Accepted Manuscript

Archean banded iron formations of India

Joydip Mukhopadhyay

PII: S0012-8252(18)30749-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102927
Article Number: 102927
Reference: EARTH 102927
To appear in: Earth-Science Reviews
Received date: 31 December 2018
Revised date: 9 August 2019
Accepted date: 12 August 2019

Please cite this article as: J. Mukhopadhyay, Archean banded iron formations of India,
Earth-Science Reviews, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102927

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Archean Banded Iron Formations of India

Joydip Mukhopadhyay joydip17@gmail.com

Department of Geology, Presidency University, Kolkata, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata,

India, 700073

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Abstract

Archean banded iron formations (BIFs) are important lithologies for understanding the

early Earth processes. Greenstone belts in the four Archean cratonic nucleii of peninsular

India, namely, Singhbhum, Bastar, Dharwar, and Bundelkhand host BIF units that can be

important candidates for case studies. The BIFs in these greenstone successions represent

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both Algoma- and Superior-type associations. The oldest record comes from the

Paleoarchean Southern, Eastern and Western Iron Group of the Singhbhum craton and

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the Sargur supracrustals of the Dharwar craton. Mesoarchean and Neoarchean

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greenstone belts in the Dharwar and Bundelkhand cratons record a number of cycles of

BIF deposition in a spectrum of depositional settings from manganiferous arenite-

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carbonate shelf associations to deep-water volcanics and graywacke associations. The

BIFs from the Neoarchean Bailadila Group in the Bastar craton were deposited in
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siliciclastic shelf association. Compositional variations in major, trace and REE patterns

have been evaluated from published data. High-grade iron ores are mainly mined from
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the BIFs and locally Mn-ores occur in association as well. Microbial carbonates
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associated with some of the Paleoarchean as well as Neoarchean iron-manganese

formations suggest early life activities. The lithological association of the Archean iron
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formations have been explained in terms of both active margin and passive margin
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depositional settings. BIFs in association with manganiferous formations as old as

Paleoarchean time provide an opportunity to probe into the redox stratification of oceanic

hydrosphere and in turn the oxygenation of early atmosphere.

Keywords: BIF, Archean, peninsular India, Singhbhum, Dharwar, Bastar, Bundelkhand,

oxygenation
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1. Introduction

Banded iron formations (BIFs) are one of the most important lithologies in Precambrian

sedimentary successions. The abundance of BIF is mostly restricted between the Eoarchean and

the Paleoproterozoic excepting a few examples from the Meso- and Neoproterozoic (Goodwin,

1973; Holland 1973; Huston and Logan, 2004; Isley and Abbott, 1999; Peter, 2003; Peter et al.,

2003; Klein, 2005). The temporal distribution of the BIFs primarily between Eoarchean to

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Paleoproterozoic is believed to be related to the evolution of oceanic hydrosphere, oxygenation of

hydrosphere and atmosphere, oceanographic circulation, microbial metabolism and hydrothermal

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activities (James 1954, 1983; Cloud, 1965; Derry and Jacobsen, 1990; Klein and Beukes, 1992;

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Isley, 1995; Isley and Abbott, 1999; Myers, 2001; Johnson et al., 2003; Huston and Logan, 2004;

Holland, 1973, 1984, 2005; Rosiére et al., 2008; Frei et al., 2009; Bekker et al., 2010, 2014;
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Hofmann, 2011; Bekker, 2014; Rolim et al., 2016; Konhauser et al., 2017; Nutman et al., 2017).

The younger BIF occurrences particularly in the Neoproterozoic Urucum succession of Brazil
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and Rapitan Iron Formation in North America have been related to stratification of oceans during

Neoproterozoic glacial stage and subsequent loss of stratification during deglaciation (Klein and
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Beukes, 1992,1993). The chemical composition of BIF has been used as a proxy for composition
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and redox structure of the Precambrian oceans (e.g., Jacobsen and Pimentel-Klose, 1988; Derry
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and Jacobsen, 1990; Danielson et al., 1992; Alibert and McCulloch, 1993; Bau and Möller, 1993;
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Bau and Dulski, 1996; Jacobs and Lindberg, 1998; Bjerrum and Canfield, 2002; Hamade et al.,

2003; Simonson, 2003; Sreenivas and Murakami, 2005; Ohmoto et al., 2006; Frei and Polat,
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2007; Konhauser et al., 2009; Alibert, 2016; Haugaard et al., 2016). The BIFs have also been

related to the tectonics of the depositional basin as they occur primarily in two lithologic

associations, namely, the BIFs in passive margin shelf association, the Superior-type, and the

other in association with volcanics and volcaniclastics, the Algoma-type (Gross, 1980). The

tectonic association of BIFs further reveals major shift from Algoma-type in the Archean to

Superior-type in the Paleoproterozoic successions. However, the inherent dilemma on Archean

geodynamics whether driven by modern-day accretionary plate tectonics or controlled by non-

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uniformitarian plume tectonics poses problem in unequivocal interpretation of BIF-depositional

settings. Much of our knowledge, therefore, on the evolutionary history of Archean-Proterozoic

Earth comes from the study of the iron-formations, BIFs in particular (Gole and Klein, 1981; see

for review Trendall and Morris, 1983). The BIFs in Archean crustal nucleii from all over the

world remains focus of research for more than a century now e.g., the BIFs from the Eoarchean

Isua Greenstone Belts (ca. 3.7 Ga, Dymek and Klein, 1988; Frei and Polat, 2007; Nutman et al.,

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2017), Paleo-Mesoarchean Yilgarn and Pilbara blocks of Western Australia (Trendall,

1990; Trendall and Blockley, 2004), the Paleo-Mesoarchean Barberton Greenstone Belt,

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Pongola and Witwatersrand supracrustals of South Africa (Anhaeusser, 1990; Beukes,

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1973; de Ronde and de Wit, 1994; Beukes and Gutzmer, 2008; Smith and Beukes,

2016), the Superior and Slave provinces of Canada (Goodwin 1973; Dimroth and
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Chauvel, 1973; Dimroth, 1976,1977; Barret et al., 1988; Dauphus et al., 2004, 2007),
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the Sebakwian-Bulawayan-Shamvaian belt of Zimbabwe (Myers and Kröner, 1994),

the Rio das Velhas of Brazil (Dorr, 1965), and the greenstone-supracrustals of the
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Archean cratons of the peninsular India (Radhakrishna et al., 1986). Research over
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more than half-a-century diversifying in different aspects of BIF deposition, such as

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sedimentation history, geochronology, geochemistry including stable isotope

geochemistry, mineralogy and petrography, paleomagnetic studies on some of the

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better studied records of Archean BIFs e.g., BIFs from Barberton, Pilabara-Yilgarn,
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Isua, Pongola successions enriched our understanding on the early Earth evolution (see

for reviews Bekker et al., 2010; Konhauser et al., 2017). The Archean cratonic nucleii

of peninsular India host a number of stratigraphic intervals with BIF ranging in age from

~3.5 Ga to ~2.6 Ga (e.g., Naqvi, 2005; Sarkar and Gupta, 2012). A comprehensive

review of major BIF occurrences from peninsular India is available in the special issue of

the Journal of the Geological Society of India (Radhakrishna et al., 1986).

Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008a) reviews the BIF-hosted high-grade iron ore resources of
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India. However, in comparison to some of the better studied examples mentioned above,

Indian BIFs warrant more attention particularly with regard to the isotopic signatures,

geochemistry and geochronology. In this contribution I present a review of the

stratigraphic status, depositional setting and geochemical signatures of the Archean BIFs

from peninsular India based on available information and explore potential of these rock

records in understanding the Archean processes. This review is entirely based on

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published literature on Indian BIFs, their stratigraphic status, depositional setting,

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geochemistry, fossil record and BIF-hosted economic resources.

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2. Stratigraphic distribution and depositional setting

The Indian shield is constituted by five Archean cratonic nucleii, namely,

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Singhbhum, Bastar, East and West Dharwar, Bundelkhand and Aravalli cratons (Fig.
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1). The cratonic nucleii are constituted by characteristic TTG gneisses, greenstone

keels and supracrustals (Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986). Adjacent cratonic nucleii are
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joined along either younger rift valleys or high-grade granulite mobile belts (Fig. 1).
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Among the five cratonic nucleii, BIFs have been described mainly from the
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Singhbhum, Bastar, East and West Dharwar and Bundelkhand cratons (Table 1). BIFs
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in these cratons occur in three modes e.g., as low greenschist grade 50 m to more than

200 m thick deposits in the greenstone belts, as relatively minor occurrences of

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outcrop belts more than 20 m to 200 m thick units in supracrustal successions and as

much thinner detached high-grade metamorphosed units in the TTG gneisses or

granulite terranes (Naqvi, 2005; Sarkar and Gupta, 2012). The first type is similar to

the Algoma type in terms of lithologic associations and is the main Archean BIF type

in India. The second type occurs mainly in the Neoarchean supracrustals and bears

close resemblance with the Superior-type in terms of stratigraphic association. The

high-grade metamorphosed types are referred to as the Tamilnadu type (Prasad et al.,
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1982). These metamorphosed BIFs, mostly younger than 2.5 Ga, are of minor

importance in terms of abundance and are not incuded in this contribution.

2.1 Paleoarchean BIFs

Oldest among these Archean BIFs comes from Paleoarchean greenstone belts of the

Singhbhum and Dharwar cratons (Table 1). Oldest supracrustals in the Bastar craton

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also include deformed and metamorphosed BIFs. However, age of such deformed and

higher grade metamorphosed BIF enclaves from the Bastar craton are not well

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constrained.

