Reservoir Characterization of the Hollin and Napo

Formations, Western Oriente Basin, Ecuador

Howard J. White Jose A. Rodas

Oryx Ecuador Energy Company
Robert A. Skopec Quito, Ecuador
Felix A. Ramirez
Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A. Quito, Ecuador

Abstract

T he Oriente basin of Ecuador has produced a substantial amount of oil over the past 20 years. Nearly
3 billion bbl of oil have been recovered from the principal reservoirs in the Cretaceous Napo and Hollin
formations. Subtle north-south structures, commonly associated with Andean-related faulting, have trapped
much of the recoverable hydrocarbons in the thicker sandstones deposited within the Hollin and Napo reser-
voirs. East to west thinning of these reservoir units also contributes to the formation of stratigraphic traps. Both
the Hollin and Napo formations comprise successions of eastward-sourced fluvial and deltaic sedimentary
deposits that prograded westward into shoreline and marine shelf parasequences. The Albian Hollin reservoir
interval consists of a dominant alluvial plain sandstone sequence (Main Hollin sandstone) that occupies much
of the Oriente basin. In the western Oriente, the uppermost Hollin section grades vertically into open marine
strata with isolated tidal- and storm-influenced sandstone bodies. The overlying Napo stratigraphy also
consists of sand-rich fluvial and deltaic deposits in the eastern Oriente and abruptly changes to marine shales
and limestones and lowstand valley-fill sandstones in the western part of the basin. Extensive structural and
stratigraphic trap potential remains within the Napo and Hollin strata in the Oriente basin. High-resolution
geophysical techniques and detailed geologic reservoir characterization facilitate successful exploitation of
these remaining reserves.

Resumen

E n los últimos veinte años la Cuenca Oriente del Ecuador ha producido una cantidad sustancial de
hidrocarburos. Alrededor de tres mil millones de barriles de petroleo han sido recuperados de los reser-
vorios principales de las formaciones cretácicas Hollin y Napo. Estructuras sutiles orientadas norte-sur,
comunmente asociadas con fallamiento de edad Andina, han entrampado la mayoría de los hidrocarburos
recuperables dentro de los espesos depósitos arenosos de los reservorios de Napo y Hollin. La formación de
trampas estratigraficas ha estado favorecida por los adelagazamientos este-oeste de dichas unidades reservo-
rios. Las formaciones Napo y Hollin comprenden una sucesión de sedimentos deltaicos y fluviales alimen-
tados desde el este, los cuales progradaron hacia el oeste integrando parasecuencias de zonas de playa y
marino-plataformicas. El reservorio Albense Hollin consiste de una secuencia predominantemente arenosa de
planicie aluvial (Arenisca Hollin Principal) la cual se encuentra ocupando la mayoría de la Cuenca Oriente. En
el occidente del Oriente, la sección superior de Hollin grada verticalmente a sedimentos marino-abiertos con
cuerpos arenosos influenciados por mareas y tormentas. La sobreyacente estratigrafia de Napo tambien
consiste, en el este del Oriente, de depósitos deltaicos y fluviales ricos en arena, los cuales cambian abrupta-
mente a calizas y lutitas marinas, y areniscas “lowstand” de relleno de valle en la parte oeste de la cuenca.
Existe enorme potencial en trampas estructurales y estratigraficas dentro de los estratos Napo y Hollin de la
Cuenca Oriente. Las técnicas geofísicas de alta resolución y la caracterización geologica de los reservorios
facilitaran una explotación exitosa de las reservas remanentes.

White, H. J., R. A. Skopec, F. A. Ramirez, J. A. Rodas, and G. Bonilla, 1995, Reservoir char- 573
acteristics of the Hollin and Napo formations, western Oriente basin, Ecuador, in A. J.
Tankard, R. Suárez S., and H. J. Welsink, Petroleum basins of South America: AAPG
Memoir 62, p. 573–596.
