http://www.e-polymers.

org
e-Polymers 2007, no. 008
ISSN 1618-7229

Rheological Properties of Calcium Carbonate-Epoxidized

Natural Rubber Composites Prepared In Latex State

A. Lohakul, A. Kaesaman, A. Rungvichaniwat, C. Nakason*

Department of Rubber Technology and Polymer Science, Faculty of Science and

Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, 94000, Thailand. *e-mail:
ncharoen@bunga.pn.psu.ac.th.

(Received: 28 October, 2006; published: 18 January,2007)

Abstract: Epoxidized natural rubber was prepared by performic acid epoxidation. It

was then blended with calcium carbonate dispersion in latex state, which was later
coagulated and dried. Rheological properties in terms of Mooney viscosity and
shear flow properties were determined. We found that at a given shear rate, the
Mooney viscosities, shear stress and shear viscosity increased with increasing
levels of epoxide groups in the ENR molecules and increasing loading levels as
well as decreasing particle sizes of CaCO3. This is attributed to increased level of
chemical interaction between polar functional groups in the ENR molecules with
increase in the epoxide content. This gives rise to greater chemical interaction
between the ENR and CaCO3 interface upon increase in amount of CaCO3.
Greater surface areas of the smaller filler particles also caused higher chemical
interaction between difference phases.

Introduction
A wide variety of particulate fillers are used in the rubber industry to improve the
physical properties of rubber compounds. A general classification of fillers is based
on the effect of the filler on tensile strength, breaking strength, elongation-to-break,
modulus and tear strength of cured compounds [1]. Reinforcing fillers improve the
physical properties of the rubber vulcanizates, while some fillers simply act as
diluents or extenders. A number of mineral fillers are used in the rubber industry to
extend and/or reinforce elastomers. These include calcium carbonate, clays, silica,
silicates and talc [2]. Calcium carbonate is one of the most abundant white minerals
in the earth’s sedimentary crust. It is probably one of the most widely used mineral
additives because of its whiteness, low abrasion, availability in wide-size ranges and
low cost. Various applications of calcium carbonate include paint, caulking, rubber,
paper, textile, adhesive, carpet backing, and plastic and rubber industries [3].
Calcium carbonate particles are generally supplied as agglomerates and during
processing operation they are broken into smaller particles. Large particles result in
poor interaction and inhomogeneous distribution of the filler. This leads to a decrease
in mechanical strength of the rubber composites [4]. Improvement of overall
performance of the CaCO3 composites is achieved by the incorporation of low
molecular weight compound, such as stearic acid [5]. As a result, better dispersion
of the particles in the matrix and great reduction in the shear viscosities and yield
values were observed [6]. Incorporation of small filler particles in the rubber
formulations also causes reinforcement and leads to optimize properties that meet a
given service application or sets of performance parameters [7]. Therefore,
considerable research and development efforts are being performed to investigate

1
the possibility of replacing this filler with the objective of reducing cost while
maintaining the desired properties.
The objective of the present work is to explore the possibility of reinforcing ability of
CaCO3 in the epoxidized natural rubbers (ENRs) with various concentrations of
epoxide groups. Also, the compatibility between the rubber and filler phase is studied
by evidence of rheological characterization of the composites.

Results and discussion

Particle sizes of calcium carbonate dispersion

Representative particle size distributions of CaCO3 dispersion with various ball milling
times is shown in Fig. 1. It can be seen that broad particle size distribution curves
shifts to smaller particle diameter with increasing ball milling time.

5
4.5
4
96 hr 78 hr
3.5
12 hr 6 hr
Volume (%)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Particle diameter (mm)

Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of calcium carbonate dispersion prepared using

various ball milling times.