2.1.1 Singhbhum Craton

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The Paleoarchean BIFs occur in the greenstone successions of the Iron Ore Group
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(IOG) (Jones, 1934; Saha, 1994) in the Singhbhum craton. The Singhbhum craton is

constituted by a core of TTG batholith with multiple cycles of TTG emplacement

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between 3.4 Ga to 3.1 Ga that are classified as Singhbhum Granite with older tonalitic
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gneissic components (Fig. 2) (Majumder and Chakraborty, 1977, 1979; Majumder et

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al., 1982; Saha, 1994; Achayya, 1993; Mukhopadhyay, 2001; Misra, 2006; Tait et al.,
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2011; Mazumder et al., 2012; Nelson et al., 2014; Upadhyay et al., 2014; Dey et al.,

2017). Recently, Chaudhuri et al. (2018) and Miller et al. (2018) reported 4.0 to 4.2 Ga
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Hadean zircons from the Singhbhum craton. The IOG rocks occur as three detached

synformal belts in the eastern, western and southern periphery of the Singhbhum

Granite and are known as Eastern, Western and Southern IOG, respectively, (Saha,

1994). Among these the Southern IOG has been dated with U-Pb SHRIMP zircon age

at 3.51 Ga from dacitic volcanics (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008b). Basu et al. (2008)

obtained LA-ICPMS U-Pb zircon ages of ca. 3.4 Ga from the acid volcanics of the

Western IOG. The minimum age for the Western IOG is also constrained by the fact that
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it appears to have been deformed during intrusion of the main phase of the Singhbhum

granitoid, which has been dated at 3328±7 Ma (single zircon, Pb-Pb, Misra et al., 1999).

The Western IOG greenstone belt is intruded at the southwestern margin by the Bonai

Granite that has a poorly constrained Pb-Pb age of 3163±126 Ma (Sengupta et al., 1991).

There is no direct age from the Eastern IOG so far. However, rocks of the Eastern IOG

are intruded by the Mayurbhanj Granite which yielded well constrained single zircon Pb-

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Pb age of 3080±8 Ma and 3092±5Ma (Misra et al., 1999). The granite-greenstone core of

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the craton is overlain by several cycles of supracrustal successions ranging in age from

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Mesoarchean to Mesoproterozoic (Table 1) (for reviews Mukhoadhyay, 2001;

Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006; Mazumder et al., 2012; Ghosh et al., 2015; De et al., 2015,
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2016; Olierook et al., 2019 ).

The IOGs are in general volcano-sedimentary successions comprising of pillowed

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and massive metabasalts, acid-intermediate volcanics, phyllites, bedded chert, BIF and

minor carbonate rocks (Saha 1994; Beukes et al., 2008; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008b,
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c, 2012). There are some differences in the stratigraphic successions among the IOGs.
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The low greenschist grade metamorphism allows reconstruction of the depositional

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setting. The Southern IOG (S-IOG) succession comprises, from the base to the top, a
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lower unit of massive/pillowed basalt (locally komatiitic) and bedded chert conformably

overlain by dacitic lava and pyroclastics that in turn are overlain by a major BIF unit. The
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ultramafics are juxtaposed with the bimodal volcanics‐ BIF succession along a major

thrust fault. The lithological association of pillow lava, subaqueous dacitic lava and

pyroclastic rocks of the bimodal volcanics, bedded chert and BIF devoid of any shallow-

water wave-/current-generated primary structures collectively, suggest that the entire

succession was deposited in a deep‐ marine depositional setting (Mukhopadhyay et al.,

2012). Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012) based on sedimentological evidence for deep-water

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normally graded beds in fine-grained tuff-turbidites together with stratigraphic

association of bimodal volanics-chert-BIF and tectonized ultramafics suggested an

oceanic arc–forearc geodynamic setting similar to many of the Phanerozoic supra‐

subduction zone ophiolites. They have also used geochemical proxies such as enrichment

of LILE with respect to Nb and depletion in Nb–Ta relative to neighboring REEs from

the bimodal volcanics and ultramafics in support of oceanic arc-forearc tectonic settings.

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Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012) also reported positive Eu‐ anomaly and high Y/Ho (36-40)

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values from the S-IOG BIFs and suggested their deposition in close proximity to

spreading centres with hydrothermal vent source developed over a rifted arc. Sreenivas et

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al. (2019) reported Lu-Hf compositions from zircons of the 3.505 Ga dacitic volcanics of
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the S-IOG. Based on the predominance of radiogenic εHf(t) values from the S-IOG

dacites they proposed a geodynamic regime similar to plate tectonics at the beginning of
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the Paleoarchean period as proposed from the stratigraphic succession and major-trace

element geochemistry of the S-IOG rocks by Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012).

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Lithologic succession in the Western IOG has some variations from that of the
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Southern IOG. The BIF interval attains a thickness of about 220 m and overlies more

than 2000 m thick succession of metabasalt, manganiferous and pyritiferous shale

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(tuffaceous) with local development of dolomitic carbonates and chert breccia between
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the metabasalt and the manganiferous shale. The BIFs are overlain by another interval of

manganiferous shale (Beukes et al., 2008). Based on the stratigraphic setting of the BIF,

Beukes et al. (2008) suggested that the BIFs were deposited during a major base level

rise when the basin remained starved of terrigenous detritus. The chert breccia at the

base of the sedimentary succession overlying the pillow basalt is thought to

represent a sequence boundary formed during a period of sea-level fall and

exposure. The lower manganiferous shale and ferruginous shale deposited during
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subsequent transgressive stage. Finally, the iron formation represents maximum

flooding stage.

The Eastern IOG succession similar to the Southern IOG succession, includes

lower mafic– ultramafic and intermediate volcanic units overlain by recrystallized chert

and a single prominent BIF of more than 200 m thickness (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008c).

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The BIF is composed of banded ferruginous chert, silicate–magnetite-facies iron

formation and magnetite-hematite-facies iron formation. The Eastern IOG shows locally

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amphibolite grade metamorphism (Saha, 1994).

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Upper greenschist to lower amphibolite grade metamorphosed BIF and fuchsitic
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chert enclaves commonly occur within the Singhbhum Granite (e.g., Chaudhuri et al.,

2017) and are collectively included with arenaceous and metavolcanic enclaves of the
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Older Metamorphic Group within the Singhbhum Granite (Saha, 1994; Hofmann and

Mazumder, 2015). These detached and isolated outcrops of BIFs with metavolcanics and
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metasedimentaries have been correlated with the main IOG succession (Mukhopadhyay
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et al., 2008b; Hofmann and Mazumder, 2015).

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2.1.2 Dharwar Craton

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The Dharwar craton is the southern half of the peninsular India and includes one of the
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spectacular granite-greenstone associations in the world (Fig. 3). The Dharwar craton

records granite-greenstone successions from ~3.6 Ga to ~2.4 Ga and younger Paleo-

Mesoproterozoic supracrustals (Table 1) (for reviews Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986;

Chadwick et al., 1988; 2000; 2003; 2007; Sarkar, 2001; Basu and Bickford, 2014;

Jayananda et al., 2018). The craton is classified into Western and Eastern Dharwar

cratons welded along a ductile shear zone and younger granite (Swami Nath et al., 1976;
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Chadwick et al., 2000; Ramakrishnan, 2003). However, based on recent isotopic

evidences for independent thermal events and accretionary history, the Dharwar craton

has been subdivided into western, central and eastern crustal blocks joined along ductile

shear zones (Peucat et al., 2013; Jayananda et al., 2013; 2018).

The Dharwar craton in general has been subdivided into Paleoarchean Sargur

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Group and Meso-Neoarchean Dharwar Supergroup. The Dharwar Supergroup is further

subdivided into Mesoarchean-Neoarchean Bababudan Group and Neoarchean

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Chitradurga Group (Table 1) (Swaminath et al., 1976; Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan,

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1981). The oldest rocks of the Western Dharwar craton include upper greenschist to

amphibolite grade and locally granulite grade metasedimentary-metavolcanic successions

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of the Sargur Group (ca. 3.3 Ga, Nutman et al., 1992; Peucat et al., 1995; Kato et al.,
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1996). The Sargur succession occurs as number of detached belts within a vast expanse

of orthogneisses and granodiorites collectively termed as the Peninsular Gneiss (2.9 to

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3.3 Ga; for reviews Chadwick et al., 1981; 2000). The Sargur succession hosts the oldest
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(~3.3 Ga) recorded BIF interval in the Dharwar craton (Janardhan et al., 1986).
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Komatiitic to high Mg-basalts with interlayered felsic volcanics, thin intervals of BIF,

fuchsite quartzite (metachert)-metapelite, minor calcsilicates constitute the Sargur Group

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(Kato et al., 1996). Janardhan et al. (1986) also mentioned the presence of quartzites of
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clastic origin in the Sargur supracrustals. The komatiitic/high-Mg basalt, bedded chert

and fine-grained argillite association favor a deep-water oceanic depositional setting for

the BIFs. BIFs are thinly bedded with cherty and oxide/silicate rich Fe-mesobands.

Silicate mesobands consist of Fe-amphiboles, pyroxenes and garnet as well. Oxide bands

are essentially magnetite rich. The BIF intervals are few hundreds of metre to more than

two kilometre in strike and a few metres to as much as 200 m in width with tightly folded

outcrop pattern. Interestingly, BIF intervals are also associated with manganiferous
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formations that occur as thinner discontinuous bands over wide expanse in the Sargur

succession. The manganiferous bands are easily identifiable from their brownish

appearance in the weathered profile. The manganiferous formations are thinly laminated

with alternate darker bands of pyroxene, garnet and lighter quartz and fine-grained

spessartine garnet (Janardhan et al., 1986). MnO content in these horizons may vary

between 7 to 19 wt % which is essentially locked in Mn-bearing garnets (Janardhan et al.,

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1986).

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2.2 Mesoarchean BIF

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The Mesoarchean successions in Dharwar and Bastar cratons include greenstone or
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higher grade successions with BIF as an important constituent. Strikingly the BIF

intervals are yet to be reported from the Mesoarchean successions from the Singhbhum
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craton. Some of the unclassified BIF-bearing successions (Fig. 2) might represent

younger Meso/Neoarchean candidates.

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2.2.1 Dharwar Craton

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The Meso-Neoarchean Dharwar Supergroup (ca. 2.9 Ga to >2.7 Ga; Swami Nath et
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al., 1976; Nutman et al., 1992; Chadwick et al., 2007) unconformably overlies the

Peninsular Gneiss and the Sargur Group and consists of greenstone successions of the
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Bababudan and Chitradurga Groups (Table 1) (Fig. 3). The Dharwar Supergroup covers

major part of the Dharwar craton and extends into the Western Ghats range in the

Shimoga and Kudremukh greenstone belts and into the western coastal state of Goa (Fig.