574 White et al.
INTRODUCTION
The Oriente basin of Ecuador produces a substantial
amount of oil and provides attractive exploration oppor-
tunities. The Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs have
proven to be consistent producers since initial produc-
tion was first established in August 1972. The Napo
sandstone has a cumulative production (December 1992)
of 1.17 billion bbl, and the Hollin Formation has a cumu-
lative production of 1.70 billion bbl. Production estimates
for the next 20 years are about 2 billion bbl, which will be
derived from the currently producing fields with addi-
tional reserves from fields in the process of development.
This paper presents an integrated geologic study of
the Hollin and Napo sandstone reservoirs in the greater
Oriente basin, with emphasis on the western Oriente.
Figure 1 illustrates the regional setting of the Oriente
foreland basin in front of the Andean fold and thrust
belt, as well as the distribution of producing fields.
STRUCTURAL AND STRATIGRAPHIC
SETTING
The Oriente basin of eastern Ecuador is part of the
upper Amazon River drainage basin and covers an area
Figure 1—Overview of the
Oriente basin, Ecuador,
showing structural features,
distribution of producing fields,
location of cross sections
shown in Figures 7, 15, and 16,
and specific wells referred to in
the text.
greater than 80,000 km 2. It is contiguous with the
Puntamayo basin of Colombia and the Marañon basin of
Peru. Stratigraphically and structurally, the Oriente
preserves a complex Phanerozoic geologic history
beginning with earliest Paleozoic deposition and culmi-
nating with Tertiary deposits shed from the Andean fold
and thrust belt. Figure 2 shows the general stratigraphy
of the Oriente basin. The succession is subdivided into
several unconformity-bounded sequences: Paleozoic–
Jurassic stratigraphy, the Cretaceous Hollin and Napo
formations, and Upper Cretaceous–Quaternary sedimen-
tary sequence.
The sedimentary fill rests on Precambrian igneous
and metamorphic basement that has been intersected by
several wells in the eastern Oriente adjacent to the
Guyana shield. The Silurian–Jurassic interval consists of
several thousand meters of carbonates, shales, and
subordinate sandstones and conglomerates that have
been structurally deformed during several episodes of
uplift and extension. Examples of the pre-Hollin
structure are documented by Balkwill et al. (1995). The
uppermost strata of this interval belong to the Jurassic
Chapiza Formation and the associated Misahualli
volcanics. In parts of the western Oriente basin, the
Hollin–Napo interval unconformably overlies the
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 2—Stratigraphic column for the Oriente basin.
Jurassic Chapiza and Misahualli volcanics, but elsewhere
the Cretaceous rocks overlie Paleozoic strata and
Precambrian basement.
The Hollin–Napo interval consists of up to 500 m of
continental and marine sandstones, shales, and carbon-
ates. The basin deepens toward the southwest, while its
575
eastern margin is masked by basin margin arches related
to the Guyana shield (Figure 1). Structural arches shown
on the regional map of Dashwood and Abbotts (1990)
indicate two east-west trending arches extending
westward from the Guyana shield. Interval isopach
maps confirm the existence of these two intrabasin
highs—the Aguarico arch to the north and the Cononaco
platform or arch to the south. The arches are believed to
have provided sediments as well as localized the Hollin
and Napo fluvial systems. Reservoirs within the Hollin
and Napo formations are structurally less deformed than
the underlying strata. Nevertheless, Hollin and Napo
structures are large enough to form prolific hydrocarbon
traps. A complex of major reverse faults mark the
western limit of the present-day basin adjacent to the
Napo uplift. Most of the major oil fields occur east of this
complex in structural traps that parallel the north-south
structural grain. The source rocks for these reservoirs are
believed to be the organic-rich Napo shales which have
been extensively tested for maturity, as reported by
Dashwood and Abbotts (1990).
The overlying Upper Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimen-
tary rocks in the Oriente basin were the first to be influ-
enced by incipient Andean movement. The Tena and
Tiyuyacu formations (Figure 2) are the earliest strata of
the post-Napo basin fill and consist of interbedded
shales, sandstones, and minor conglomerates. The basal
sandstone of the Tena Formation in the western Oriente
was probably derived by erosion and local reworking of
uppermost Napo. Late Tena and Tiyuyacu deposition
consisted of episodes of continental redbeds and limited
incursions of marine deposition. Deposition continued
with the Orteguaza and post-Orteguaza formations and
consisted mainly of clay-rich continental strata eroded
from the Andean volcanics. These continental sedimen-
tary rocks mark the infill of the Andean foreland basin
and comprise over 1600 m of section in the western
Oriente. The Andean volcanic arc controlled much of the
Tertiary sedimentation along the western margin of the
Oriente basin.
