are inserting a gene of 2 kb length into a vector of 3 kb to make a GST fusion

protein. The gene is being inserted at the EcoRI site and the insert has a HindIII site 500 bp

downstream of the first codon. You are screening for the clone with the correct orientation by

restriction digestion of the plasmid using HindIII plus BamHI (H+B) and HindIII plus PstI
(H+P). The map of the relevant region of the vector is shown below:

Given below is the pattern following restriction digestion of plasmid isolated from four

independent clones (P, Q, R or S). Which of the plasmids shown above represents the clone

in the correct orientation?

Ans :- Restriction enzymes are found in bacteria (and other prokaryotes). They recognize and bind to
specific sequences of DNA, called restriction sites. Each restriction enzyme recognizes just one or a
few restriction sites. When it finds its target sequence, a restriction enzyme will make a double-
stranded cut in the DNA molecule.

In DNA cloning, researchers make many copies of a piece of DNA, such as a gene. In many cases,
cloning involves inserting the gene into a piece of circular DNA called a plasmid, which can be copied
in bacteria.

If the plasmid has 3 recognition sequences for a given restriction endonuclease, then 4 linear DNA
fragments are obtained because, if the DNA is linear then the number of fragments obtained is (N+1)
whereas if the DNA is circular then the number of fragments obtained will be N for N recognition
sequences for the given restriction endonuclease in a plasmid.

Que9 - The millionaire, Mr. Big, has just died. He has left behind a wife, daughter and a large

inheritance. The news of his death has brought forth 2 men who claim to be the long lost son

of Mr. & Mrs. Big. Before Mr. & Mrs. Big were married they had an illegitimate child and

had placed him up for adoption. They had tried to find him after they became wealthy but had

no luck in locating him. A DNA sample was taken from Mrs. Big, the Big daughter and the

two men who claim to be the long lost son. Which, if any, of the men are telling the truth?
Ans :- A laboratory genetic technique or method to identify individuals using bodily samples such as
blood, saliva, or hair is referred to as DNA fingerprinting.”

DNA Fingerprinting Applications. As discussed earlier the technique of fingerprinting is used for DNA
analysis in forensic tests and paternity tests. Apart from these two fields, it is also used in
determining the frequency of a particular gene in a population which gives rise to diversity.

DNA is our blueprint, the basis of life, encodes proteins, and regulates gene expression. It is made up
of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases. DNA is located on chromosomes. The whole set of DNA
or chromosomes is known as the genome.

Interestingly, there are several regions in our genome that are unique and hypervariable which differ
among persons or organisms. That unique region has been applied for DNA fingerprinting.

The present technique has great utility in criminal verification and crime scene investigation.
Moreover, it establishes a relationship between two persons and reveals someone’s identity.

Since 1984, it has been a gold-standard method for a person’s biological verification. Two persons
differ biologically and have unique DNA patterns present in ‘so-called junk/useless’ genomic regions.

And henceforth, the non-coding region is important for us.

Que 10 - Mr. I. M. Megabucks, the wealthiest man in the world, recently died. Since his death,
three women have come forward. Each woman claims to have a child by Megabucks and

demands a substantial share of his estate for her child. Lawyers for the estate have insisted on

DNA typing of each of the alleged heirs. Fortunately, Megabucks anticipated trouble like this

before he died, and he arranged to have a sample of his blood frozen for DNA typing. The

results of the typing are shown in the figure. Your job is to analyze the data and determine

whether any of the children could be Megabucks' heir.

Ans :- DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects'
profiles to DNA evidence so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime.*1+*2+ It is
also used in paternity testing,*3+ to establish immigration eligibility,*4+ and in genealogical and
medical research. DNA profiling has also been used in the study of animal and plant populations in
the fields of zoology, botany, and agriculture.

The process, developed by Jeffreys in conjunction with Peter Gill and Dave Werrett of the Forensic
Science Service (FSS), was first used forensically in the solving of the murder of two teenagers who
had been raped and murdered in Narborough, Leicestershire in 1983 and 1986. In the murder
inquiry, led by Detective David Baker, the DNA contained within blood samples obtained voluntarily
from around 5,000 local men who willingly assisted Leicestershire Constabulary with the
investigation, resulted in the exoneration of Richard Buckland, an initial suspect who had confessed
to one of the crimes, and the subsequent conviction of Colin Pitchfork on January 2, 1988. Pitchfork,
a local bakery employee, had coerced his coworker Ian Kelly to stand in for him when providing

A blood sample—Kelly then used a forged passport to impersonate Pitchfork. Pitchfork was arrested,
and his blood was sent to Jeffrey's lab for processing and profile development.