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STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE

GROUP, KASIA MINE AREA, SINGHBHUM CRATON, INDIA

Article · December 2020

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162 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR
Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India ISSN 0552-9360
Volume 65(2), December 31, 2020: 162-177

STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE

GROUP, KASIA MINE AREA, SINGHBHUM CRATON, INDIA

YOGMAYA SHUKLA1*, MUKUND SHARMA1, A. H. ANSARI1 and S. KUMAR2

1
BIRBAL SAHNI INSTITUTE OF PALAEOSCIENCES, 53 UNIVERSITY ROAD, LUCKNOW-226007, INDIA
2
M-1/68, ALIGANJ, LUCKNOW-226024, INDIA
*
Corresponding author e-mail: yogmayashukla@bsip.res.in
ABSTRACT
Morphological, petrological and isotopoic studies are conducted on the stromatolitic structures recorded from the Kasia mines of Barbil area, a part of
the Mesoarchaean sedimentary succession of the Iron Ore Group (IOG) of the Singhbhum Craton (~3500 Ma). Recognized morphotypes include: stratiform
stromatolite, tiny cumulate stromatolite, domical stromatolite, pseudo-columnar stromatolite and columnar stromatolites. The stromatolitic structures were
chiefly made up of dolomite which is at places replaced by silica. Microbial influence in building of these stromatolitic structures is strengthened by the
occurrence of relatively high TOC concentration (0.30 to 1.50 weight% with mean as) compared to TOC concentration recorded in the Archaean rocks (< 1
weight%). The organic carbon isotope signatures (-39.4 to -28.0 ‰ vs PDB) documented in the spatially distinct layers are unique to anaerobic photosynthetic
bacteria and methanogen-methanotrophs. Thus, these stromatolitic structures can be termed as representing one of the Earth’s earliest ecosystems.

Keywords: Archaean, Stromatolite, Singhbhum Craton, Biosphere, Kasia, India.