HOLLIN STRATIGRAPHY AND
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Characterization of the Hollin and Napo reservoirs
includes data from seismic, well logs, core descriptions,
and petrophysical analyses. Over 1100 m of core were
examined. Regional mapping of the Ecuador Oriente
basin focused on depositional environments, paleoshore-
line trends, facies distribution, and reservoir continuity.
The Hollin Formation occurs throughout the Oriente
basin. It thickens from a zero edge along the eastern
margin to nearly 200 m thick, forming a sand-rich
blanket composed of several depositional sequences.
Figure 3 is an isopach map of Hollin strata from its
pinchout in the eastern Oriente to the depocenter in the
southwestern part of the basin.
In the western Oriente basin, the Hollin can be subdi-
vided into the Main Hollin sandstone and the thinner
576 White et al.
Figure 3—Isopach map of the entire Hollin sequence.
Contour interval is 25 m.
Upper Hollin sandstone. General Hollin stratigraphy is
described elsewhere (Wasson and Sinclair, 1927;
Tschopp, 1953; Campbell, 1970; Canfield et al., 1982;
Dashwood and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). The
Hollin is Albian in age, although the basal strata of the
Main Hollin may date to the late Aptian. Faunal and
flora taxa, although sparse, suggest that the Hollin is time
transgressive and trace the overall sea level rise during
late Hollin and early Napo deposition. The Hollin in the
western Oriente basin consists of five successive deposi-
tional sequences: three sequences in the Main Hollin
Sandstone and two in the Upper Hollin Formation
(Figure 4).
Main Hollin Sandstone
Valley Fill Deposition
The initial Main Hollin sediments occupied substan-
tial relief that was eroded into the underlying Jurassic
strata. Several wells penetrate this valley fill succession,
including Oso #1 and Entre Rios X1. The sedimentary
rocks are interpreted to be paleovalley fluvial deposits of
channel sandstone and flood basin shales; no cores of this
interval have been taken. Figure 5 shows these character-
istics in the Oso #1 well. This interpretation is also
supported by Pungarayacu cores in the Napo uplift and
Figure 4—Hollin stratigraphic column, western Oriente
basin, showing the five depositional systems comprising
the complete Hollin sequence.
by isolated Hollin outcrops near Puyo. Valley fill
thickness varies up to 40 m, reflecting the original topo-
graphic relief. The resulting depositional surface was a
very low relief, gently tilted surface over which braid-
plain deposition occurred.
Braidplain Deposition
The dominant depositional package in the Main
Hollin consists of stacked cross-bedded sandstone and
subordinate intervals of interbedded mudstone and
sandstone (Figures 4, 5) of Albian age. The upper part of
this interval forms the main oil reservoirs in the western
Oriente basin.
There are three lithofacies types in the braidplain
sequence. The first and predominant one consists of
stacked channel sandstones that range in thickness from
3 m to more than 10 m. The sandstones are quartzose in
composition and fine to very coarse grained. Granule
conglomeratic lag occasionally overlies channel scour
surfaces. Channel units generally have a uniform grain
size distribution without any obvious fining-upward
trend. Internally, the sandstone units are structured by
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 5—Hollin lithofacies and depositional systems
within the Oso #1 well, Block 7, western Oriente basin. The
depositional systems have been interpreted in more than
100 Oriente wells.
planar tabular and trough cross beds in sets 30–100 cm or
thicker (Figure 6a). Cross bed slip faces commonly
display a grain size segregation typical of avalanche
processes. Sandstone units are separated by erosion
surfaces with carbonaceous shale laminae and mudstone
beds up to 30 cm thick. Macerated plant debris often
occurs as concentrations along cross bed laminae. Dia-
genetic kaolinite is dispersed throughout the sandstones.