3). The lower half of the supergroup is represented by the Bababudan Group. The

Bababudan Group is a volcano-sedimentary sequence deposited in between ~3.0 Ga and

2.72 Ga (Drury, 1983; Drury et al., 1984; Trendall et al., 1997). The initiation of
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Dharwar sedimentation so far is assessed from the detrital zircon maximum depositional

age of around 3.1 Ga (youngest zircon population from arenites from lower parts of the

Bababudan Group: 3136 ± 7 Ma, Hokada et al., 2013, and from conglomerates: 3140 ±

42 Ma, Maibum et al., 2016). The Bababudan Group is subdivided into five formations,

namely, Kalasapura, Allampura, Santavera, Mulaingiri and Jagar Formations (Viswanath

and Ramakrishnan, 1975, 1981; Arora et al., 1995). The Bababudan Group in the type

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area includes a lower conglomerate-quartzite-amygdular basalt-acid volcanics unit which

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is overlain by a thick sequence of metabasalt-ultramafics-pelites. The upper part of the

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group includes thick BIF-chlorite schists-cherty quartzite which again grade upwards to

metabasalt acid volcanics and carbonates. The lower most unit of the Bababudan Group
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includes conglomerate-cross-stratified quartzite of subaerial fan-braided fluvial

association and subaerial amygdular basalts of initial ensialic rifting and basin opening
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stage (cf. Chadwick et al., 1985 a, b; Srinivasan and Ojakangas, 1986). Several cycles of

metabasic-ultramafics-pelitic schists record subsequent stages of basin opening and

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deepening of the basin. The BIF near the upper part of the succession in the Mulaingiri
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Formation has been interpreted as deposits of transgressive phases with reduced clastic
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supply (Arora et al., 1995). The BIFs are primarily oxide facies with magnetite-rich
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mesobands alternating with cherty mesobands. Arora et al. (1995) distinguished BIFs

into cherty and shaly iron formation varieties. The cherty BIFs include magnetite,
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riebeckite, grunerite, hornblende, actinolite and minor pyrite. Shaly BIFs include mica,

talc and stilpnomelane. Arora et al. (1995) based on the compositions of the metabasic

lava interpreted a range of tectonic settings from within plate basalt to MORB to island

arc basalt and suggested that the Bababudan greenstones record stages from early rifting

to divergent margin development and finally basin closure through compressional setting.

The Kudremukh Belt (Western Ghats) in the western block (Western Dharwar) of the
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craton hosts thick succession of BIF. The rocks here are classified under the Bababudan

Group with four formations, namely, the Walkunje Formation with conglomerate-

quartzite-quartz-chlorite schist, the Kudremukh Formation with thick development of

metabasic lava-actinolite-chlorite schists-amphibolite, the Kodachadri Formation with

alternate BIF and quartz-chlorite schist, and Narsiparvat Formation with quartz porphyry-

felsite and chert (Ramakrisnan and Harinadha Babu, 1981). Here mafic lavas include

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high magnesian, boninitic and komatiitic varieties with contrasting arc-plume trace

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element characteristics. Based on the close spatial association but contrasting elemental

characteristics of komatiites and HMB–basalts–boninites, Kumar and Ugarkar (2017)

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suggested a plume-arc model in which komatiites are considered to be the products of
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plume volcanism and the boninites and associated basalts were considered to be

emplaced in a continental margin setting. The BIFs in the Kodachadri Formation are
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metamorphosed to upper greenshist to amphibolite facies. Oxide facies iron formations

with magnetite mesobands are most predominant type. Silicate facies mesobands contain
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cummingtonite, grunerite and magnetite. The BIFs locally contain alkali amphibole and
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asbestos-rich layers (Kumar and Ugarkar, 2017). Stratigraphically the Kudremukh BIFs
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are considered equivalent to Mulaingiri BIFs of the Bababudan Group (Ramakrishnan

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and Vaidyanadhan, 2010).

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2.2.2 Bastar Craton

The Bastar craton in central India consists of some of the oldest TTGs and granitoids

ranging in age from 3.586 Ga to 2.48 Ga (Sarkar et al., 1993; Ghosh, 2004; Rajesh et al.,

2009; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014a) and a number of supracrustals from Mesoarchean to

Mesoproterozoic (Fig. 4, Table 1) (Crookshank, 1963; Ramakrishnan, 1990; Roy et al.,

2001; Acharyya, 2003; Basu and Bickford, 2014). The oldest among these are the Sukma
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supracrustals with high-grade metasedimentaries including BIF. The Sukma supracrustals

occur as enclaves within granitoids and TTG gneisses ranging in age from 3.55 Ga to

2.45 Ga (Roy et al., 2001). However, stratigraphic relationship is not yet established to

assign a Paleoarchean/Mesoarchean age unequivocally. A relative stratigraphic position

can be assigned to the Sukma Group with respect to the Bengpal Group which

unconformably overlies the Sukma Group (Ramakrishnan, 1990). Although there is no

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direct age from the Bengpal Group, the Bengpal greenstone succession overlies 3.0 Ga

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granitoids (Srivastava et al., 2004) and in turn is overlain by 2.7 Ga to 2.45 Ga Bailadila

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Group (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014a). Unconformable relationship with the younger

Bengpal greenstone succession (~3.0 Ga to 2.7 Ga), therefore, suggests that the Sukma
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supracrustals are at least >3.0 Ga and might represent a Mesoarchean/Paleoarchean

example of BIF deposition in the Bastar craton. Metapelite-calcsilicate-BIF associations

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in some of the Sukma supracrustals indicate a probable passive margin tectonic setting.

However, the BIFs and the associated metasedimentaries in the Sukma succession
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warrant further investigation as one among the rarest records of presumably passive
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margin succession at the Paleo-Mesoarchean transition or even older times.

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2.3 Neoarchean BIF

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The Neoarchean greenstone belts in Dharwar, Bastar and Bundelkhand cratons record
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deposition of BIF as an important constituent of their stratigraphy. BIFs in these

successions primarily occur either in association with volcanics and volcaniclastics or in

association with siliciclastic-carbonate shelf association.

2.3.1 Dharwar craton

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The greenstone belts of the Chitradurga Group (2.7 Ga to 2.6 Ga) in the Western

Dharwar craton unconformably overlying the Peninsular Gneiss or the Bababudan Group

include major BIF horizons (Chadwick et al., 1981, 2000; Harinadha Babu et al., 1981;

Seshadri et al., 1981), and many of them host high-grade iron ore deposits

(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008a). The Chitradurga Group has been subdivided into three

formations, namely, the Vanivilas Formation, the Ingaldhal Formation and the Hiriyur

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Formation, in the ascending order (Seshadri et al., 1981). The Vanivilas Formation

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includes thick mass-flow conglomerates at the lower part in association with

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quartzite/quartz-chlorite schists and phyllite which grade upwards to limestone and

dolomite with stromatolite. The lower siliciclastic associations of the Vanivilas

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Formation host prominent BIF unit in the siltstone-mudstones. The carbonates grade

upwards to manganiferous bedded chert and manganiferous phyllite that in turn grades
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upwards to another interval of 20 m to 50 m thick persistent BIF. The Chitradurga basin

is likely to have been initiated on a rifted cratonic platform. The Ingaldhal Formation
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records predominance of basic and intermediate volcanics and the Hiriyur Formation
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includes fine-grained graywacke turbidites, polymictic conglomerates of mass-flow

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origin, ferruginous chert and a third BIF interval. The development of the BIF in the
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Vanivilas Formation over siliciclastic-carbonate association indicates similarity with the

Superior-type iron formations. However, predominance of volcanics and volcaniclastics

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indicate unstable shelf/platformal setting (Chadwick et al., 1989; Ramakrishnan, 2009;

Hokada et al., 2013). The volcanics and graywacke dominant upper parts of the

Chitradurga Group is likely to indicate change in tectonic setting to active margin island-

arc (e.g., Bhaskar Rao and Naqvi, 1978; Bhattacharya et al., 1988; Srinivasan et al.,

1989; and Devaraju et al., 2009) or alternatively continental arc (Giri, 2019). Cherty,

oxide-, carbonate- and sulphide-facies BIFs have been described from the Chitradurga
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Schist Belt (Gnaneshwar Rao and Naqvi, 1995). They proposed that the compositional

characteristics of the BIFs from the Chitradurga Schist Belt are dependent on the

availability of dissolved CO2, O2, particulate carbon and clastic input in the different

parts of the basin. Gnaneshwar Rao and Naqvi (1995) further suggested that facies

changes are related to the compositional stratification of the ocean and sea level changes.

The Gadag Schist belt in the northern continuation of the Chitradurga belt is essentially a

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succession of basic-acid/intermediate volcanics, greywacke phyllite and cherty iron

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formations classified into Ingladhal and Hiriyuir Formations. Raju (2009) described

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mixed sulphide–oxide-silicate facies iron formations from the Ingaldhal Formation in

Chikkasiddavanahalli (C.S. Halli) range of the Chitradurga Group. Based on REE

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compositions, Raju (2009) suggested hydrothermal fluid for the source of the BIF. Raju

(2009) also suggested hydrothermal epigenetic gold mineralization in the sulphidic iron
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formations. The tectonic discrimination based on volcanics reveal affinities to island arc

setting (cf. Ugarkar et al., 2000). Thin BIFs, ferruginous and manganiferous bedded chert
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and minor carbonates occur in association with the volcanics in the Hiriyuir Formation
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(Beeraiah et al., 2001).

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In the western block of the Dharwar craton major greenstone successions along the
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Dharwar-Shimoga-Ranibennur-Goa belts from northern Karnataka to Goa include thick

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graywacke, basic-intermediate volcanics, BIF, phyllites (locally manganiferous) and

subordinate dolomites (Harinadha Babu et al. 1981; Gokulam et al., 1985). In the

Dharwar-Shimoga-Ranibennur belt the Chitradurga succession includes four formations,

namely, in the ascending order, the Jhandimatti, Joldhal, Medur and Ranibennur

Formations (Harinadha Babu et al., 1981). The stratigraphic succession is comparable

with the Chitradurga Group from the Chitradurga basin with conglomerate-sandstone-

mudstone-volcanics of the Jhandimatti Formation, sandstone-shale-Mn-phyllite-

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dolostone-BIF of the Joldhal Formation, bimodal volcanics dominant Medur Formation

and shale-black shale-graywacke-BIF of the Ranibennur Formation (Harinadha Babu et

al., 1981; Ramakrishnan, 2009; Ojakangas et al., 2014). Vasudeva et al. (1989) described

stromatolitic dolostone underlying BIF and Mn-phyllite from the Joldhal Formation that

can be correlated with the BIF from the top of the Vanivilas Formation. Gokulam et al.