The mean particle sizes were calculated based on the corresponded set of CaCO3
dispersion depicted in Fig. 1. It was found that the mean particle sizes of the CaCO3
dispersion at ball milling times of 6, 12, 78 and 96 hr were 12.60, 9.22, 5.01 and 3.66
μm, respectively.
Fig. 2 shows influence of ball milling time on a mean particle size of CaCO3
dispersion. A decreasing trend of the particle size with increasing ball milling times
was observed. It is clear that higher decreasing rate of the particle size was observed
in the first 30 hr of the ball milling. Increasing ball milling time longer than 30 hr
caused a marginal decreasing trend in the particle size. This may be attributed to the
fact that shearing force and grinding effect caused breaking up of the filler particles.
i.e., the large aggregates were first broken to smaller particles at the early stage of
ball milling. The increase in a ball milling time longer than 30 hr resulted in only
smaller CaCO3 particles being reduced in size as the agitation time increased.

2
 14

12

10
Mean particle size (mm)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Ball milling time (hr)

Fig. 2. Relationship between ball milling time and mean particle size of calcium
carbonate dispersion.

Mooney viscosities
Fig. 3 shows Mooney viscosities (MVs) of various types of ENRs filled with different
amount of CaCO3 (mean particle size = 5.01 μm). It can be seen that the MVs
increased with an increase in concentration of CaCO3 and levels of epoxide groups in
the ENR molecules.

180
ENR-50

160
Mooney viscosity [ML (1+ 4), 180 C]

ENR-40
o

140
ENR-30

120

ENR-20
100

80 ENR-10

60

40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Quantity of calcium carbonate (phr)

Fig. 3. Mooney viscosity of calcium carbonate (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled
ENR.

3
Therefore, the MVs for a given amount of CaCO3 can be ranked as followed: ENR-50
> ENR-40 > ENR-30 > ENR-20 > ENR-10. This is attributed to the increasing trend of
MVs of the unfilled ENRs with increasing levels of epoxide groups (i.e., at level of
CaCO3 = 0 in Fig. 3). This is because of the increasing trend of the chemical
interaction between the polar groups in the ENR molecules with an increase in levels
of epoxide groups, as described elsewhere [11].

125

120
Mooney viscosity [ML (1+ 4), 180 C]

115
o

110

105

100

95

90
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Mean particle size of CaCO3 (mm)

Fig. 4. Effect of particle sizes on Mooney viscosity of calcium carbonate filled ENR-
30 compounds.

Furthermore, it has been well recognized by Guth and Gold equation that disperse
rigid particles into a liquid or an elastomer causes an increase in the viscosity (in the
case of liquid or polymer melt) and the modulus (in the case of polymeric matrix), as
illustrated in the equation below: [12]
ηr
ηrel = = 1 + 2.5φC + 14.1φC2 (1)
ηu
where ηrel, ηr, ηu are the relative Mooney viscosity, Mooney viscosity of filled and
unfilled compounds, respectively. φc is the effective filler volume fraction depending
strongly on the filler loading and degree of dispersion.
The interaction between the interface of calcium carbonate particles and ENR phase
might be another reason for an increasing trend of the MVs of the filled ENRs with an
increasing amount of CaCO3. Particle sizes of the calcium carbonate also play
significant role on the levels of MVs of the filled ENR, as indicated in Fig. 4. It is seen

4
that, the MVs decreased with an increasing mean particle sizes of the CaCO3
dispersion. Decreasing mean particle sizes resulted in an increase in surface area of
the particles. Therefore, more interface areas for physical and chemical interaction
between the interface of filler and rubber matrix was available. As a consequence, an
increasing trend of the viscosities was observed as the mean particle sizes of the
CaCO3 dispersion decreased.

Shear flow properties

Fig. 5 shows plots of apparent shear stress versus shear rate (i.e., flow curves) for
various types of CaCO3 filled ENRs at a constant loading level of 50 phr and a mean
particle size of 5.01 μm.

1000

900

800
Apparent shear stress (KPa)

700

600

500

400

ENR-10
300
ENR-20
ENR-30
200
ENR-40
ENR-50
100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 5. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear stress of various types
of calcium carbonate (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled ENRs at a level loading of
50 phr.