The resulting gamma ray signature is that of a shaly
sandstone rather than the high-porosity sandstones that
typify the Main Hollin.
The second facies type consists of fining-upward
channel units of finer grained sandstones and
interbedded mudstones generally less than 30 cm thick.
These sandstones are more poorly sorted than the first
sandstone facies and are dominated by trough cross
bedding.
Facies three comprises mudstones and mudstone
interbedded with thin sandstones. The sandstone
interbeds are fine to very fine grained and often ripple
laminated. The mudstones are massive to faintly
laminated and often dolomitic. This facies is up to 13 m
thick (e.g., Oso #1 well, Figure 5).
577
These sedimentary facies are attributed to deposition
in a braided alluvial plain environment. The overall
facies architecture resembles the Platte River and Bijou
Creek models of Miall (1977) and Cant (1982). In this
environment, the planar and trough cross bed sets are
interpreted as straight and sinuous-crested mid-channel
bars. River discharge may have been seasonally variable,
but the sand bedload was sufficiently high to account for
the stacked braid bars that dominate the Main Hollin. In
addition to sediment supply, local topography, precipita-
tion, and vegetation also influenced fluvial deposition.
Facies two, interbedded mudstone and sandstone, are
attributed to channel, overbank levee, and crevasse splay
deposition. The third facies, dominantly thick
mudstones, is inferred to have originated as channel
abandonment intervals and laterally equivalent flood
basin deposits.
Coastal Plain Deposition
The contact between the Main and Upper Hollin
formations has historically been picked on electric logs at
the base of the thicker shales overlying the stacked sand-
stones of the Main Hollin. Detailed core examination of
this contact in the western Oriente basin demonstrates
that, instead of the stacked sandstones at the top of the
Main Hollin, this sequence is frequently a fining-upward
succession of planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones
and thin mudstones. These sandstones are slightly finer
than the braided sandstones, thin upward, and are rhyth-
mically interbedded with numerous, thin, laminated
mudstones (Figure 6c). Rooted horizons are occasionally
present in the sandstones. The distinctive appearance of
these lithofacies (at least in cored intervals) indicates
coastal plain deposition. The package ranges up to 15 m
in thickness in the western Oriente.
The coastal plain depositional sequence is interpreted
to represent the overall abandonment of the Main Hollin
fluvial system. As such, a lower energy, higher sinuosity
fluvial and estuary depositional system is envisaged for
these capping sediments. The interval’s fining upward
character, the occurrence of planar and trough cross
bedding and ripple lamination, the rhythmic mudstone
interbeds, and the occasional rooting are interpreted to
have originated in a meandering stream system that
likely entered a coastline estuary setting.
The features observed in the coastal plain deposition
of the Main Hollin are similar to the meandering fluvial
to estuary profiles recognized by Smith (1987). The
interbedded sandstones and mudstones in the top part of
the estuary profile exemplify features observed in tidally
influenced sediments, although the tidal reworking is
minor (microtidal) in the coastal plain deposits.
Upper Hollin Formation
Shore Zone Deposition
The upper Hollin transgressively overlies the coastal
plain veneer of the Main Hollin sandstone. It has been
generally interpreted as a marine deposit (Dashwood
and Abbotts, 1990; Canfield, 1991). This transgressive
578 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 6—Core photographs from the Main and Upper Hollin formations. Photographed slabs are from conventional 10-cm
whole-diameter cores. (a) Typical planar cross bedding within the braided fluvial facies. (b) Cross-bedded sandstones and
thin mudstones of the coastal plain facies. (c) Interbedded sandstones and shales of the tidally reworked Upper Hollin shore
zone facies. (d) Open marine glauconitic sandstones beneath the capping limestones of the Upper Hollin.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
blanket occurs throughout the Oriente basin, except in
the extreme northeast. It consists of two distinctive litho-
facies associations. The lower shore zone deposition
comprises a sandstone and shale complex that varies up
to 15 m thick in the western Oriente. The upper open
marine sequence caps the overall abandonment of the
Hollin depositional system.