(1985) classified the greenstone succession of Goa as Goa Group. Goa Group includes

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four formations, namely, Barcem, Sanvordem, Bicholim and Vageri Formations, in the

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ascending order. The Barcem Formation is dominated by massive and schistose

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metabasalts. Metabasalt-dominant unit also includes intervals of acidic tuffs,

agglomerates, quartz-sericite schists and phyllites. The Savordem Formation is

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dominantly metasedimentary association that includes metagraywacke, conglomerate and

argillite. The Bicholim Formation is the main BIF-bearing unit which includes BIF,
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carbonate, pink phyllite, manganiferous phyllite and bedded chert. The Vageri Formation

consists of metagraywacke and subordinate proportion of metabasalt. The succession has

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suffered at least three phases of deformation (Gokulam et al., 1985). Prominent BIF
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intervals in the Bicholim Formation are metamorphosed to upper greenschist to lower

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amphibolite facies. The BIFs are essentially microbanded magnetite facies BIF.
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Grunerite-bearing minor carbonate mesobands are also locally interbedded with these

oxide facies BIFs. The linear ridges of BIF traverse from northern Karnataka to northern
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Goa. The BIFs also occur in graywacke and metavolcanics association of the underlying

Sanvordem and the overlying Vageri Formations (Devaraju et al., 2010). Manganiferous

phyllites and dolomitic carbonates locally occur in association with BIF. The BIFs host a

number of major high-grade iron ore deposits of Goa and Karnataka (Mukhopadhyay et

al., 2008a). In the absence of a direct age from this succession a probable age bracket
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between 2.65 Ga and 2.5 Ga can be suggested for the Goa Group from the granitoids that

are believed to be either part of the basement or intrusive into it (Dhoundial et al., 1987).

Central block of the Dharwar craton (on the Eastern Dharwar craton east of

Chitradurga Shear Zone) also includes a number of greenstone belts e.g., Sandur Schist

Belt (SSB), Hungund-Kushtagi-Hagari Schist Belt (HKH), Ramagiri-Penakacherala

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Schist Belt with prominent BIF units (Fig. 3). These greenstone belts have been

correlated with the Chitradurga Group and available geochronological results suggest an

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age bracket between 2.7 Ga to 2.5 Ga (e.g., Balakrishnan et al., 1999). The Sandur Schist

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Belt (SSB) among these hosts major BIF units with high-grade (> 60 wt % of Fe) iron ore

deposits. Sandur Schist Belt (SSB) (Fig. 3) comprises several volcano-sedimentary

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successions of predominantly low-greenschist facies metamorphic grade. The volcanic
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rocks in this belt include pillowed and massive metabasalt, komatiite, rhyolite and

pyroclastics. Sedimentary components include BIF, manganiferous sandstone, Fe-Mn

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lutites, carbon phyllites, greywacke, conglomerates, bedded chert and local dolomitic
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carbonates (Roy and Biswas, 1983; Chadwick et al., 1996; Manikyamba et al., 1997).
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Acid volcanics and komatiitic schists from this belt have been dated at about 2.7 Ga

(Nutman et al., 1996; Naqvi et al., 2002). Chadwick et al. (1996) classified SSB into
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Yeshwant Nagar, Deogiri, Ramanmala, Donimalai, Taleru and Vibhutigudda Formations,

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in the ascending order. The Donimalai Formation includes major BIF units. Manikyamba

et al. (1993) considered the BIFs in the Donimalai Formation in terms of variation in

clastic and hydrothermal vent inputs in Fe, Al and Si and REEs resulting in

compositional variation e.g., cherty BIF (CBIF) and shale. Chert, ferruginous cherts,

cherty banded iron formations (BIF), shaly BIF and shales are different lithologies

interbedded in the BIF unit of the Donimalai Formation. Manikyamba et al. (1993)

suggested that the BIFs were deposited in deeper parts of the shelf corresponding to the
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deposition of manganiferous carbonates and phyllites of the Deogiri Formation in the

shallower shelf.

The Kushtagi Schist Belt in the northern Karnataka State also hosts thick BIF interval

in association with metabasic volcanics, ultramafics, phyllite-graywacke (Khan and

Naqvi, 1996). It is correlatable with Chitradurga Schist Belt. Khan and Naqvi (1996)

described cherty and shaly BIFs from this belt and explained in terms of fluctuating sea

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level with cherty BIF during higher sea level stand and reduced argillaceous input and

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enhanced influence from hydrothermal vent.

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Eastern block of the Eastern Dharwar craton consists of a number of detached

greenstone belts some of which record gold mineralization. The eastern Dharwar block is
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dominated by Neoarchean granitoids including TTGs ranging in age from 3.0 to 2.5 Ga
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but mostly with emplacement ages between 2.6 to 2.5 Ga (Naqvi, 2005, p. 48). Older

TTGs are equated with the Peninsular Gneiss of the Western Dharwar craton. The

granitoids constitute more than 75% of the Eastern Dharwar craton and are interspersed
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with linear, arcuate, Neoarchean auriferous greenstone belts with metabasics, komatiites
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and intermediate to felsic volcanics emplaced between 2.7 Ga to 2.56 Ga (Rajamani et

al., 1985; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Khanna et al., 2016; Manikyamba et al., 2017;
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Dey et al., 2015; 2018; Jayananda et al., 2018). Major greenstone belts in the eastern
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block of the Eastern Dharwar craton are the Kolar, Kadiri, Hutti, Velligalu, Gadwal,

Jonnagiri, Peddavuru and Manglur. The greenstone belts are lithologically similar to the

Dharwar Supergroup in the west (Chadwick et al., 2000). Metamorphosed BIFs and

locally manganiferous BIFs constitute stratigraphic intervals in all these belts. The

stratigraphic association indicates that mostly they represent Algoma-type BIF.

2.3.2 Bastar Craton

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Major Neoarchean supracrustals in the central and northern parts of the Bastar craton

includes BIF-quartzite-shale/phyllite-bearing Bailadila Group, and equivalents of the

Nandgaon, Chilpi and Sonakhan Groups (Table 1) (Roy et al., 2001) (Fig. 4). Among

these the Bailadila Group is the most important succession with ~200 m thick BIF

interval that runs as folded outcrop pattern from south to north of the craton for over 150

km. The high-grade iron ore occurs in the BIF units at three different belts namely, the

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Dalli-Rajhara belt, the Rowghat and the Bailadila belt on the southern end of the Bastar

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craton (Crookshank, 1963; Ramakrishnan, 1990; Ramachandra et al., 2001; Roy et al.,

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2001; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008a). The stratigraphic position of thr BIF unit in the

Bailadila Group is debated and the same unit is differently named as the Bose Iron
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Formation by Bandyopadhyay and Hrishikar (1977) or as the Kailashnagar Iron

Formation by Khan and Bhattacharya (1993) (Table 1). The BIF in the succession
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overlies shallow shelf siliciclastics and represents a Superior-type BIF (Mukhopadhyay

et al., 2014a). Based on detrital zircon U-Pb SHRIMP ages from basal siliciclastics and
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2.45 Ga acid volcanics unconformably overlying the Bailadila Group, Mukhopadhyay et

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al. (2014a) constrained the age of the Bailadila succession between 2.7 Ga and 2.45 Ga.
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2.3.3 Bundelkhand Craton

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The Bundelkhand craton is predominantly granitoid TTG terrain ranging in age from
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>3.5 Ga to ca. 2.49 Ga (Mondal et al., 2002; Kaur et al., 2016; Saha et al., 2016; Singh

and Slabunov, 2016) with slivers of Archean greenstone belts along the central part

(Mouranipur-Babina: Central Bundelkhand Greenstone Belt, CBGB) and in the south

(Girrar metasedimentaires: Southern Bundelkhand Schist Complex) (Singh and

Slabunov, 2015, 2016) and younger Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supracrustals (Table 1) (Fig.

5). The CBGB in the Mouranipur-Babina belt includes high-Mg metabasic rocks,
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serpentinised ultramafic rocks, BIFs and felsic to intermediate volcanics (Malviya et al.,

2006; Singh et al., 2018). The Girar succession in the southern belt consists of quartz

arenite, conglomerate and BIF (Singh and Slabunov, 2015). The Bundelkhand schist

belts are believed to have formed in two episodes of arc accretion between ~2.8 Ga and

2.54 Ga (Singh and Slabunov, 2015, 2016; Slabunov and Singh, 2017). Alternatively,

Singh et al. (2019) reported whole rock Sm-Nd age of 3435 ± 161 Ma with MSWD =

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0.71 from six mafic-ultramafic samples of Babina greenstone belt and suggested that the

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ultramafic-mafic rocks are derived from oceanic crust in subduction-related setting.

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However, felsic volcanics of the Babina greenstone belt yielded a more precise sensitive

high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U–Pb zircon age of 2542 ± 17 Ma (Singh and
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Slabunov, 2015) and based on this data the CGGB is considered here as Neoarchean

greenstone belt.
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3. Geochemistry
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Available compositional data from the BIF deposits discussed above have been
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summarized from published literature in this section. Average compositions of each type
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of BIF reported from these deposits are compiled (References in Figures. Data for
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individual deposit are taken from the available published data for each deposit). In this

compilation compositional data for major, trace elements including REE were only
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selected for samples with most comprehensive analyses and which represented the

standard analytical procedures. However, BIF samples in most of these case studies are

outcrop samples and are not beyond possibility of alteration during weathering (e.g.,

Albut et al., 2018). The Major, trace and REE compositions are normalized with respect

to PAAS and the global average of Superior-type BIF (after McClung, 2006 in Gutzmer

et al., 2008). PAAS normalization provides a scope to assess relative contributions

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between hydrothermal and continental source. Global average of Superior-type BIF

normalization is also likely to provide an assessment of relative contribution from

volcanic and continental contributions. Classification of BIF types in individual deposit

wherever available based on Al2O3 variation, Mn-content, sulphide content has been

mentioned. The cherty BIF (CBIF) and shaly BIF (SBIF) have been distinguished by

some workers on the basis of Al2O3 content e.g., in the Neoarchean Hungund-Kushtagi-

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Hagari Schist Belt (HKH) (Khan and Naqvi, 1996; Chitradurga Schist Belt, Gnaneshwar

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Rao and Naqvi, 1995). Manganiferous BIF has been distinguished in the Sargur Schist

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Belt (Janardhan et al., 1986; Janardhan, 1994) and oxide/silicate facies BIFs in the Iron

Ore Group (Bhattacharya et al., 2007; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008c; 2012).