INTRODUCTION Archaean Singhbhum Craton hosts one of the oldest crustal

New evidence of early life forms, found in the Precambrian
successions, is always considered a significant discovery and
draws attention of the global scientific community. The oldest
zircon grains, surviving the vagaries of the billions of years,
recorded from the Jack Hill ranges in Australia (Valley et al.,
2014), indicate that earth was comparatively cooler by 4.3 Ga
and allowed the weathering process to set in on the earth and
might have also allowed biotic activity to initiate. Therefore,
Palaeoarchaean and Mesoarchaean successions are main
areas of investigations for early life signatures. However, any
evidence found in the Archaean successions is always viewed
with scepticisms and often debated on several counts, i.e.
biogenicity, syngenicity, level of metamorphisms and structural
deformations (Buick et al., 1981; Lowe, 1994; Grotzinger and
Rothman, 1996; Brasier et al., 2002, 2015; Garcia-Ruiz et al.,
2003; Awramik and Grey, 2005; Nutman et al., 2016; Knoll et
al., 2016; Allwood et al., 2018). It is also true that each new
discovery from the Archaean sediments is important as it
stretches the antiquity of life further deep in time and bridge the
gap in our knowledge about the evolution of early biosphere,
atmosphere and to a certain extent the lithosphere on the Earth
(Schopf and Klein, 1992; Schopf, 2006, Schopf et al., 2007;
Knoll et al., 2016).
Wide spread Precambrian exposures of India have
continuously been investigated for the existence of older
rocks and new evidence of early life forms (Maithy and
Avasthy, 1982; Naqvi et al., 1987, Venkatachala et al., 1990;
Maithy et al., 2000; Sharma and Shukla, 2004; Sharma, 2009;
Sharma et al., 2012; 2016). Among the five distinct cratons
of India, the Singhbhum Craton in the eastern part of the
country is well known for economic mineral deposits of iron
and manganese ores (Banerjee, 1977) and it is extensively
studied to understand the lithospheric evolution (Saha, 1994).
Recently, laser ablation ICP-MS, U-Pb systematic of zircon
grains, recovered from this region, has indicated that the
rocks present on the planet earth (Chaudhuri et al., 2018; Miller
et al., 2018). Although a large extent of the Singhbhum Craton
is metamorphosed making it unsuitable for palaeobiological
studies, yet a few pockets of sedimentary successions which
escaped the metamorphisms or less metamorphosed are suitable
for palaeobiological investigations (Grant et al., 1980, Avasthy,
1980; Maithy et al., 2000). The study of Palaeo-Mesoarchaean
sedimentary successions exposed in the Kasia Mines, Barbil
area, Odisha has yielded stromatolitic structures that are
preserved in the dolostones (Maithy et al., 2000). The present
study highlights the occurrence of varied morphotypes in the
microbial carbonate facies of the Iron Ore Group (IOG). The
main plausible stromatolitic morpho-types are flat laminated
structures (stratiform stromatolite), tiny cumulate stromatolite,
domical stromatolite, pseudocolumnar stromatolite, columnar
stromatolite and undulatory laminated structures. Detailed
morphological observations and isotopic organic carbon values
for the stromatolite bearing carbonates are discussed to establish
the biogenicity of Kasia stromatolites. These lithified product of
microbial communities represent the most ancient, widespread
ecosystems known in the Indian Archaean successions.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND AGE
Regional Geology
Stromatolite hosting lensoid or pod shaped dolomite
bodies are part of the Iron Ore Group (IOG) supracrustal rocks
of the Singhbhum Granite Complex which is one of the three
units of the Singhbhum Protocontinent (SP) (Fig. 1.1). SP
lies in the eastern part of India comprising three lithotectonic
blocks: the Singhbhum Granite Complex (SGC) in the south,
the Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex (CGC) in the north and
the North Singhbhum Fold Belt (NSFB) in the middle (Saha,
1994; Saha et al., 1988; Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012; Roy and
Purohit, 2018). The SGC, also known as the Singhbhum Craton
 STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON
Fig. 1. Distribution pattern of different lithotectonic units of Singhbhum
Protocontinent. Fig. 1.1. Generalized geological sketch showing distribution
of major lithotectonic units of the Singhbhum Protocontinent (redrawn
after Roy and Purohit, 2018); Fig.1 2. Generalized geological map of the
Singhbhum Protocontinent showing distribution of different lithotectonic
units (redrawn after Roy and Purohit, 2018). Star denotes the position of
study area.
(SBC)/Singhbhum-Odisha Craton/Singhbhum Greenstone-
Granite Terrain, provides information about the existence of the
earliest sialic crust forming the basement, over which the oldest
supracrustals were deposited (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Sharma,
2009; Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012). The Archaean rocks of
the Protocontinent outcrop over a large area in Jharkhand,
Chhattishgarh, Odisha and West Bengal states of India (Sharma,
2009; Roy and Purohit, 2018).
The supracrustal rocks of the Singhbhum Craton are
subdivided into different litho-units namely, the Older
Metamorphic Group (OMG), the Older Metamorphic Tonalite
Gneisses (OMTG), the Singhbhum Granite (SG), and the Iron
Ore Group (IOG) in stratigraphic order (Saha et al., 1988)
(Fig. 1.2). The outcrops of OMG and OMTG are irregularly
distributed as enclaves within the Singhbhum granitoids.
The Iron Ore Group, hosting a large-scale iron deposits, is
broadly divided into older and younger units, although both are
greenstone-gneissic sequences having similar lithologies, but
yielding different geochronological ages (Eriksson et al., 2006;
163
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the Singhbhum Craton succession (redrawn
after Meert and Pandit, 2015). Stromatolite bearing succession is a part of
Younger Iron Ore Group.
Mondal et al., 2007; Meert and Pandit, 2015). A number of older
IOG in southern sequences are comprised of clastic sedimentary
rocks, deposited in shallow or shelf marine setting along with
greenstone and banded iron formations (Eriksson et al., 2006)
with syn-depositional volcanic rocks that together suggest large
scale rifting (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008). The Iron Ore Group
(IOG) and the OMG and OMTG have been considered co-
genetic and the oldest units of the sequence (Acharyya et al.,
2010; Meert and Pandit, 2015) (Fig. 2). In spite of the extensive
studies of this cratonic region, due to the scattered nature of the
outcrops, the geological and tectono-stratigraphic understanding
and lithostratigraphic order and relationship among the various
litho-units of this Archaean crustal block is unclear and highly
164 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR
debatable (Dunn, 1929, 1940; Dunn and Dey, 1942; Saha
et al., 1988; Saha, 1994; Mahadevan, 2002; Ramakrishnan
and Vaidyanadhan, 2008; Sarkar and Gupta, 2012; Roy and
Bhattacharya, 2012; Roy and Purohit, 2018).
Nature of the basement, over which the supracrustal rocks of
IOG deposited, has not yet been well established. Based on the
field relationship, it is, however, believed that IOG basins were
formed after the closing (cratonization) of Older Metamorphic
Group (Roy and Purohit, 2018). The metasedimentary rocks
constituting the IOG include conglomerate, sandstone,
quartzites, phyllites, Banded Haematite Quartzite (BHQ),
Banded Haematite Jasper (BHJ), mafic volcanic flows/tuff,
limestone/dolostone, calc-schists, silicified shales and cherts.
The basal part of the IOG is marked by conglomerate and
sandstone which occasionally varies to an arkose with coarse
and abundant fragments of feldspar. Often thin bands of shales
are also noted in this unit. Various lithologies of the IOG in
South Singhbhum are remarkable for complete lack of tectonic
disturbance, show a regular dip and strike and varied degree
of metamorphism (Dunn, 1929). Small lenticular bodies of
limestone/dolostone are often found interbedded with shales.
Such lenticular bodies are also noted in the phyllites and mica-
schists which immediately underlie the volcanic flows.
The IOG consisting of above mentioned metasedimentary
and metavolcanic rocks, occur in the western, eastern and
southern flanks of the Singhbhum Granite Complex. The BHQ
and BHJ of the Iron Ore Group unit of the SGC are exposed
in three different basins: the western Jamada-Koira Basin, the
eastern Gorumahisani-Badampahar Basin and the southern
Daitari-Palalahara Basin (Mahadevan, 2002; Roy and Purohit,
2018). Our studies are confined to Jamada-Koira Basin in the
Noamundi-Joda areas of Odisha where stromatolites are found
in the lensoid dolostone bodies outcropping in Kasia mine
in Barbil locality. These dolostone lensoid bodies are 30-35
meters wide in lateral extent. Stromatolitic dolostones are also
known from other localities, i.e. Belkundi, Noamundi, Nalda,
Thakuranipahar, Bolani, Joda and Banspani areas (Avasthy,
1980; Grant et al., 1980; Sarkar, 1984, 1989). Besides, outcrops
of similar dolostone bodies in other areas were also demarcated
on the map prepared by Dunn (1929) where stromatolitic
occurrences could be searched. The detailed litholog of the
Kasia mines was presented by Maithy et al. (2000) is given
in Fig. 3.1. We have followed the lithostratigraphic scheme
proposed by Saha et al. (1988) and Roy and Bhattacharya
(2012) (Table 1).
Geochronology
In spite of a plethora of geochronological data, the volcano-
sedimentary supracrustal rocks of the Singhbhum Granitic
Complex are poorly co-relatable. OMG and the OMTG rocks
were believed to have deposited during 3500-3200 Ma (Saha,
1994; Misra et al., 1999; Misra, 2006; Mondal et al., 2006;
Acharyya et al., 2010). Ages determined on detrital and
xenocrystic zircons from both the groups range between 3800-
3500 Ma (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Saha, 1994; Misra et al.,
1999).
Lithostratigraphically IOG, overlying OMG and OMTG,
is divided into Older and Younger units having different ages
(Eriksson et al., 2006; Mondal et al., 2007; Meert and Pandit,
2015). Acharyya et al. (2010) argued that the OMG and OMTG
are metamorphosed equivalents to the rocks in the Older IOG, as
the older end of the age range in the OMG and OMTG overlap
with those in the lower-grade rocks of the IOG. The Older IOG
was deposited, before the intrusion of the Singhbhum Granite,
Table 1. Generalized lithostratigraphic succession of Singhbhum Craton
(after Saha et al., 1988; Roy and Bhattacharya, 2012).
Singhbhum Granite (SBG-B) Dhanjori Group and Simlipal
(Phase-III) Volcanics, granitoid plutons
Mafic lava, tuff, acid volcanics, Iron Ore Group
tuffaceoius shale, banded (including Darjing Group and
hematite jasper and banded Kunjer Group)
hematite quartzite with iron ores,
ferruginous chert, local dolomite
and quartzitic sandstone
Singhbhum Granite (SBG-A) Crust building granitic activities
(Phase I & II)
Folding and Metamorphism of Older Metamorphic Group
OMG and OMTG Formation of early sialic crust
Older Metamorphic Tonalite-
Gneiss (OMTG)
Older Metamorphic Group (OMG)
(Pelitic schist, quartzite, para-
amphibolite, ortho-amphibolite)
between 3300 and 3100 Ma. The crystallization age confirms
that the IOG formed just prior to the emplacement of Singhbhum
Granite (SGB-A/Phase-I). Another geochronological study of the
dacitic lava occurring in the IOG yielded an age of 3506 ± 2.3 Ma
(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008). A more robust geochronological
data is required to decipher the exact relationship between the
Younger IOG and other volcano sedimentary sequences in the
Singhbhum Craton.
Recently, two independent studies (Chaudhuri et al., 2018;
Miller et al., 2018) suggested that the Archaean Singhbhum
Granitic Complex/ Singhbhum Craton of Eastern India contain
the oldest crust in the country. The combined U-Pb SHRIMP
and Lu-Hf isotopic data revealed the ~4240 and ~4030 Ma
xenocrystic zircons from the ~3400 Ma TTG of the Older
Metamorphic Tonalitic Gneisses (OMTG) (Chaudhuri et al.,
2018). Miller et al. (2018) conducted U-Pb and Lu-Hf analyses
of detrital zircons recovered from the modern river sediments
and reported the first occurrence of a Hadean zircon of ~4000
Ma. These data validate the contention that the Singhbhum
Craton is the oldest on the Indian subcontinent (Basu et al.,
1981; Saha et al., 2004). We, therefore, are inclined to place
the stromatolite containing dolostone lensoid bodies as a part of
younger IOG having age of 3506 ± 2.3 Ma. These stromatolites,
possibly one of the oldest in the world, occurring in the Palaeo-
Mesoarchaean Singhbhum Craton are important signature of
early biogenic activity.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Palaeobiological data available from the Indian Archaean
succession are meagre. Stromatolites were documented and
preliminary morphological accounts were presented from Iron
Ore Formation since 1980 (Grant et al., 1980; Avasthy 1980;
Maithy et al., 2000). Grant et al. (1980) recorded stromatolites
from the Singhbhum Craton and reported four types of
stromatolitic occurrences confined to chert and dolostone
lithologies within the mixed facies of the Koira Group (Iron Ore
Formation). Avasthy (1980) documented stromatolites of various
dimensions from Iron Ore Formation exposed in Banspani area
in Bonai-Keonjhar District Odisha. Maithy and Avasthi (1982)
 STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON 165