The shore zone lithofacies consist of fine- to medium-
grained planar to trough cross-bedded sandstones, very
fine to fine-grained ripple laminated sandstones, and
burrowed lenticular-bedded mudstones. Above the basal
mudstones, the shore zone locally displays a vertical
profile of stacked cross-bedded and ripple-laminated
sandstone with minor shale interbeds. A few kilometers
away, the profile may be dominantly lenticular
mudstone and isolated, thin sandstones of limited
reservoir quality. The majority of the ripple sandstones
contain abundant clay drapes within the lamination. The
coarser sandstones occasionally exhibit strongly oblique
cross-bedding orientations. Lenticular mudstones are
moderately to weakly burrowed (Chondrites, Planolites,
and minor Teichichnus) with rare ripple-laminated
sandstone lenses.
A variety of shoreline to shallow marine depositional
environments combined to create the shore zone litho-
facies. A continued transgression of the tidally influ-
enced coastal plain resulted in the formation of sand-
dominated bay head deltas, estuaries, and subtidal
shoals. Muddy tidal flat and shallow marine mud depo-
sition locally dominate the shore zone lithofacies.
Open Marine Deposition
The open marine succession completes the trangres-
sive Upper Hollin depositional sequence. It may range
up to 15 m in thickness. The lithofacies consists of glau-
conitic and quartzose sandstone, limestone, marl, and
shale. Ripple-laminated, very fine to fine-grained
quartzose sandstones are commonly thin bedded and
moderately burrowed and occur at the base of the open
marine succession. In the upper part of the open marine
sequence, glauconite-rich sandstones (Figure 6d) are
capped by a thin veneer of micritic and fossiliferous lime-
stones and marls. The sandstones are typically very fine
to fine-grained quartz with fine- to medium-grained
glauconite which vary up to 1 m in individual bed
thickness and form sharp-based tabular units. Mudstone
rip-up clasts occasionally overlie scour surfaces. Sedi-
mentary structures include trough cross bedding, ripple
lamination, and flaser bedding. Bioturbation often oblit-
erates all primary sedimentary structures. This unit
contains an open marine biota, including ammonites and
both thick- and thin-shelled bivalves. In the glauconitic
sandstones, the glauconite content is locally in excess of
50% of the framework grains. Capping limestones (fossil-
iferous wackestones) and marl beds generally measure
less than 2 m thick and are well lithified. Vuggy porosity
due to shell dissolution occurs sporatically.
The basal quartzitic sandstone and shale of the open
marine facies are interpreted to be of subtidal shoal
origin. These sandstones are generally thinner than the
overlying glauconitic shoal deposits and are almost
579
always interbedded with marine shelf shales (lenticular-
bedded burrowed mudstone). The quartzitic beds origi-
nated as nearshore, tidally reworked marine sands. The
glauconite-rich sands accumulated more seaward of the
shoreline as storm-generated sand waves. These shoals
incorporated whatever quartz sand reached the middle
shelf position, as well as the glauconite-replaced fecal
material derived on the shelf, and any reworked inverte-
brate shell debris. It is likely that fossil abundance
increased away from the clastic shoreline. The shelf area
beyond the glauconitic shoals provided sites for thin but
widespread carbonate deposition.
The fossiliferous, micritic limestone and marls
capping the Upper Hollin record the final phase of
Hollin deposition as the sea transgressed eastward over
the Cretaceous Oriente margin. Because of the typical
thickness of the limestones (less than 2 m), seismic
amplitude contrast at the top of the Hollin is generally
minimal. The acoustic contrast does increase locally
where limestone thickness increases.