It is seen that at a given shear rate, the apparent shear stresses increased as levels
of epoxide groups increased in the ENR molecules. This may be attributed to an
increasing trend of the shear stress of the unfilled ENRs with increasing levels of
epoxide groups, as indicated in Fig. 6. This confirms an increasing trend of chemical
interaction between polar functional groups in the ENR molecules. An increasing
level of interaction between CaCO3 and ENR interfaces with increase in the levels of
epoxide groups might be another reason for the increasing trend of apparent shear
stress of the filled ENR compounds.
Plots of apparent shear viscosity versus shear rate (i.e., viscosity curves) for various
types of CaCO3 (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled ENRs at a loading level of 50 phr
are shown in Fig. 7. Shear thinning behaviours (i.e. shear viscosity decreased with
an increase in shear rate) were observed for all sets of the tests.

5
 900

800

700
Apparent shear stress (KPa)
600

500

400

300 ENR-10
ENR-20
200 ENR-30
ENR-40
ENR-50
100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 6. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear stress of unfilled ENRs
with various levels of epoxide groups.

100000
Apparent shear viscosity (Pa.S)

10000

ENR-10
1000
ENR-20
ENR-30
ENR-40
100
ENR-50

10
1 10 100 1000 10000
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 7. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear viscosity of various
types of calcium carbonate (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled ENRs at a level
loading of 50 phr.

The apparent shear viscosity at a given shear rate increased with an increase in
levels of epoxide groups. This corresponded to the increasing trends of flow curves in
Fig. 5.

6
 100000

Apparent shear viscosity (Pa.S)

10000

1000 ENR-10
ENR-20
ENR-30
ENR-40
100 ENR-50

10
1 10 100 1000 10000
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 8. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear viscosity of unfilled
ENRs with various levels of epoxide groups.

An increasing trend of shear viscosity (at a given shear rate) of the pure ENRs was
also observed with an increase in levels of epoxide groups, as shown in Fig. 8.
Therefore, an increasing level of interaction between the ENR molecules and
interaction between ENRs and filler were a reason for an increasing trend of
apparent shear viscosity and shear stress of the filled ENR compounds.

800

700
Apparent shear stress (KPa)

600

500

400

300 Pure ENR-20

Calcium carbonate = 25 phr
200
Calcium carbonate = 50 phr

100 Calcium carbonate = 75 phr

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 9. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear stress of calcium
carbonate (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled ENR-20 with various concentrations
of CaCO3.

Figs. 9 and 10 compare flow and viscosity curves of ENR-20 filled with various
loading levels of CaCO3 (mean particle size of 5.01 μm). We found that the pure
ENR-20 exhibited the lowest flow and viscosity curves. Furthermore, the shear stress
and shear viscosity at a given shear rate increased on increasing the loading levels

7
of CaCO3. With the same level of epoxide group, an increase in levels of filler caused
increasing interface areas between ENRs and CaCO3.

100000

10000
Apparent shear viscosity (Pa.S)

1000

Pure ENR-20
100
Calcium carbonate = 25 phr
Calcium carbonate = 50 phr
10 Calcium carbonate = 75 phr
Calcium carbonate = 100 phr

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 10. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear viscosity of calcium
carbonate calcium (mean particle size = 5.01 μm) filled ENR-20 with various
concentrations of CaCO3.

This caused higher interaction between different phases. Consequently, increasing

trends of the flow and viscosity curves were observed. Furthermore, according to
Guth and Gold equation (eq. 1), increasing levels of solid CaCO3 particles caused
resistance to flow of the molten material. Therefore, the shear viscosity and shear
stress increased with increasing concentration of CaCO3 in the composites.

800
Apparent shear stress (KPa)

600

400 Mean particle size = 3.66 micron

Mean particle size = 5.01 micron
200 Mean particle size = 9.22 micron
Mean particle size = 12.60 micron

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 11. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear stress of carbonate
dispersion filled ENR-20 with various mean particle sizes at a loading level of 50 phr.

Fig. 11 shows flow curves of CaCO3 filled ENR-20 using dispersion with various
mean particle sizes. At a given shear rate, we found an increase in shear stress with
decreasing mean particle sizes. Therefore, the shear stress of filled ENR-20
compounds with various particle sizes can be ranked according to the mean particle

8
size as follows: 3.66 > 5.01 > 9.22 > 12.00 μm. Influence of the mean particle sizes
of CaCO3 dispersion on shear viscosity is shown in Fig. 12.