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic columns of the succession exposed in the Kasia Mine. Fig. 3.1. Stratigraphic column of ~90 meters thick succession of stromatolite
bearing dolostone of the Kasia Formation noted in operational Kasia mine at Barbil locality (after Maithy et al., 2000); Fig. 3.2. Lithostratigraphic column
of stromatolites bearing section exposed in Kasia mine at Barbil locality prepared during revisit to this area in 2017 representing only upper 20 meters of the
section as shown in Fig. 3.1.

and Maithy et al. (2000) documented stromatolites as well as
biological remains present in the Iron Ore Formation. But in
none of these studies, biogenicity-a mandatory aspect of the
biological remains found in the Archaean successions- was
discussed as many abiogenic features with similar morphologies
are shown to occur in different parts of the world (Grotzinger
and Rothman, 1996; Garcia-Ruiz et al., 2003). Morphology is
of critical importance to establish biogenicity of stromatolitic
structures but when it is used in proper geological context.
Kumar et al. (2001) presented the isotopic values of the
stromatolite bearing carbonate units which supported the shallow
marine origin of the carbonate succession. In the present paper
stromatolites are described in detail from the Iron Ore Formation
(Kasia Formation sensu Maithy et al., 2000). The other records
of Archaean stromatolites and microfossils reported from India
are from Dharwar Supergroup, Karnataka (Naqvi et al., 1987;
Venkatachala et al., 1986, 1990; Srinivasan et al., 1989; Sharma
and Shukla, 2004).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
An abandoned iron and dolostone Kasia mine (N-22°
03’12.3”; E- 85° 21’56.8”) (Fig. 4) at Barbil, Keonjhar district
of Odisha was selected for the present study. Limited exposures
and inaccessibility of the sections in the mining areas were big
constraints. The upper reaches of the outcrop, show distinct
folding and faulting denoted by severe crushing of the rocks in
the area. Secondary silicification is also observed. Earlier Maithy
et al. (2000) recorded ~90 meters section exposed in the Kasia
mine. Litholog prepared by them is reproduced here (Fig. 3.1).
The Kasia was an open cast mine which was later abandoned and
the depression was filled with overburden and scree material from
the adjoining areas. During field excursion in December 2017,
we could examine only upper 20 meters of the exposed section
and a detailed litholog was prepared for the exposed section (Fig.
3.2). Stromatolite bearing horizons were sampled for detailed
investigation. Serial sections were prepared for ascertaining
166 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR
Fig. 4. Location map of the Kasia mines at Barbil locality, Keonjhar District,
Odisha (redrawn after Grant et al., 1980).
morphological characteristics of stromatolites. Polished thin
sections were prepared for staining and petrological studies.
Standard thin section staining method was adopted (Dickson,
1965) by which only dolomite could be identified. Petrological
studies were conducted on Nikon Petrological Microscope
available in the Precambrian Palaeobiology Laboratorty at BSIP.
Microstructure and microfabric observations were made on the
low power stereoscopic microscope and photo-documentation
was made on the digital camera attached with the microscope.
Geochemical studies (δ13Corg and TOC analyses) were
performed on the stromatolite bearing dolostone. The pre-
processing and analyses work were done at BSIP Stable Isotope
Laboratory. Some of the old collections from this area, available
in the BSIP repository, are also investigated. Dentist drill was
used for recovery of carbonate material from the spatially
distributed black colour homogenous, undisturbed layers of the
stromatolites for the bulk δ13Corg and TOC analysis. Sampled
areas are marked 1-17 on a slab of a stromatolite (Fig. 5). The
bulk powdered rock samples were then treated with 5% HCL
solution to remove carbonates fraction, rinsed with milli-Q water,
and oven-dried at ~ 50ºC. Each sample was weighed and packed
into tin capsules. Sample filled tin capsules were introduced into
the pre-filled and conditioned reactor of Elemental Analyzer
(Flash EA 2000 HT) through an auto sampler. The CO2 gas
produced through the combustion moved into the Continuous
Flow Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (CFIRMS, MAT 253)
coupled with Con-Flow IV interface for isotopic analysis.
Repeat measurements were done at regular intervals to check the
reproducibility. IAEA CH3 was used to calibrate the reference
gas and carbon isotopic data has been reported against VPDB.
International standards (CH3 and CH6) as well as internal
standards (Sulfanilamide) were run to check the accuracy for the
CO2 measurements with an external precision of ± 0.1‰. Total
organic carbon (TOC) content was measured from the peak area
of integrated mass/charge ratio (m/z) for CO2 as 44, 45 and 46
signals in the CFIRMS, respectively (Jensen, 1991). Previously,
Kumar et al. (2001) measured isotopic values of the carbonate
carbon of the Kasia mine. Hand specimens of stromatolites,
petrographic thin sections, and polished slabs are deposited in
the Museum of Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP)
under statement no. BSIP-1533.
Fig. 5. Position of the sampling sites on the stromatolitic slab for obtaining
powder for organic carbon isotopic studies. Number corresponds to the
sample no. given in Table-2 with TOC and δ¹³C-org values.
KASIA STROMATOLITES
Stromatolites described in detail are reported from the
same Kasia mine of Barbil locality, Keonjhar district, Odisha
state, India from where Maithy et al. (2000) earlier reported
the occurrence of stromatolites. Dolostone beds outcropping in
Kasia mine host these stromatolites. Stromatolites bearing upper
20-meter succession exposed and accessible in the mine were
measured and litholog prepared (Fig. 3.2). From the base to the
top, prominent beds of unweathered laminites and stromatolites
are sampled for detailed investigation and microfossil studies.
In this section, about 1cm thick laminites to about ~ 50 cm thick
massive dolostone beds alternate, followed by ~ 35 cm fine
laminated dolostone which are overlain by large to small domal
stromatolites. Inter stromatolitic beds are, at places, characterized
by the presence of ~ 10 cm thick vuggy dolostones (Fig. 7, box
5). A few tens of cm thick siliceous beds, showing fine crinkly
laminated structures, are also recorded. Top-most part of the
succession is overlain by fine laminated dolostone and shales,
domal stromatolites and haematite. In longitudinal cross section
the stromatolites of Kasia show distinct morphological patterns
comparable with various types of Proterozoic stromatolites (Fig.
6) and (Fig. 7, box 1-5). Generally, the laminae profiles are
flat and at some places gently undulating. Lamination extends
continuously from one end to the other with slight changes in
thickness. No lithological variations are observed throughout
these laminations.
Morphological observations
Four broad morpho-types of stromatolites have been
identified: Flat laminated stromatolites (stratiform stromatolites);
tiny cumulate stromatolites; domal stromatolites and columnar
stromatolites (Figs. 6.1-6.6).
Flat laminated stromatolites (Stratiform stromatolites)-
Stratiform stromatolites, observed in the outcropping lower
beds of dolostone succession at Kasia locality, are constituted of
sub-millimetre-scale laminites (Fig. 7 box 1). The lamina profile
is flat and at some places gently convex. Alternating light and
darker layers provide these stromatolites a laminated appearance.
 STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON 167