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3.1 Major Element Composition
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Compositional data for major elements of the Paleoarchean BIFs are compiled from

the Iron Ore Group, Singhbhum Craton (Majumder et al., 1982; Bhattacharya et al.,
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2007; Beukes et al., 2008; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008c, 2012) and the Sargur Group
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from the Dharwar craton (Janardhan, et al., 1986; Janardhan, 1994; Kato et al., 1996).
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The Paleoarchean BIFs in the PAAS normalized plots (Fig. 6 A, B) show expected
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depletion in Al2O3 and considerable enrichment in Fe2O3. In most deposits MnO, MgO,

CaO, Na2O and K2O are depleted and P2O5 shows enrichment relative to the PAAS. Only
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in manganiferous Sargur samples notable enrichment in MnO, MgO and CaO is noticed.

In the plots normalized to Superior-type BIF (Fig. 6B) major elements show comparable

values with manganiferous deposits and show enrichment in MnO. BIFs from IOG show

minor depletion in MgO and CaO.

Composition of Mesoarchean-(to-Neoarchean) Bababudan BIFs has been compiled

from Kudremukh, Dharwar and Bababudan (Arora et al., 1995; Khan et al., 1992; Kato et
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al., 2002) successions. In PASS normalized plot (Fig. 6C) all three deposits show

comparable SiO2 concentration, strong depletion in Al2O3 and marked enrichment in

Fe2O3. Kudremukh and Bababudan deposits show more or less similar concentrations in

other oxides with respect to PAAS. However, the Dharwar BIF (Kato et al., 2002) shows

marked depletion in most of the oxides e.g., TiO2, MnO, CaO and MgO. In the plots

normalized to Superior-type BIF (Fig. 6D) major elements show comparable values for

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Kudremukh and Bababudan deposits and depletion in Dharwar deposits.

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Neoarchean BIFs mostly from the Dharwar craton e.g., from Chitradurga Schist Belt,

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Kushtagi Schist Belt, Sandur Schist Belt and HKH Schist Belt (Gnaneshwar Rao and

Naqvi, 1995; Manikyamba et al., 1993; Khan and Naqvi, 1996) show considerable spread
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of composition depending upon the type of BIF, whether shaly, cherty or sulphide facies.
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The shaly BIFs show comparable concentration of Al2O3, Na2O and K2O with respect to

PAAS (Fig. 6E). Carbonate facies BIFs show enrichment in CaO, MgO and MnO in
D

PAAS normalized plot. In Superior BIF normalized plots similar enrichment or depletion
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pattern (Fig. 6F) exists.

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3.2 Trace Element Composition

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In both PAAS and Superior-type BIF normalized plots (Fig. 7) the Paleoarchean BIFs
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(Fig. 7. A, B) show depletion in V and Ni and slight enrichment in Co. Most of the

samples also show depletion in Rb. The Sargur manganiferous samples show slight

enrichment in Zr, Hf, Th and U.

The Mesoarchean-Neoarchean Bababudan BIFs show similar depletion in V, Cr, Ni,

and enrichment in Co and depletion in Th, U with respect to PAAS (Fig.7C). Superior-

type BIF normalized plots show enrichment in V, Co, Cu, Zn and Rb (Fig. 7D). The plot

also reveals marked depletion in Th and U with respect to Superior-type BIF.

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Neoarchean BIFs in PAAS and Superior-type BIF normalization (Fig. 7E, F) do not

reveal any pattern. The shaly BIFs in both normalization are distinct from other types in

terms of relative enrichment in Rb, Zr, Hf, Th and U. The non-shaly BIFs show marked

depletion in the LIL elements.

3.3 Rare Earth Element Composition

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REE patterns for Paleoarchean BIFs normalized to PAAS reveal (Fig. 8A, B)

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fractionated LREE with distinct positive Eu-anomaly. HREE pattern is flat. REE pattern

normalized to Superior-type BIF is rather flat with a marked depletion in Yb.

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The BIFs from the Meso-Neoarchean Bababudan Group show comparable REE
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pattern in PAAS normalized plot, however, with distinct positive Eu-anomaly (Fig. 8C).
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In Superior-type BIF normalized plot (Fig. 8D) REE pattern is flat except a marked

depletion in Yb. Hashizume et al. (2016) reported elevated Y/Ho values (42–50) and high

Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu∗ = 2.9–3.4) from BIFs of the Bababudan Group. Hashizume et al.
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(2016) also reported true negative Ce-anomaly from some Fe-mesobands of the Babudan
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BIF samples they studied.

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Neoarchean BIFs in both normalization show wide variation in REE content (Fig. 8E).

However, distinct positive Eu-anomaly exists in the PAAS normalization. Both patterns
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do not reveal REE fractionation except a pronounced trough in Yb concentration for

normalization with Superior-type BIF (Fig.8F).

To assess the extent of Eu-anomaly, Ce-anomaly across deposits the values of these

two anomalies have been plotted against age of deposition (Fig. 9A, B). The Eu-anomaly

vs age plot (Fig. 9A) reveals somewhat narrow range of variation for Paleo-Mesoarchean

BIFs in contrast to wide range of variation in Eu-anomaly for Neoarchean deposits. The
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wide range of variation is likely to suggest variable inputs from sources with expansion

of BIF-deposition in the shallower platform receiving contributions from continental run

off for younger deposits. Ce-anomaly vs age plot (Fig. 9B) shows wide range of variation

in Ce-anomaly values. Interestingly the Paleo-Mesoarchean BIFs include some high

negative values whereas the Neoarcheans are either close to one or negative.

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4. Economic Geology of BIF

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The Indian BIFs are the primary hosts for the high-grade iron ores (> 60 wt % of Fe) of the

country. India is the sixth largest producer of iron ore in the world. At 55% cut off grade for Fe

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(as per the release of the United Nations Framework Classification) the reserve is more than 25
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Bt with about 14 Bt hematite and about 11 Bt of magnetite reserves. The BIF-hosted iron ore

reserve occurs in allmost all the major BIF-bearing successions of the peninsular India (Fig. 1).
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The giant high-grade iron ore deposits are hosted by the Iron Ore Group in the Singhbhum craton,

Bailadila Group in Bastar craton, Donimalai deposits in the Sandur Schist Belt and deposits in

Dhrawarian schist belts in Chitradurga, Kudremukh and Goa (for review Mukhopadhyay et al.,
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2008ª; Mukhopadhyay, 2015). The Indian deposits are essentially hematitic and are
E
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predominantly soft and friable in nature. The hard ore primarily martitic/magnetitic occurs at the

deeper levels of the deposit. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2008a,c) based on mode of occurence,
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petrography, oxygen isotope composition from hematite-martite infered the deposits as supergene

modified hydrothermal type (Beukes et al., 2003, 2008).

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Manganese ores are clsoely associated with the iron formations in some of the cratons ( for

review Roy, 2000). The Western IOG in the Singhbhum craton hosts supergene manganese

deposits in the shale intervals below the main BIF interval. Similarly, manganiferous shales are

mined from the Sandur Schist Belt and the Chitradurga Schist Belt in Karnataka and its

equivalents in Goa. These deposits are likely to be supergene enrichment of higher manganese

oxides from diagenetic manganiferous concretions in the phyllites/shales below the iron

formations (cf. Beukes et al., 2008).

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Gold mineralization has been described from the Kolar Schist belt in the Dharwar craton

(Natarajan and Mukherjee, 1986). The Algoma-type BIFs here are interbedded with pillowed

metavolcanics. The BIFs here include sluphide, silicate and oxide facies varieties. The sulphide

facies BIFs host gold in arsenopyrites. However, economic grade gold mineralization is yet to be

encountered from India BIFs.

5. Microbiota

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Studies on microbiota in the Archean BIFs in India are few and far between. Some of

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the early studies came from the Dharwar craton particularly from the Dodguni succession

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from Dharwar Supergroup. Pichamuthu (1945) identified the filamentous forms as

compared to the modern blue-green alga Hapalosiphon. Subsequently, Venkatachala et

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al. (1990) and Viswanathiah and Venkatachalapathy (1980) described several

filamentous and coccoid forms from Dodguni belt. Lopuchin and Gowada (1983)
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described several microflora of genus Gunflintia and discovered a new form Dodgunia

from the Dodguni chert. Paleoarchean Iron Ore Group includes carbonate build ups with
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stromatolitic structures (Beukes et al., 2008). Sarkar (1984, 1989) reported putative
E
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spheroidal and filamentous microfossils from Western IOG basin. Carbonates are rare in

the Iron Ore basins, however, siliceous dolomite with stromatolitic structures have been
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noted at a few places within the Western IOG basin (Saha, 1994). Maithy et al. (2000)

reported cyanophycean microfossils from the stromatolitic dolomitic unit in the Western
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IOG. Based on SEM studies Raha et al. (2000) described filamentous microfossils from

the Bailadila Group.

6. Discussion

6.1 Depositional setting

The Paleoarchean BIFs of the Iron Ore Group (IOG) from the Singhbhum craton are

primarily hosted in the bimodal metavolcanics association. Based on the deep-water

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signatures from the turbiditic fine-grained volcaniclastics, pillowed and massive

metabasalt and laterally persistent bedded chert interbeds between lava flows,

Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012) suggested a deep oceanic setting for theses 3.51 Ga BIFs.

Their suprasubduction zone tectonic model for the Southern IOG greenstone belt

envisaged slab rollback and development deep oceanic depositional setting starved of

coarser clastics and volcaniclastics for the BIF deposition. The superchondritc Y/Ho

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values from these BIFs is consistent with an oceanic hydrothermal source

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(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2012). Slightly younger Western IOG stratigraphic succession

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(Beukes et al., 2008) includes thick pillowed and massive metabasalt at the lower part.