100000
Apparent shear viscosity (Pa.S)

10000

Mean particle size = 3.66

1000 Mean particle size = 5.01

Mean particle size = 9.22

Mean particle size = 12.6

100
1 10 100 1000 10000
Apparent shear rate (1/s)

Fig. 12. Relationship between apparent shear rate and shear viscosity carbonate
dispersion filled ENR-20 with various mean particle sizes at a loading level of 50 phr.

It can be seen that at a given shear rate the shear viscosity also increased with
decreasing mean particle sizes. The results corresponded to the trends of Mooney
viscosity (Fig. 4) and shear stress (Figure 11). That is, the rheological values
increased with a decrease in the mean particle sizes. This is attributed to the greater
surface areas of the smaller particle sizes. This leads to the increase in interaction
between the interface of CaCO3 and ENRs. As a result, rheological properties in
terms of Mooney viscosity, shear stress and shear viscosity are highly dependent on
the mean particle sizes of the CaCO3 dispersion.

Conclusions
Rheological properties of the CaCO3 ENR composites in terms of Mooney viscosity
and shear flow properties were determined. It was found that at a given shear rate,
the Mooney viscosities, shear stress and shear viscosity increased with increasing
levels of epoxide groups in the ENR molecules and loading levels of CaCO3. This
might be attributed to higher chemical interaction of the polar functional groups in the
ENR molecules with greater epoxide content. Increasing levels of disperse rigid
particles in the elastomer also caused an increase in the viscosity of the polymer
melt. Furthermore, greater chemical interaction between rubber and filler particles
upon increasing amount of CaCO3 caused enhancement of rheological properties. It
was also found that the rheological properties in terms of Mooney viscosity, shears
stress and shear viscosity increased with decrease in the mean particle sizes of
CaCO3. This is attributed to higher surface areas of the smaller filler particles. As a
consequence, higher chemical interaction between ENR and CaCO3 interfaces were
obtained.

Experimental part
Materials
The rubber used as a raw material for a preparation of ENR was high ammonia (HA)
concentrated latex, manufactured by Yala latex Co., Ltd (Yala, Thailand). The non-

9
ionic surfactant used to stabilize the latex during epoxidation was Teric N30
(alkylphenol ethoxylate) manufactured by Huntsman Corp. Australia Pty, Ltd. (Ascot
Vale Vic, Australia). The formic acid used as a reactant for the preparation of ENRs
was manufactured by Fluka Chemie (Bushs, Switzerland). The hydrogen peroxide
used as a co-reactant for the epoxidation was manufactured by Riedel-de Haën
(seelze, Germany). Calcium carbonate used as a filler was manufactured by Surint
Omya Chemical Limited (Saraburi, Thailand). Bentonite clay and Vultamol NN8906
(alkylated nathalene sulphonic acid) used as dispersing agents were manufactured
by Shiraishi Calcium Kaisha, Ltd. (Japan) and BASF (Germany), respectively.

Preparation of calcium carbonate dispersion

To study the influence of particle sizes of calcium carbonate on properties of the filled
ENRs, the calcium carbonate dispersion (50% wt.) was first prepared using a in-
house made ball milling machine. The steel ball mill jar lined with natural rubber
vulcanizate with a capacity of 20 l was used to prepare the CaCO3 dispersion. The
ceramic spheroids (about 2,000 pieces) with a mean diameter of approximately 10
mm were first incorporated into the jar for wet grinding. The calcium carbonate
particulate was then incorporated into the jar, distilled water was added according to
a predetermined quantity of CaCO3 to reach a concentration of 50 wt%. The
dispersing agents (i.e., Vultamol and Bentonite clay) at a concentration of 1 wt% in
water were then incorporated. The jar was later rotated at a speed of 55 rpm to grind
the CaCO3 particles. The particle sizes of calcium carbonate dispersion at various
ball milling times were determined using the Coulter particle size analyzer, model LS
230, Coulter Cooperation (Fullerton, USA).