Table 2. TOC and δ13C-org composition of the powdered samples from surrounded by a common layer over columns except at the base.
different layers of the Kasia Stromatolite. Encapsulating layers show several degrees of curvatures. These
Serial Sample TOC δ13C-org tiny cumulate stromatolites are possibly formed by trapping or
No. Identity (Weight %) (‰ VPDB) binding activity of bacterial or other bacterial forms.
1 1 0.48 -39.4
2 2 0.52 -32.8 Domal and pseudo-columnar stromatolites-Continuous to
3 3 0.44 -32.9 intermittent, prominent domical features, noted in the cross-
4 4 --- --- sections of dolostone beds, are considered here as ‘domal
5 5 0.30 -32.4 stromatolites’ (Figs. 8.1, 8.2, upper part). These stromatolites
6 6 0.43 -34.0 are non-branching, closely spaced, linked and are millimetric
7 7 1.24 -28.0 in height. Zones of domal stromatolites are invariably overlain
8 A-7A 1.37 -28.3 by non-encrusting pseudo-columnar stromatolites (Fig. 7, box
9 A-7B 0.51 -31.7 3) having no branching and linked with contiguous spacing.
10 A-7C 0.92 -30.0 In some cases, lateral continuity of domes is conspicuously
11 A-7D 0.60 -33.5 flat. Representative domal stromatolites show well-developed
12 A-8 1.50 -30.3 lamination that defines an upward-widening morphology during
13 A-9 0.86 -32.3 growth (Fig. 8.2). Stromatolites consist of alternating light and
14 A-10 0.82 -31.5 dark coloured laminae of uniform thickness and at some places
15 A-11 1.09 -30.5 gently convex. The laminae pattern show variation from dark
16 A-12 0.99 -30.1 coloured compact laminae to light coloured granular diffused
17 A-13 0.69 -34.2 laminae that are constituted of dolomite, opaque mineral
18 A-14 0.68 -33.5 possibly magnetite and possibly microbial remains respectively,
19 A-15 0.74 -30.7 although microfossil or filamentous moulds are not observed.
20 A-16 0.48 -32.4
Their small size corresponds to the lower level of microbial
21 A-17 0.63 -32.7
activity at the time of their formation. Thick dark laminae cover
the preceding domical stromatolitic layers. The lamination
extends continuously from one side of the column to the other.
Most of the pseudo-columns are overlapping with slight changes
From base to top, laminations show heavy to loosely fenestrate in thickness across the column or inclined towards one side. The
calcified layers. These aligned fenestrae are most likely after lithology is consistent. In the lower layers, accretion is parallel
microbial moulds (Fig. 8.3). Under the petrological microscope, but in pseudocolumnar layer, lamination is enveloping. No
light coloured layers are made up of fine grained chert which single reason could be suggested for this tilt in the domal and
must have been after the silicification of carbonate. The darker pseudocolumnar stromatolites; it may be due to disturbances in
layers represent the vestiges of former mats (Fig. 8.4). Layers depositional regime.
of uniform thickness of mineral material (dolomitic rhombs and
opaque mineral possibly pyrite) are succeeded by organically Columnar stromatolite-A few cm long thin and broad un-
mediated, dense heavily calcified layers; thin layers of mineral branched columns are considered as columnar stromatolites.
precipitation (fine lime mud) are overlain by clotted fabric These are also tilted in the same direction as the underlying
which are most likely formed after coccoidal algal or bacterial pseudocolumnar stromatolites (Fig. 7, box 5). Columns are
colonies and followed by fine laminated layers and aligned by constituted of alternating dark and light laminae (granular and
fenestrate fabric (Figs. 8.4-8.7; Figs. 9.1-9.2). Laminated fabric fine grained). The layer is consisting of organic rich sediment,
was possibly developed by periodic and successive precipitation, the columns are of various sizes and shape emanate from the
accretion and calcification of stromatolite forming microbial lower stratiform layer. The columns are naked (without walls)
colonies and mineral deposition. Stratiform stromatolitic layers and have tuberculate to rugate surface. Laminae profiles of these
are followed by cryptocrystalline siliceous matrix. At some columnar forms are convex, crinkled and slightly asymmetric.
places, small pockets of quartz grains are also noted. The dark
Petrological observations
coloured patches are found scattered in the matrix at places.
This layer gradually changes to diffused layer of dark brown At microscopic level, these stromatolites are characterized
lamellae. These patches are interpreted here as rudimentary by a distinct banded microstructure having micro-crenate
organic bio-films. Diffusion may have played role in later laminations. Cryptocrystalline silica, dolomite, opaque minerals
remobilization of the pigment to produce the diffused outlines possibly magnetite/pyrite constitute the alternating light and dark
of the dark laminae. Poor state of preservation of the mat is coloured laminae. These alterations are noted in different types
of stromatolites (Fig. 9.1, 9.2). Fine to course grained sub-hedral
commonly attributed to the homogenizing effect associated with
to euhedral crystals of dolomite are noted in the light coloured
diagenetic crystallization.
laminae. Some opaque euhedral crystals disseminated in the
layers, when examined under the reflected light, show brass
Tiny cumulate stromatolite-Small unbranched columns of coloured metallic lustre and are identified as pyrite. A few other
various sizes and shapes, linked at the base are grouped under opaque crystals with metallic lustre are identified as magnetite;
‘tiny cumulate stromatolites’ (Fig. 7, box 2, Figs. 8.1-8.2, lower whereas some anhedral opaque crystals giving metallic lustre
part). Columns occur individually or in pairs. Unlike the flat under reflected light are of haematite mineral. Dolomite
laminated structures, tiny cumulate stromatolites are composed pseudomorphs and minor amount of quartz, cryptocrystalline
of amorphous to fine grained chert and quartz material, silica matrix are also noted in the light coloured laminae (Figs.
168 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR

9.3-9.5). Precipitated chert and isopachous micrite envelops
different morphological variations in stromatolitic mat structures
indicate the biogenic role in their formation and show the sugary
texture after recrystallization. Selected patches of quartz and
chalcedony are noted as cavity fills (Fig. 9.6). The degree of
lamina inheritance is moderate and synoptic relief is high. Most
of stromatolitic structures are silicified. Microstructures of these
stromatolites characteristically show fine mineral precipitation,
micro laminated zone and aligned fenestrae. This zone shows
lateral continuous zebra fabric similar to the characteristic
Archaean chemical precipitate patterns (Figs. 9.6, 9.7).
TOC and δ¹³C-org. analyses
The only isotopic study of Kasia dolomite before the present
work was performed by Kumar et al. (2001) in which, δ¹³C-carb,
δ¹8O-carb and δ¹³C-org range were -3.6‰ − 0.4‰, -12.1‰ −
-4.4‰ and -35.1‰ − -27.4‰ (PDB) respectively, and concluded
the shallow marine origin of Kasia carbonates. For organic
carbon isotopic analyses, stromatolite was sampled by drilling at
selected 21 places (Fig. 5). In the present study, various laminae
of the Kasia stromatolite were specifically analysed for TOC
and δ¹³C-org. TOC varied from 0.30 to 1.50 weight % and δ¹³C-
org varied from -39.4 to -28.0 ‰ VPDB respectively (Table-2,
Fig. 10). These δ¹³C-org values range closely match with the
δ¹³C-org reported from Kasia dolomite (Kumar et al., 2001) and
with the δ¹³C-org range recorded from least metamorphosed
3.43 Ga Strelley Pool Formation stromatolites (-33.6 to -26.1
‰; Flannery et al., 2018) and 3.46 Ga Apex Chert fossils (-44.1
to -29.8 ‰; Schopf et al., 2018) that have been suggested to
have biological origin.
DISCUSSION
Palaeobiological remains recorded from the Precambrian
(Archaean and Proterozoic Eons) are grouped into three broad
categories: stromatolites, microfossils and biomarkers. Most of
the direct evidence of early life forms (microfossil) is obliterated
due to the age, metamorphism, tectonics, structural deformation
of the sediments and therefore are very rare in rock records. A
line of indirect evidence of early life forms is the stromatolites,
biomarkers, lipids, organic carbon isotopic ratios found in the
Archaean sediments (Schopf et al., 2007; Knoll et al., 2016).
Some of the well preserved Archaean stromatolites recorded from
Isua Supracrustal Belt (ISB) Greenland (3.7 Ga old, Nutman et
al., 2016); Australia (Dresser Formation, Pilbara Craton 3.5-3.2
Ga, Walter et al., 1980; Van Kranendonk, 2011); Africa (3.4 Ga
Hooggenoeg Formation, Witkop Formation, 2.7 Ga Belingwe
Greenstone Belt Hofmann, 2000); and India (>2.6 Ga Dharwar
Craton, Srinivasan et al., 1989), suggest the prevailing biogenic
activity during the deposition of Archaean sediments. In addition
to stromatolites, Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures
(MISS) have also been reported from the Archaean sediments.
Evidence of mat formation within siliciclastic sediments came
from the 3.48 Ga Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia
(Noffke et al., 2013); 3.2 Ga Moodies Group, South Africa
(Noffke et al., 2006) and 2.9 Ga old rocks of the Mozaan Group,
Pongola Supergroup, South Africa (Noffke et al., 2003). As on
date stromatolites from the Greenland (Nutman et al., 2016) and
Dresser Formation geyserites (Djokic et al., 2017) are considered
to be the oldest evidence of activity of life on the earth. Reports
of the Archaean stromatolites are however, often challenged
and debated whether such structures are exclusively biogenic
or instead be the product of abiogenic mechanism (Buick et al.,
1981; Lowe, 1994; Grotzinger and Rothman, 1996; Brasier et
al., 2002, 2006; Hladil, 2005; Knoll et al., 2016; Allwood et
al., 2018). Therefore, morphological, sedimentological and
isotopic constraints are discussed to establish the biogenicity
of structures reported as Kasia stromatolites from the Archaean
Iron Ore Group, Singhbhum Craton, India and justify the place
of Kasia stromatolites among one of the oldest signatures of life.
Morphological and micro-structural constraints
Like many other stromatolites, the Archaean Kasia
stromatolites are also found in the carbonate succession (Figs.
6.1-6.4). These stromatolitic structures are not widely spread in
the dolostone and are found in few pockets of the bed (Fig. 6.2).
While describing Archaean stromatolites, the main concern of
many palaeobiologist, is that, they may not be biogenic at all.
There is a consensus that no single feature or line of evidence
is unambiguous to support the biogenic origin for the Archaean
stromatolites and researchers proposed several criteria to
establish the biogenicity of the stromatolite (Buick et al.,
1981; Walter, 1983; Hofmann et al., 1999), however, a range
of features can be used. Morphology is one of the strongest
indicators of biogenicity in the Archaean fossil stromatolites
(Van Kranendonk, 2011). Although stromatolites have been
defined in many ways, but the presence of sub-mm light-
dark couplets of lamination are unequivocally common to all
definitions and characteristic feature of the microbial sediments
(Hofmann et al., 1999; Allwood et al., 2006). It distinguishes
stromatolite from other microbial carbonate such as dendrolites,
thrombolites and leiolites (Riding, 2011). Buick et al. (1981)
suggested that the stromatolite should exhibit wavy or crinkly
laminae with several orders of curvatures. The wavy-crinkly
laminae are also a feature of microbial mat (Schieber, 1986,
1989). In spite of this common feature, the understanding of the
origin of the lamination pattern in stromatolites remains vague.
Yet, the lamination patterns are most often one of the criterion
put forward for the biogenicity of these stromatolitic structures
in an invariably undisturbed sedimentary regime. This has been
shown in our example also, in the case of very well preserved
domical morphotypes (Fig. 6.2). The domical laminites have