The stromatolitic carbonates overlying the metabasalt have been interpreted as lowstand
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deposits followed upwards by manganiferous and pyritiferous shale to mainly oxide

facies thick BIF deposits with a major base level rise. The high-grade manganese oxide
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ores, which are now mined from these shales below the BIF, are believed to be supergene

alteration products of carbonate concretions in the lower shale (Beukes et al., 2008).
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Sengupta et al. (1997) suggested a subduction zone affinity of the basic volcanics of the
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Western IOG. The lower shale now extremely altered to saprolite in more than 600 m
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deep weathering profile still preserves some intervals of vesiculated tuffs and weathered
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tuffaceous shales. The volcanic association in the Western IOG closely corresponds to

the Southern IOG. However, the presence of the carbonates with microbial characters
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and preserved cyanophycean microbiota (Maithy et al., 2000) suggest that the W-IOG

preserves a shallower transect of the depositional basin in comparison to the S-IOG.

The other well-studied Paleoarchean BIF from India comes from the Sargur Group in

the Dharwar craton. Naqvi et al. (1988) proposed at least five cycles of BIF deposition in

the Dharwar craton with first two cycles essentially in the mafic-ultramafic volcanics

association in the Sargur Schist Belt. The Sargur supracrustals are metamorphosed and
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deformed at a higher intensity and grade than the IOG greenstones. So the stratigraphic

relationships among different units are difficult to establish. The BIF intervals overlie

manganiferous formations and carbonates locally. Coarser siliciclastics are conspicuous

by their absence from the Sargur succession that suggests that the Sargur

metasedimentaries are essentially deep-water deposits similar to the IOGs. Kato et al.

(1996) based on chondritic REE pattern of the amphibolites in Sargur Group suggested a

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mid-oceanic ridge tectonic setting for the precursor basic volcanics. Positive Eu-anomaly

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from the BIF corresponds with the hydrothermal contribution from mid-oceanic ridge

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setting (Kato et al., 1996). Alternative views based on lithologies also suggest plume

setting (Bouhallier et al., 1993; Tushipokla and Jayananda, 2013) or oceanic arc setting
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(Kunugiza et al., 1996).

Mesoarchean-to-Neoarchean BIFs are mainly hosted in the greenstone successions of

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the Dharwar craton. The Bababudan BIFs are considered as platformal deposits from

their association with coarser siliciclastics of fluvial and shallow shelf origin and rarely
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carbonates (stromatolitic). However, unlike the typical younger Paleoproterozoic shelf

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BIFs of Superior-type from either Transvaal or Hamersley basins, the Bababudan

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succession includes very thick pile of mafic-to-ultramafic volcanics of wide range of

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tectonic affinity such as MOR, IA and WPB (Arora et al., 1995). Therefore, the

Bababudan succession at least for its lower half may not represent a typical passive
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margin platform, rather is more likely an active divergent basin on continental

lithosphere that has recorded maximum basin expansion in the deposition of thick BIF

with reduced coarse clastic inputs in the upper stratigraphic levels. The Bababudan

succession in general represents several cycles of base level changes for repetitive basic

volcanic outpouring and intermittent sedimentation with BIF deposition in starved basin

condition at the peak of base level rise (e.g., Arora et al., 1995). Hashizume et al. (2016)
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analyzed redox-sensitive δ15N and δ56Fe values from Fe- and Si-mesobands from the

Bababudan BIF and noted higher δ15N and δ56Fe concentrations in the silica-rich

mesobands compared to the Fe-rich mesobands. They interpreted the higher

concentrations of 15N-rich organic nitrogen with +12.0 ± 0.8 ‰ seulav in Si-mesobands

as signature of higher organic productivity and photosynthetic activity during the

deposition of Si-mesobands compared to the Fe-mesobands. Iron oxides in Si-mesobands

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with heavier Fe-isotope composition (δ56Fe: +0.80 ± 0.05 ‰ uad +1.67 ± 0.02‰) is also

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explained by the progressive dissolution of iron oxides to the ocean through iron

reduction by increased 15N-rich organic matter actively produced at the ocean surface.

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Younger Archean BIFs recorded in Dharwar, Bastar and Bundelkhand cratons
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represent wide variation in depositional facies associations. The Neoarchean Chitradurga,

Sandur and Kushtagi schist belts from the Dharwar craton include shallow marine
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siliciclastics and carbonates in the lower stratigraphic horizons (Manikyamba et al., 1993;

Gnaneshwar Rao and Naqvi, 1995). The carbonates show development of stromatolites
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in varying proportion in all these belts and are locally manganiferous. Lateral and vertical
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transition from current-bedded and ripple marked quartzites to oxide and carbonate facies
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BMF and BIF, through stromatolitic dolomite in these successions have been interpreted
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to represent shallow shelf depositional setting (Manikyamba et al., 1993). Srinivasan and

Ojakangas (1986) described tidal-intertidal depositional facies from the sandstones and
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dolostones below the Mn-shale and BIF in the upper part of the Vanivilas Formation. The

transition from shallow shelf siliciclastics/stromatolitic carbonates to Mn-phyllite and

BIF indicates a base level rise. The BIFs in the upper parts of the Chitradurga Group

interbedded with thick basic volcanics, graywacke, phyllite and mass-flow conglomerates

are likely to suggest a major change in tectonic setting from extensional to active margin

slope-to-basinal depositional environment (e.g., Devaraju et al., 2010). The BIFs in the
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upper parts of the Chitradurga Group in the Hiriyur and Ranibennur Formations occur in

thick fine-grained siliciclastic turbidite and mass-flow conglomerate association. Unlike

the volcanics dominated Ingaldhal/Medur Formations, the Hiriyur and Ranibennur

Formations are dominated by fine-grained siliciclastics. The mass-flow dominated

siliciclastic facies associations in these two formations are likely to indicate a submarine

fan depositional environment from a continental margin slope. The BIF intervals in such

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association are not very straight forward to explain. However, BIF deposition records

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periods of reduced clastic inputs that might have been controlled by tectono-eustatic base

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level rise in response to increased MOR activity at spreading ridges or fluctuations in

inputs of volcaniclastics from island/continental arc sources.

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BIFs in the Bundelkhand craton occur in the central Babina-Mouranipur Greenstone

Belt and in the southern Girar Greenstone Belt (Singh and Slabunov, 2015, 2016) with
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two different associations. The former with mafic/ultramafic volcanics have been

interpreted to represent a subduction zone setting based on chemical composition of the

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mafic/ultramafic volcanic rocks (Singh and Slabunov, 2016; Singh et al., 2018). The
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felsic volcanic rocks in this association are also compared with subduction zone setting

(Singh and Slabunov, 2016). In contrast the southern Bundelkhand greenstone belts in
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the Girar area consist of BIF in mature quartz arenite and conglomerate association
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suggesting a shelf/platformal depositional setting.

The Neoarchean Bailadila Group includes >200 m thick BIF succession in siliciclastic

shelf association (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014a). The stratigraphic succession with cross-

stratified arenite at the lower part grading upwards to HCS- arenites with phyllitic shale

to thick BIF (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014a) represents a transgressive shelf comparable to

the Superior-type BIF association.

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The Archean BIF intervals in the Indian greenstone belts, therefore, occur in diverse

lithological associations. The BIF intervals in stratigraphic successions denote reduced

clastic input in the basin and has important connotation in reconstruction of cycles of

base level changes. The depositional setting of the Archean BIFs can be summarized in

terms of five generalized lithological associations (Table 2), namely, 1) mafic-ultramafic

lava-acid/intermediate bimodal volcanics association: mainly represented by the

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Paleoarchean Iron Ore Group, Sargur Group and the Neoarchean Babina-Mouranipur

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Greenstone Belt, 2) subaerial-to-submarine mafic volcanics with fluvial-to-shallow-

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marine siliciclastic association: represented by the Mulaingiri and Kodachadri BIFs of

the Bababudan Group, 3) mixed siliciclastic-carbonate platformal association with

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volcanics: from the lower parts of the Western IOG, lower parts of the Chitradurga, Goa

and Sandur Schist Belts, 4) deep-water graywacke-volcanics/volcaniclastics association:

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from the Hiriyur and Ranibennur Formations of the Chitradurga, Shimoga Schist belts

and equivalents in Goa, 5) shelf siliciclastics association: from the Neoarchean Bailadila
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Group, the Girar metasedimentaries from Bundelkhand craton and BIFs in Sukma
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supracrustals (Paleoarchean/Mesoarchean?) .
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The lithological associations point to possible tectonic settings for each association
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(Table 2). The bimodal mafic-ultramafic-acid/intermediate volcanics association

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described for the Southern IOG by Mukhopadhyay et al. (2012) suggests an arc-retroarc

setting in a supra-subduction zone. Singh and Slabunov (2016) and Singh et al. (2018)

interpreted the mafic-ultramafic volcanics and BIF of the Central Bundelkhand

Greenstone Belt in terms of subduction zone tectonic setting. Subaerial-to-subaqueous

mafic lava succession in the Bababudan Group grading upwards to thick BIF intervals

speaks in favor of a post-rift extensional phase in a divergent tectonic setting. The

platformal metasediments and volcanics associated with the BIF in the Vanivilas
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Formation and equivalents from the lower parts of the Chitradurga Group and

equivalents represent early rift and basin opening stage in an arc/back arc extensional

setting (e.g., Gnaneswar Rao and Naqvi, 1995). Graywacke-volcanics association from

the upper stratigraphic levels of the Chitradurga-Shimoga greenstone belts further

records development of continental margin setting (e.g., Gnaneswar Rao and Naqvi,

1995; Chadwick et al., 2007; Manikyamba and Kerrich, 2012; Manikyamba et al., 2014,

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2017) from the early rift stage. On the other hand, the stable shelf arenite-shale

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associations in the Neoarchean Bailadila Group and BIF in association with quartz

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arenite-conglomerates in the southern Bundelkhand greenstone belts are likely to

represent continental shelf on a trailing margin of an ocean basin.

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6.2 Oxygenation of Archean Ocean
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Archean BIFs from Indian shield area include compositional variants such as oxide,

carbonate and silicate facies iron formations. Such variations particularly the
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stratigraphic transition from carbonate/oxide facies BIFs to sulphide facies BIF has been
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documented in the Chitradurga, Sandur and Bababudan successions. The transition from
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oxide to sulphide facies BIFs in the Chitradurga Schist Belt has been explained in terms
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of facies variation from shallower photic zone to deeper water anoxic zone (cf.