Preparation of epoxidized natural rubber

The ENR latex was prepared using high ammonia concentrated latex with a dry
rubber content of approximately 60%. Details for the preparation and characterization
processes of the ENR are described elsewhere [8, 9]. The reaction time was set
according to the level of epoxide groups in the ENR products as described in our
previous work. [8, 9] Various levels of epoxide groups in the ENR molecules were
prepared at approximately 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%. They are later designated as
ENR-10, ENR-20, ENR-30, ENR-40 and ENR-50, respectively.

Preparation of CaC03 ENR composites

The calcium carbonate filled ENR composites was prepared by mechanical blending
in a latex state. Epoxidized natural rubber latex was first neutralized with ammonia
solution. This was to avoid a formation of fume and carbon dioxide from reaction of
acid and CaCO3. The predetermined amount of calcium carbonate dispersion (50%
wt) was incorporated and stirred by means of a mechanical stirrer at a speed of 100
rpm for 15 min. The mixture was later coagulated by adding methanol. The material
was then sheeted out using a two- roll mill. Then it was dried in a hot air oven for
several hours. Various levels of calcium carbonate (i.e., at 25, 50, 75 and 100 phr)
were blended. Furthermore, various types of ENR (i.e. with epoxide levels of 10, 20,
30, 40 and 50 % mole) were studied.

10
Rheological characterization of CaCO3 ENRs composite
Two types of rheological techniques were used to characterize flow properties of the
pure ENRs and the CaCO3 filled ENRs. The SPRI Mooney viscometer (model
AC/684/FD) and a Rosand single bore capillary rheometer model RH7 (Rosand
Precission Co., LTD, Stourbridge, England). The Mooney viscosities were measured
at 160 °C using a large rotor, a preheating time of 1 min, and a testing time of 4 min,
reported as ML (1+4, 180 °C). The Rosand capillary rheometer was used to follow
the shear properties of the pure and filled ENRs. The apparent shear stress and
shear viscosity were measured at a wide range of apparent shear rates of 5 to 1500
s-1 at a test temperature of 160 °C. Dimension of the capillary die used were a 2-mm
diameter, 32-mm length and 180 ° entry angle with the aspect ratio (L/D) of 16/1. The
material was first preheated in a rheometer’s barrel for 5 min under a pressure of
approximately 3-5 MPa to get a compact mass. The excess molten material was then
automatically purged until no bubbles were observed. The test was then carried out
at a pre-programmed set of shear rates via a microprocessor. During the test, the
pressure drop across a capillary channel and melt temperature were captured via a
data acquisition system. The apparent values of shear stress, shear rate and shear
viscosity were calculated using equations described in our previous work [10].

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support of Graduate School and Faculty
of Science & Technology, Pattani Campus, Thailand..

References
1. Waddell, W.H.; Evans, L.R. Rubb. Chem. Technol. 1996, 69, 377.
2. Wagner, M.P. Rubber World 1971, 164, 46.
3. Sekutoski, D. Plastic Additives and Modifiers Handbook: Part IV: Inorganic
Additives, Chapter 36 Calcium Carbonate. Edenbaum, J. Ed. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, 1992.
4. Sobby, M.S.; El-Nashar, D.E.; Maziad, N.A. Egypt. J. Sol. 2003, 26, 241.
Zuiderduin, W.C.J.; Westzaan, C.; Huetink, J.; Gaymans, R.J. Polymer. 2003, 44,
261.
5. Li., L.L.; White, J.L. Rubb. Chem. Technol. 1996, 69, 628.
6. Hamed, G.R. Rubb. Chem. Technol. 2000, 73, 524.
7. Nakason, C.; Panklieng, Y.; Kaesaman, A. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 2004, 92, 3561.
8. Nakason,C.; Tobprakhon, A.; Kaesaman, A. J. Appl. Polym. Sci, 2005, 98, 1251.
9. Nakason, C.; Pechurai, W.; Sahakaro, K.; Kaesaman, A. Polym. Adv. Techno.,
2005, 16, 592.
10. Nakason, C.; Sainumsai, W.; Kaesaman, A.; Klinpituksa, P. Songklanakarin J.
Sci. Technol, 2001, 23, 415.
11. Clarke, J.; Freakley, P.K.; Rub Chem Technol. 1993, 67, 700.

11