Fig. 6. Field photographs of the stromatolite bearing dolostone unit of the Kasia Formation exposed in the Kasia mine showing characteristic domal, conical
and flat laminated stromatolites. (Pen used as scale is 14 cm long). Fig. 6.1. Fine laminated dolostone unit seen towards the base of the succession shown in
Fig. 3.2; Fig. 6.2. Cross-sectional outcrop view of the stromatolite occurring in selected pockets of the dolostone, white broken lines encircle the small low
amplitude domal stromatolites; Fig. 6.3 Cross sectional outcrop view of coniform stromatolite showing near-isopachous laminations; Fig. 6.4. Cross-sectional
outcrop view of fine scale wrinkly laminations overlain by small bulbous stromatolites; Fig. 6.5. Cross sectional outcrop view of flat laminated stromatolite
showing laminated structures in the lower parts followed by small domal columnar and stromatolites overlain again by laminated structures in chert; Fig. 6.6.
Cross sectional outcrop view of crinkly laminated stromatolites in lower part and overlain by flat laminated stromatolitic mats, both the specimens shown in
6.5 and 6.6 negate the chances of being folded structures as flat laminated structures bound the bulbous or domal stromatolite like features, (coin diameter
is 2.5 cm).
STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON 169
170 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR

Fig. 7. Cross sectional view of stromatolite shows distinct morphological patterns comparable with various types of Proterozoic stromatolites;
Fig. 7.1. Flat laminated structures (Stratiform stromatolites); Fig. 7.2. Tiny cumulate wrinkly laminated stromatolite mat; Fig.7.3. Domal and
pseudo-columnar stromatolites; Fig. 7.4. Columnar stromatolites; Fig. 7.5. Vuggy nature of the dolostone. Scale bar = 1 cm (Specimen no. BSIP-41822).

granular sediment in their laminae indicating the likely presence
of microbial mat that trap and bind grains. These features are
also observed in other Archaean stromatolites (Allwood et
al., 2007). Kasia stromatolites are characterized by irregular-
regular laminations to convex upward laminations forming
pseudocolumnar, columnar, domal or upward widening shapes.
Their columns rise up to a few millimetres to centimetres and
displays variety of morphologies as reported above (Fig. 7). The
profile throughout the sections shows upward oriented structures
and laminae also thicken over crests of flexures (Figs. 8.1-8.2,
lower half of picture). The wavy crinkly laminae of several order
of curvature also indicate trapping, binding or precipitation of
sediments by organism and indicate towards biogenicity of the
structures. It is impossible that certain laminae assume convex
upward shape whereas others on the flanks remained relatively
flat in the absence of any mediating/forming organisms. In
some of the stromatolites fine straight laminations are followed
by domal lamination pattern and such variations in lamination
patterns at different level support the role of biogenesis (Figs.
6.5-6.6). Presence of such features further indicates the role
of microbes in formation of the lamination. The alternative
mechanism for development of domal lamination pattern is the
compression forces generated due to tectonic activity. But such
forces would equally apply on all laminations and would equally
distort the entire section rather than the affecting selective areas.
Microscopic laminations, in addition to the well-defined
macroscopic laminations, are also observed in the Kasia

Fig. 8. Morphological features of Archaean Kasia stromatolites of Iron Ore Group, Singhbhum Craton, India. These stromatolites are present in dolostone
bands as small, low relief mounds. Petrographic thin section observations reveal typical stromatolitic precipitation and accretionary features. Fig. 8.1. General
view of stromatolite cross-section in petrographic thin section, low relief domal and flat fine laminated part of homogenously precipitated and accreted
stromatolite is seen in the lower part (Scale bar=1 mm. BSIP Slide no. BSIP-16533); Fig. 8.2. Lower central part of the stromatolite shown in figure 8.1 is
enlarged to show clotted fabric possibly after coccoidal algal or bacterial colonies. Light coloured portions demonstrate diagenetically altered vugs (Scale
bar=2 mm); Fig. 8.3. Details of lamination from base to top showing heavy to loosely fenestrate calcified layers, aligned fenestrae are conspicuously after
microbial moulds (Scale bar=2 mm BSIP Slide no. 16533); Fig. 8.4. Development of laminated fabric by periodic and successive precipitation, accretion and
calcification of stromatolite forming microbial colonies and mineral deposition. From base to top: layer of uniform recrystallized dolomitic rhombs followed
by organically mediated, dense heavily calcified layer, thin layer of opaque minerals some are pyrite grains overlain by clotted fabric possibly after coccoidal
algal or bacterial colonies and fine laminated layers; followed by aligned fenestrate fabric (Scale bar=2 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16535); Fig. 8.5. General view
of vertical cross section of stromatolite showing overlapping of coarse mineral precipitation layer followed by very fine mud layer deposited possibly under
the quite environment (Scale bar=1 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16534); Fig. 8.6. Vertical cross section of stromatolite portion from a zone, depicting composite
alternating fine and coarse lamination. In the upper part are visible vertically aligned diagenetically altered vugs (Scale bar=2 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16535);
Fig. 8.7. Microstructure of stromatolite divisible into fine mineral precipitated layer and microbial layering with aligned fenestrate fabric (Scale bar=2 mm;
BSIP Slide no. 16535).
STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON 171
172 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR

Fig. 9. Petrographic thin section observations on microstructural aspects of the Kasia stromatolites of Archaean Iron-ore Group, Singhbhum Craton, India.
Diagenetic development of laminated fabric is conspicuous in thin sections observed under transmitted plane and cross polarized light. Fig. 9.1. Note
dolomitic laminae and fine precipitated lime mud alternations. Light coloured organic moulds are present in the dolomite parts. Density of dolomitic rhombs
is higher in the lower part of the band reflecting probably the change in the concentration of magnesium in the depositional mile (Scale bar=2 mm; BSIP
Slide no. 16533); Fig. 9.2. Enlarged view of distribution of band of dolomitic rhombs and fine lime-mud alteration. Light coloured moulds after the organic
matter probably formed by colonial coccoid filamentous forms, (Scale bar=1 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16533); Fig. 9.3. Precipitated finely laminated carbonate
mud and layers of dolomitic rhombs. Thickness of precipitated carbonate mud is uniform whereas dolomitic rhombs layers are variable, probably due to
variable concentration and availability of magnesium in the depositional environment (Scale bar=2 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16533); Fig. 9.4. Enlarged view
of a contact zone of clotted fabric and dolomitic rhomb layer followed by finely precipitated mineral layer (Scale bar=500 µm; BSIP Slide no. 16535);
Fig. 9.5. Distribution of loosely packed dolomitic rhombs and opaque minerals in a layer (Scale bar=200 µm; BSIP Slide no. 16536); Fig. 9.6. Details of
microstructural aspect of microbial stromatolite showing alteration of fine mineral precipitation, microbial laminated zone and aligned fenestrae. A zone of
characteristic of Archaean chemical precipitate showing laterally continuous zebra fabric after relacement (Scale bar=2 mm; BSIP Slide no. 16535); Fig. 9.7.
Enlarged view of microstructure demonstrating alternation of fine-grained carbonate mineral precipitation, fine laminated layers and characteristic Archaean
Zebra precipitates after dolomites (Scale bar=1 mm BSIP Slide no. 16533).
 STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON
Fig. 10. Schematic diagram adopted from Schidlowski (2001) works and
ä¹³C-org data reported in Pearson (2010) and Knoll et al. (2016). The shaded
section represents overlapping range of ä¹³C-org in this study, c-fixing
pathways and microbial clades. (CBB=Calvin Benson-Bashom). Green
Boxed denotes possible contributor in the ä¹³C-org present in this study
whereas red boxes can be excluded as their presence in Archaean were
highly unlikely.
stromatolites. These are characterized by the superposition of
laminae of similar microfabric composition separated by thin
dark laminae. This pattern appears to be similar to repetitive
lamination defined by Monty (1976). The dense and dark
appearance of microbial laminae contrasts with the adjacent
laminae that are more cement rich and lighter in appearance (Figs.
9.1-9.2). The fine-grained, dark carbonate laminae correspond to
the densely pigmented laminae of the microbial mat whereas;
the coarse-grained carbonate laminae correspond to a less
pigmented region (Figs. 9.3-9.5). These laminated patterns are
seen and explained by the examples of modern microbial mat
systems (Cohen, 1989). The differential preservation of the
biofabric is probably the result of biomass present at the site
of deposition. Certain kinds of microbes (mainly filamentous
and coccoidal cyanobacteria and bacteria) have developed
extensive mats in very shallow marine environments, ranging
from very shallow sub-tidal through inter-tidal. These mats
present a dense network of growing microbes exposed to the
surface onto which fine grained carbonate sediment adheres to
the sticky surface. Then the filaments grow upwards (phototactic
movement) among the sediment particles to re-establish the mat.
The result is a laminated fine carbonate deposit. In some cases,
the microbes cause precipitation of carbonate directly on the
surface, which accretes upwards over time.
Role of the microbes in the formation of modern
stromatolites are well established (Snelling and Purdom, 2013)
and comparable forms are found as fossils in the Archaean
successions. In the Archaean, chert deposits are although
extensive yet, unambiguous microfossils are rarely found
preserved in them. In the fossil records, a very few Archaean
stromatolites contain microfossils (Schopf, 2006, Riding, 2011).
26 taxonomic occurrences of (unquestionable?) microfossils
have been documented from six Archaean geological provinces
(Alterman and Schopf, 1995). Like Archaean stromatolites,
nearly all the recorded Archaean microfossils are challenged
(Awramik et al., 1983, 1988; Buick, 1984, 1988, 1990; Schopf
173
and Packer, 1987; Schopf, 1993; Brasier et al., 2002, 2005). A
plethora of carbonaceous morphologies have been described
from the Archaean cherts and interpreted as microbial fossils
(Schopf, 1993). Morphologically these forms were simple,
microscopic and occasionally colonial in nature, represented by
bacteria and possibly cyanobacteria (Schopf and Packer, 1987;
Knoll, 1996; Schopf, 2006; Sharma, 2008; Knoll et al., 2016).
The oldest microfossils found on earth, at present, are recorded
from 3.49 Ga - 3.46 Ga old rocks from the Pilbara Craton, Western
Australia (Sugitani et al., 2009, 2013; Alleon et al., 2018) and
3.4 Ga old rocks from the Barberton region, South Africa
(Walsh and Lowe, 1985). There is an unequivocal evidence of
cyanobacterial activity around 2.5 Ga (GOE) (Schirrmeister
et al., 2015). The evidence of early microbial life in deep-sea
volcanic rocks of 3.2 Ga old (at the temperature near or above
the limit tolerated by life) provides the first fossil evidence in
Precambrian thermal spring system from the Pilbara Craton
of Australia (Rasmussen, 2000). Dodd et al. (2017) described
micrometer scale hematite tubes and filaments from the seafloor
hydrothermal vent related precipitates from Quebec Canada;
while the indirect evidence (based on the elemental ratio) can be
traced back to 2.6 Ga (Watanabe et al., 2000). Chert associated
with the Kasia stromatolites is also found in the Iron Ore Group.
Thin section studies of the chert do not yield any microfossil;
however, earlier studies (Maithy and Avasthy, 1982; Sarkar,
1989; Maithy et al., 2000) documented presence of coccoidal
microfossils. Our re-examination of the slides available in the
BSIP repository shows presence of coccoidal fossils but all the
microfossils are invariably present in the druses and therefore
may not be syngenitic.
Sedimentological constraints
Stromatolite morphology is often depends on two factors
(Noffke and Awramik, 2013): intrinsic (the kind of microbial
mat community involved in the formation of the form
stromatolite) and extrinsic (size and nature of the sediment and
sediment dynamics, such as waves and currents). Precambrian
stromatolites are also used in ascertaining the depositional
environment (Grotzinger and Knoll, 1999). Depending upon
the environmental conditions, the surface geometry of microbial
mat can either be planar or nearly so (these deposits are called
microbial laminites) or take on a variety of complicated
geometrics involving heads or domes of various shapes.
Microbial laminites tend to show less regular lamination. This
feature distinguishes it from non-microbial laminites in thinly
laminated carbonate. Some small irregular cavities are also
observed (Fig. 7.5) which are formed as an escape route for
exchange of gases in response to photosynthesis or respiration
by the microbial community and or on lysis during occasional
drying or shrinkage of the mat. But contrary to the Proterozoic
stromatolites, many of the Archaean stromatolites are considered
to have been formed in the extreme environments/conditions
(Westall et al., 2001; Djokic et al., 2017). Early geobiological
studies proposed that microbial respiration is an important
factor for the formation of dolomite (Vasconcelos et al., 1995;
Warthmann et al., 2000; Wright and Wacey, 2005), while the
results of more recent research evidenced that extracellular
polymeric substance (EPS) likely play the key role for the
mineralization process (Bontognali et al., 2010; Krause et al.,