Gnaneswar Rao and Naqvi, 1995; Manikyamba et al., 1997). More importantly,
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manganese mineralization is associated with many of these successions for example the

Paleoarchean IOG and Sargur Group, Neoarchean Chitradurga and Sandur Schist Belts

(for review Roy, 2000). In most instances the manganiferous phyllite or manganiferous

carbonates (dolomitic and often stromatolitic) mark the transition from platformal

siliciclastics/carbonates to oxide facies BIF (Manikyamba and Naqvi, 1995, 1997;

Beukes et al., 2008). Manganese formations prior to the deposition of BIFs in the shallow

platformal facies suggest oxidizing condition in the shallow platform, presumably in the
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photic zone (Roy, 2000). Since all these BIF-bearing successions are older than the early

Paleoproterozoic Great Oxidation Event (GOE) the implications of such shallow

platformal manganese deposition in the Archean oceans certainly bears paramount

importance in the understanding of the oxygenation of early oceans and in turn the early

oxyatmoversion. The iron and manganese in soluble ionic forms (Fe2+ and Mn2+)

commonly occur in close association in seawater in dysaerobic/anaerobic conditions, and

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both are oxidized to poorly soluble Fe3+ and Mn4+ in aerobic water column (Gutzmer and

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Beukes, 2002). The stratigraphic separation of the iron and manganese formations is

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believed to be due to the differences in solubility of these two species in an Eh-gradient

(Roy, 2000). Mn2+ being more soluble could upwell to the shelf/platformal edge while
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Fe2+ is oxidized at lower oxygen saturation to insoluble Fe3+ in deeper water (Bühn et al.,

1992). It is in general considered that the manganese primarily occurring as Mn-

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carbonates in the shelf/platformal association with carbonates or as concretions in shales

are products of early diagenetic reduction of Mn-oxides that precipitate from the aerobic
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column in an upwelling zone. Roy (2000) from the shallow-shelf Archean manganese
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formations of India advocated possible existence of basin-margin photic zones where

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substantial photosynthetic oxygen buildup could take place and locally the Mn+2/Mn+4
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redoxcline was reached. Satkosky et al. (2015) demonstrated redox-stratified ocean at

3.2 Ga from the Manzimnyama Banded Iron Formation (BIF), Fig Tree Group, South Africa on
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the basis of a combination of stable Fe and radiogenic U-Th-Pb isotope data. They

suggested significant oxygen contents in the Mesoarchean shallow oceans from shallow-

to-deep-water facies variants of the Manzimnyama BIFs. Alternatively, Ossa Ossa et al.

(2019), on the basis of δ15N composition from the Mesoarchean shales of the Mozaan

Group of the Pongola Supergroup, suggested that although iron and manganese redox

systematics support an oxygen oasis in the Mesoarchean anoxic ocean but there is no
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compelling evidence for a significant aerobic nitrogen cycle. They proposed that

dissolved O2 levels in the Mesoarchean oceans were either too low or too limited in

extent. However, there exist differences of opinion whether the Mn oxidant was

provided by O2 or a Mn-oxidizing photosystem for the oxidation of Mn to insoluble

higher oxide in the shallow platformal Archean sea prior to GOE (Roy, 2006; Johnson et

al., 2013). Johnson et al. (2013) suggested that the original manganese oxides from the

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upwelled water column are products of anoxygenic photoautotrophy similar to iron

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accumulation in Archean iron formations that do not necessarily require involvement of

free oxygen for oxidation of Mn2+. Sediments accumulated as solid Mn-oxide phases

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resulting in precursor sediments enriched with Mn oxides at the time of deposition, were
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subsequently reduced to Mn carbonates during early diagenesis. Alternatively,

sedimentary iron and manganese formations closely associated with stromatolitic

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carbonates from the Sandur-Chitradurga Schist belts and the putative cyanobacterial life

forms in the Paleoarchean Western Iron Ore Group from Noamundi basin, Singhbhum
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craton, would be indirect evidence for photosynthetic oxygenation of shallow platformal

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ocean since Paleoarchean (Roy, 2000; 2006). Satkosky et al. (2015) suggested relative
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enrichment of O2 in the upper water column is likely due to the existence of oxygen-
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producing microorganisms such as cyanobacteria that might have evolved prior to 3.2

Ga. Based on the 15N-rich organic matter in the silica mesobands of the Bababudan BIF,
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Hashizume et al. (2016) suggested photosynthetic activity and emergence of modern-day

like biological nitrogen cycle with the formation of oxidized nitrogen during deposition

of silica-rich mesobands.

The manganese formation in association with major BIF intervals have been reported

from Paleoproterozoic successions from the Hamersley and Transvaal basins (Trendall,

1990; Beukes and Klein, 1992). The manganese formations in the Paleoarchean IOG
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(Beukes et al., 2008) would remain as a candidate for early ocean Fe-Mn oxidation either

by anoxygenic photosystems in a largely dysaerobic water column or with the

cyanobacterial oxygenic photosynthesis in the photic zone. There exists further

difference of opinion regarding the beginning of cyanobacterial photosynthesis and,

hence, oxygenation of early atmosphere (Beukes, 2004; Farquhar et al., 2011, 2014;

Crowe et al., 2013; Bekker, 2014; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014b; Planavsky et al., 2014;

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Lyons et al., 2014; Luo et al., 2016). Some of the biomarkers from cyanobacteria e.g.,

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2 Me-hopanes have been reported from 2.7 Ga (Brocks et al., 1999) and

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cyanobacterial growth has been reported from Barberton Greenstone Belt (3.3 Ga,

Byerly et al., 1986) and 3.45 Ga Apex Chert (Walter et al., 1980; Schopf and
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Packer, 1987; Schopf, 1993; Javaux et al., 2010) and iron formations from
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Western Australia (LaBerge et al., 1967; 1973). Braiser et al. (2015) critically

evaluated biogenicity of many of these earlier described microfossils and

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suggested detailed analytical techniques for recognition of early life forms in the
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rock record. Rosing (1999) reported depleted carbon isotope composition from the
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3.8 Ga Isua Greenstone Belt suggesting a possible existence of photosynthesis at

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the beginning of Eoarchean. The manganese and iron formations in stratigraphic

associations from the Archean greenstone belts from India are therefore potential records
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for testing the hypothesis of early ocean oxygenation (e.g., Manikyamba and Naqvi,

1997) which in turn closely corresponds to the pre-GOE whiffs of oxygenation of the

early atmosphere (Frei et al., 2009; Lyons et al., 2014; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014b).

6.3. Future Research

The deposition of BIF in the Precambrian successions attracts much attention for

unique aspects of BIFs in understanding the redox state of early oceans, evolution of
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oxygen in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, advent of photosynthesis, origin of banded

structure and tectono-eustatic significance of occurrence of BIF intervals in different

lithological associations (Klein, 2005; Beukes, 2004; Bekker et al., 2010; Bekker, 2014).

There are primarily two different views so far in explaining the deposition of BIF. The

more widely accepted view considers an anoxic ocean where dissolved Fe2+ primarily

from hydrothermal source gets oxidized to Fe3+ through photoautotrophic or

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heterotrophic oxidation process in the water column. The insoluble ferric iron then

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precipitates as oxides/oxyhydroxides which later convert to hematite and magnetite

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during diagenesis to form the Fe-rich mesobands in the BIF (Trendall, 2002; Klein, 2005;

Beukes and Gutzmer, 2008; Bekker et al., 2010; 2014). The alternate banding of Fe- and
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silica-rich meso/microbands is believed to be controlled by fluctuating

chemogenic/hydrothermal inputs in iron and silica (e.g., Trendall and Blockley, 1970;
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Morris, 1993; Wang et al., 2009) or by fluctuating ocean water temperature (Posth et al.,

2008) or by fluctuating biological productivity (Hashizume et al., 2016). Alternatively,

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Rasmussen et al. (2013, 2015) demonstrated that the Fe-rich mesobands in the 2.3 Ga
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BIFs of the Dales Gorge Member from Western Australia are primarily Fe-silicate lutites
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deposited in microgranular floccules from dilute density currents. The detrital mode of
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deposition of the Fe-mud floccules is supported from the presence of plane-laminated to

graded internal structures of the laminasets (Krapež et al., 2003; Rasmussen et al., 2013).
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Rasmussen et al. (2013) explained alternate Fe-rich and Si-rich microbanding in terms of

variation in sea-floor early silica cementation. Hashizume et al., (2016) also explained

the alternate Fe- and Si- mesobands in terms of variation in organic productivity based on

inter-band variation of δ15N composition of organic compound and δ56Fe composition of

Fe-oxides. They also suggested that the observed shift in the organic concentration
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between Fe- and Si-rich bands could conceivably represent periodic fluctuations in the

oxygen generation prior to the Great Oxidation Event.

The diverse lithologic association of the Archean BIFs of India provides further scope

to address these issues. For example, the deposition of BIFs associated with fine-grained

turbidites from the upper parts of the Chitradurga Group and the BIFs associated with

shallow-platformal/shelf associations from the lower parts of the Chitradurga Group or

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siliciclastic shelf association of the Bailadila Group are likely to be controlled by

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different processes. The BIFs in these successions also bear significance in understanding

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of tectonic and/or eustatic controls of base level changes (e.g., Manikyamba, 1999) since

these intervals mark in general periods of very low detritus supply/dilution (condensed
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sequences) and/or variation in the tectonically controlled inputs of

volcanics/volcaniclastics.
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7. Conclusions
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Archean cratonic nucleii of peninsular India host a spectrum of BIF deposits from
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Paleoarchean to Neoarchean ages. The BIFs compositionally include wide variants from
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oxide facies to carbonate and sulphide facies and alumina rich shaly to silica rich cherty
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varieties. The BIFs in association with bimodal volcanics of primarily arc-related setting

represents Algoma type deposits from active margins. Deposits in association with
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carbonates and arenites on the other hand from mostly Meso-Neoarchean ages record

expansion of iron formation depositional environment to shallower shelf settings. The

stratigraphic transition from shaly iron formation to alumina poor and cherty iron

formations has been explained in terms of cycles of sea-level changes. Major and Trace

element compositions are comparable to PAAS or Superior-type BIFs with variation in

terms of Al, Zr, Rb, Ti between shaly and other varieties presumably due to the degree of
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dilution from continental detritus. REE-patterns across ages reveal positive Eu-anomaly

suggesting predominant hydrothermal source for these iron formations. Ce-anomaly vs

age plot shows wide range of variation. The presence of putative cyanophycean

microbiota and manganese mineralization in association with carbonate warrants further

attention with regard to much debated early oceanic/atmospheric oxygenation. The

Archean BIFs from peninsular India provide opportunity to address the issues relating to

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the origin of the BIFs, explanation for the banded structure and implications for tectonic

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and eustatic controls on the development of the host succession.