2012). It has been demonstrated that the presence of EPS favours
the incorporation of Mg into the carbonate mineral leading to
the formation of dolomite (Bontognali et al., 2010). Recent
174 YOGMAYA SHUKLA, MUKUND SHARMA, ARIF H. ANSARI AND S. KUMAR
studies have shown that microbial mats and associated EPS are
important for dolomite formation also in extreme evaporitic
environments, which was initially appearing harsh to life. It has
been observed that the sediments that are rich in dolomite are
also relatively richer in organic material as observed in some
modern examples of dolomite formation (Brauchli et al., 2016).
The Archaean Kasia stromatolites are invariably confined
in dolostone successions. The chief mineral constituents
determined through the petrological thin sections studies of
theses stromatolite show the presence of dolomite, pyrite and
chert. Evidence for biological activity during the formation
of the Kasia dolomite is thus preserved in the morphology
of stromatolitic morphotypes. The individual and collective
stromatolite morphologies, especially the diversity of
stromatolites, indicate biogenic origin of stromatolite and
non-resembling any abiogenic structures. The lithology is also
suitable for growth of ancient ecosystem and/or rather formed
by the involvement of such system. Array of constraining
facts strongly indicate that organisms flourished on a broad
tidal platform 3.5 billion years ago in the Kasia locality. The
variation in the stromatolites morphology indicates that the
Kasia stromatolite preserved not only one of earth’s earliest
biogenic activity but also a complex ancient fossil ecosystem.
These lithified microbial communities represent one of the most
ancient, widespread ecosystems known.
Isotopic constraints
The present study shows a spatial change of 11 ‰ vs PDB
in the δ¹³C-org of the Kasia stromatolite, which in a biological
system is most likely represented by the population shift in
microbial communities. The heavier δ¹³C-org end member
(-28 ‰) detected from upper layer of the Kasia stromatolite
in this study, represents Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle
operated in a clad of microbial primary producers which
imparts lower carbon isotopic fractionation (Flannery et al.,
2018; Schopf et al., 2018). On the other hand, δ¹³C-org < -37
‰ is probably a product of primary organic carbon recycling
by methanogens-methanotrophs which impart relatively higher
carbon isotope fraction compared to CBB (Hayes, 1994;
Eigenbrode and Freeman, 2006). But, these suggested microbial
mechanisms may not be absolutely responsible for the isotopic
signature recovered from the Kasia stromatolite as, anaerobic
photosynthetic bacteria of Chromatiaceae family also shows the
overlapping δ¹³C-org range (Schidlowski, 1984). In addition, the
lighter δ¹³C-org end member can also be produced by autotrophic
as well as heterotrophic microbes using Wood-Ljungdahl
pathway (Preuß et al., 1989; Knoll and Canefield, 1998;
Slotznick and Fischer, 2016). In a broader picture, this study
suggests that the heavy δ¹³C-org ~ -28.0 ‰ and the light δ¹³C-
org ~ -39.4 ‰ end members detected in the Kasia stromatolites
represent an autotrophic and heterotrophic microbes dominated
community respectively.
Although, the above mentioned δ¹³C-org range is common
for the organic matter produced by the biological pathways
(Schidlowski and Aharon, 1992), recent isotopic investigations
of the organic compounds artificially synthesised in a simulated
laboratory conditions (at high temperature and pressure) have
demonstrated δ¹³C-org values also lying within the biological
range (Horita, 2005; McCollom and Seewald, 2006; Fu et al.,
2015). Consequently, Fisher-Tropsch Type reaction (abiotic
pathways) has now been also considered as a strong candidate
for the origin of organic matter preserved in the Archaean rocks
(Horita, 2005; McCollom and Seewald, 2006; Fu et al., 2015)
mainly due to the absence of unambiguous fossil record from
this period. In the earth’s crust, deep marine hydrothermal vents,
zone of serpentinisation and chondrites have been suggested as
the potential sites for the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds
(McCollom and Seewald, 2006; Johnson et al., 2012). Hence,
determining the sign of earth’s earliest life using organic
archives and respective isotopic signature have now been
questioned (McCollom and Seewald, 2006; Fu et al., 2015).
However, it must be noted that except in chondrites, organic
matter concentration contributed by abiotic pathways can mostly
makes up to a TOC concentration below 0.1 weight % and also
the abiotic organic products, that show a δ¹³C-org overlapping
to the biological range, are mainly free hydrocarbons, i.e. gases
or liquids (Horita, 2005; Johnson et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2015).
These abiotic compounds in gaseous and liquid forms have very
little chance to survive in the processed samples ready for the
isotopic analyses, as it underwent fine grain powdering-digestion
with HCl, multiple times washing with MilliQ and drying at
60°C for overnight. Furthermore, to our knowledge, diagenetic
processes (changes occurred subsequent to sediment deposition
to its transformation into sedimentary rocks) has no role in the
synthesis of organic matter and can impart a maximum up to 5
‰ change in δ¹³C-org (Oehlert and Swart, 2014).
Therefore, with the current level of understanding of
isotopic fractionation in different carbon assimilatory pathways,
the role of photosynthetic and heterotrophic bacteria in the Kasia
stromatolite is strong. Assuming that the Kasia stromatolitic
structure development was driven by the sunlight, anaerobic
photo-autotrophs would have been the major component of the
bacterial community and provided the fixed carbon for lower
heterotrophic bacterial hierarchy. Thus, circumstantial evidence
suggests that the organic concentration in the Kasia stromatolites,
which is significantly higher than usually contributed by abiotic
pathways, is largely biological origin and the organic matter
preserved in the Kasia stromatolites/laminated structures is most
likely of biological origin.
CONCLUSIONS
The Kasia stromatolites are lithified product of binding and
trapping activity of possible microbial community. It is probably
a relic of one of the oldest ecosystem and is useful to trace the
antiquity of life on the planet Earth. Morphological features
unique to the biological sedimentary architecture containing
organic matter concentration greater than the average Archaean
rocks indicate that during the formation of the Kasia stromatolite
the basin was inhabitated by earliest form of microbes.
Furthermore, the organic carbon isotope study of these identified
layers in the Kasia stromatolite demonstrates the signature
of mixotrophic microbial community mainly composed of
anaerobic photosynthesisers, methanogens and methanotrophs.
Nevertheless, it is considered as a primary lead in search of
earliest life signatures, and encourages further investigations
of the rare Indian Archaean archives. These stromatolites are
among the oldest established stromatolites assemblages of the
early biosphere on the Earth and are crucial to improve our
understanding on the eve of life’s commencement on our planet
and also by analogy on the other planets.
 STROMATOLITIC STRUCTURES FROM THE MESOARCHAEAN IRON ORE GROUP, SINGHBHUM, CRATON
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Robert Riding, TU, USA, M. J. van
Kranendonk, UNSW, Australia and Axel Hofmann, South
Africa for offering critical comments on the earlier versions of
the manuscript. Their insightful reviews helped us in developing
our arguments. However authors are solely responsible for the
interpretations of the laminated structures described in the paper.
Help on isotopic analyses of samples by Shailesh Agrawal is
sincerely acknowledged. Technical assistance rendered by
Archana Sonker is highly appreciated. YS, MS and AHA are
thankful to the Director, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences
for providing the facilities and permission to publish this work
(RDCC/Publication No. 58/2019-20).
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Manuscript received : 25 February 2020
Manuscript accepted : 20 May 2020