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Acknowledgements: Author acknowledges research grant from the Faculty Research

and Professional Development Fund (FRPDF), Presidency University and DST Indo-
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Brazil (INT/Brazil/P-09/2013) project grant. Laboratory support received from DST-

FIST and UGC-CAS Facility at the Geology Department, Presidency University.

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Constructive reviews from Andrey Bekker and two anonymous reviewers have greatly
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improved the manuscript. The author thankfully acknowledges the help extended by
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Saheli De during the preparation of the Ms.

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Table 1. Outline of the major Archean-Proterozoic stratigraphic

successions of four cratonic nucleii of the Indian craton. Major BIF-bearing
intervals are in bold font. Brief lithological description of BIF-bearing
successions is included in text.
Singhbhum Craton Dharwar Craton Bastar Bundelkhand
(modified after Saha, 1994; Ages (after Chadwick et al. 1981, 2000, Harinadhababu et al., Craton Craton
from: Basu et al. 2008; 1981, Shesadri et al., 1981; Arora eta al., 1995; (modified after (after Singh and
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008b,c; Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2010; review in
Ramakrishnan, Slabunov 2015; and
Tait et al., 2011; Mazumdar et al., Jayananda et al., 2018; for Proterozoic correlations
1990; Roy et al., U-Pb age data from
2012; Mukhopadhyay et al., Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006; Basu and Bickford, 2014;)
2001; Acharyya, Mondal et al., 2002;
2014b; Nelson et al., 2014; Ghosh
2003; and U-Pb Kaur et al., 2016;
et al., 2015; Olierook et al., 2019; age data from Saha et al., 2016 for
Hadean zircon U-Pb age data from
Rajesh et al., 2009; Proterozoic
Chaudhuri et al., 2018; for
Mukhopadhyay et correlations Basu

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Mesoproterozoic correlation
al. 2014a;for and Bickford, 2014)
Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006)
Proterozoic
corelations; Basu
and Bickford, 2014)

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Kolhan Group Kurnool-Bhima- Indravati Group-
Badami Group Chattisgarh Vindhyan
Mesoproterozoi Supergroup- Supergroup

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c -------Unconformity---- Abujhmar (opening at ca.
Kaladgi Group/ Group, Sausar 1.63 Ga)
Cuddapah Supergroup (opening at ca. 1.9 Ga) metasedimentarie ---Unconformity---
s and equivalents Bijawar Group
in the Central and equivalents
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Indian Tectonic
Zone (CITZ) Yonger Granite
DalmaVolcanic ------- (2.49 Ga)
s (>1.6 Ga?) Unconformity----
Paleoproterozoi Dhalbhum Dongargarh
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c Formation Granite-
Chaibasa Western Dharwar craton Eastern Dongargarh- Girar
Neoarchean Formation Chitradurga- Kudremukh Dharwar Kotri Supergroup Metasedimentarie
(>1.8 Ga) Bababudan Area Area (Western Craton Sonakhan s (Southern
Chitradurga Ghats): (Central Greenstone Belt- Bundelkhan
Dhanjori Chitradurga Block) Bailadila Group Greenstone Belt)
Formation
Group: (Kailashnagar Mouranipur-
Sandur
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(2.7 Ga to Hiriyur Group: Iron Formation Babina

2.1 Ga) Formation Ranibennur Schist / Bose Iron Greenstone Belts
Ingaldhal Formation Belt:
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Formation) (Central
Tamperkola Formation Medur Vibhutigudd Bundelkhand
Granite-Pal Vanivilas Formation a Formation --Unconformity-- Greentone Belt)
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Lahara Gniess Formation Joldhal Taleru Bengpal Group (Neoarchean after

Bababudan Formation Formation Singh and
Jhandimatti Donimalai
Group: Slabunov 2015,
Formation Formation
Jagar alternatively,
Bababudan
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Formation Ramanmala Paleoarchean after

Mulaingiri Group: Formation Singh et al., 2019)
Formation Narsiparvat Deogiri
Santavera Formation Formation
Formation Kodachadri (with
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Allampura Formation manganese

Formation Kudremukh Oxide-
Kalasapura Formation phyllite)
Formation Walkunje Yeshwant
---- Formations Nagar
Unconformity--- --- Formation
Keonjhar- - Unconformity- Bhoopalpatnam-
Mesoarchean Mahagiri- - Karimnagar
Mankaharchua Granulites
Quartzite-
Phuljhari
Formation-
Achu Sukma
Formation Supracrustals (?)
(yongest (with
detrital zircon metamorphosed
~3.0 Ga/2.9 BIFs at places)
Ga)
----
Unconformity--- TTG Gneiss-
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- Granite (3.58 Ga)

Singhbhum Penisular Gneiss
Granite-Phase Sargur Group
Paleoarchean III & II (ca. 3.1
Ga to 3.3 Ga) TTG Gniess
Western IOG (~3.5 Ga)
(~3.4 Ga)
Older
Metamorphic
Tonalite Gneiss
(OMTG),
Singhbhum
Granite Phase I
(3.44 Ga)
Eastern
IOG(?),

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Southern IOG
(3.51 Ga),
Older
Metamorphic
Group

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Hadean-Eoarchean >3.6 Ga
to 4.2 Ga Zircons

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Table 2. Summary interpretation of the tectonic implications for the BIFs in different
lithological associations from the Archean cratons of peninsular India (discussion and
references are included in the text)
Lithologic associations & tectonic implications
Bimodal Subaerial- Graywacke-shale- Mafic-felsic Shelf siliciclastic
volcanics- to- volcanics/volcanicla volcanics- association:
ultramafics – subaqueous stic association: platformal Passive margin
bedded chert mafic Island-/continetal carbonate cratonic
association: volcanics- arc-forearc basins (manganese basin
Age
mafic lava plain fluvial-to- (continental margin) mineralizatio
(MOR/plume/ar shallow n)-siliciclastic

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c)1, marine association:
suprasubduction siliciclastics early rift stage
zone -slab roll : Divergent to arc-back
back2 basin from arc spreading

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rift stage to
extension

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stage
Dharwar craton: Dharwar Bastar craton:
Chitradurga, craton: Bailadila Group
Shimoga belts Chitradurg Bundelkhand
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equivalents in a, craton:
Goa, HKH schist Shimoga Girar
Neoarchea belts: Hiriyur Schist metasedimentar
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n Formation, Belts, Goa ies

Dharwar Ranibennur and
craton: Formation, and Sandur
Bababudan equivalents in Schist
Group: Eastern Dharwar Belts:
D

craton. Vanivilas
Kodach Bundelkhand Formation,
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adri craton: Babina- Joldhal

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Formati Mouranipur Formation,

on Bicholim
Mulaingir Formation,
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i Deogiri-
Formati Donimalai
on Formation
s
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Mesoarche
an
Bastar Craton:
BIFs in Sukma
supracrustals
with arenite-
calcsilicate (?)
Dharwar Singhbhum
Paleoarche craton: craton:
an Sargur Group Western
1
IOG
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Singhbhum
craton:
Southern
IOG,
Eastern IOG
(?)2

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List of Figures

Fig. 1. Schematic map of the distribution of cratonic nucleii of India illustrating the

distribution of major Archean BIF-bearing successions. Also note that Singhbhum,

Bastar and Dharwar cratons host the major BIF-hosted high-grade iron ore deposits

(modified after Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008a).

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Fig. 2. Simplified geological map illustrating the distribution of the Iron Ore Group

(IOG) in the Singhbhum Craton (modified after Saha, 1994). Note the distribution of BIF

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units in the host Western, Eastern and Southern IOG successions. Mesoarchean-

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Paleoprterozoic supracrustal successions: K-Keonjhar Quartzite, M-Mahagiri

Quartzite, D-Dhanjori Formation, T-Tikra Quartzite.

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Fig. 3. Generalized geological map of the Dharwar craton showing the distribution of the
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BIF-bearing Archean greenstone successions (modified after Swami Nath et al., 1976;

Jayananda et al., 2018) .

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Fig. 4. Generalized geological map of the Bastar craton, central India (modified after
E
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Roy et al., 2001). Note the distribution of the BIF-bearing Bailadila Group

Fig. 5 Generalized geological map of the Bundelkhand craton (after Singh and Slabunov
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2016). Not the distribution of BIF bearing Mouranipur-Babina and Girar schist belts.
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Fig. 6. Spider diagram for the major element compositions of BIFs (average composition

of different deposits calculated from published data, source of data given in the legend)

from different deposits normalized with respect to PAAS and Average of Superior-type

BIF (compilation after McLung, 2006 in Gutzmer et al., 2008). A. & B. Paleoarchean,

C& D. Meso-Neoarchean, and E & F. Neoarchean.

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Fig. 7. Spider diagram for the trace element compositions of BIFs (average composition

of different deposits calculated from published data, source of data given in the legend)

from different deposits normalized with respect to PAAS and Average of Superior-type

BIF (compilation after McLung, 2006). A. & B. Paleoarchean, C& D. Meso-Neoarchean,

and E & F. Neoarchean.

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Fig. 8. Spider diagram for the REE compositions of BIFs (average composition of

different deposits calculated from published data, source of data given in the legend)

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from different deposits normalized with respect to PAAS and Average of Superior-type

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BIF (compilation after McLung, 2006). A. & B. Paleoarchean, C& D. Meso-Neoarchean,

and E & F. Neoarchean.

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Fig. 9. Eu- and Ce-anomaly variation with age (in Ga) of the deposits (average
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composition of different deposits calculated from published data, source of data given in

the legend). A. Eu-anomaly variation across ages. Note narrow range of variation in
D

Paleo-Mesoarchean deposits compared to low to high values of anomaly in Neoarchean

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deposits. The wide range of variation is likely to suggest inputs from sources other than
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hydrothermal vents possibly with expansion of BIF-deposition in the shallower platform

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for younger deposits. B. Ce-anomaly across ages also shows wide variation within

similar age deposits. Variation is maximum for younger deposits. Shaded fields are from
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Bekker et al. (2010).

Figure 1
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Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9