Pungarayacu Area
The Pungarayacu concession is located on the
basinward margin of the Napo uplift. It is noted for a
large, shallow, heavy oil reservoir that has been
evaluated by Petroecuador (Almeida et al., 1983). The
Pungarayacu #2 well is representative of the entire
Hollin section in this area west of the Oriente basin. Eight
braided channel sandstone packages are present in the
Main Hollin. Significant mudstone intervals separate
several of the upper channel sequences. These
mudstones indicate periodic abandonment and aggrada-
tion of the alluvial plain. The lower channels, above the
Misahualli volcanics, are sand rich and devoid of
interbedded mudstone. Figure 7 shows a north-south
oriented cross section through three of the Pungarayacu
wells. Rapid facies changes occur within the distal or
westward fluvial components of the Main Hollin. The
abundance of mudstone suggests that the braidplain
depositional system responsible for the Main Hollin
became a mixed sand and mud system as it prograded
westward. The Upper Hollin is represented by relatively
thin mud-rich beds, subordinate quartzose and glau-
conitic sandstone, and capping limestone.
Hollin stratigraphy is well exposed along the
Hollin–Loreto road in the Pungarayacu area on the Napo
uplift (see de Souza Cruz, 1989). A composite section of
the Main and Upper Hollin strata exposed in the roadcut
is shown in Figure 8. The Main Hollin consists princi-
pally of the braidplain facies, which unconformably
overlies the Misahualli volcanics. The braidplain succes-
sion is locally saturated with oil. The outcrop shows
well-developed levee and floodplain deposits (Figure 8).
The lower braided channel sandstones in this section are
comparable with the Bijou Creek model. The capping
beds of the Main Hollin are correlative with the coastal
plain sandstones observed in cores from the western
Oriente. Shale interbeds in the coastal plain facies are
both more numerous and thicker than those observed in
the braidplain deposits.
580 White et al.
Figure 7—Hollin sandstone cross section, Pungarayacu concession, eastern Napo uplift. Inferred correlations demonstrate
the more frequent facies changes in the western Oriente. See Figure 1 for location.
The Upper Hollin deposits present in this roadcut are
part of the shore zone deposition. Individual channels
have a lenticular geometry 30–150 m or more wide and
1–3 m thick. The strata are interpreted to be of tidal flat
and tidal channel origin. No exposures of the open
marine facies of the Upper Hollin were observed here,
such as the glauconitic sandstones or carbonates. De
Souza Cruz (1989) interpreted the Main Hollin as origi-
nating from braided fluvial and eolian paleoenviron-
ments. We see little evidence for eolian deposition. We
agree with de Souza Cruz that the Upper Hollin in this
outcrop is estuarine, although the tidal range need not
have been macrotidal.
NAPO STRATIGRAPHY AND
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
The Napo Formation consists of organic-rich shales,
bioclastic grainstones and packstones, and terrigenous
sandstones believed to have been deposited in fluvial,
deltaic, marginal marine, and marine shelf environments
during the Late Cretaceous. The Napo Formation
conformably overlies the Upper Hollin Formation and is
in turn overlain unconformably by the Tena Formation
(Maastrichtian–Paleocene). Total Napo thickness exceeds
275 m over much of the western Oriente basin. Figure 9
shows the lithologies and stratigraphic relationships of
the Napo in the western Oriente basin. The Napo T, U,
and M sandstone units are related to a series of regres-
sive-transgressive cycles that built the Napo stratigraphy.
There were at least four such cycles in the western
Oriente basin. Only the T and U intervals deposited
sands in the western Oriente basin. To the east in the
central Oriente (e.g., Shushufindi field), these sequences
are indistinguishable because of their stacked, sand-rich
character which resulted in their amalgamation.
Mapping of the Napo transgressive shales (referred to as
the lower, middle, and upper Napo shales) define a
northeast-southwest Napo shoreline trend within the
western Oriente basin.
Seismic reflection data show that Napo stratigraphy
has substantial acoustic contrasts that can be resolved,
depending on data quality and signal processing. The
most conspicuous acoustic change is at shale-limestone
interfaces. The sandstones generally have gradational
contacts. The least resolvable acoustic contrasts occur
within the U and T sandstones where they thin
westward and are difficult to distinguish seismically.
Geophysical modeling of the U sandstone shows a subtle
amplitude increase where the sandstone is well
developed. A marked amplitude increase also occurs
where the U sandstone is replaced laterally by limestone.
Seismic models for the T sandstone indicate subtle
amplitude decrease where the sandstone is well
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 581

Figure 8—Roadcut stratigraphy exposed along the Hollin-

Loreto road, eastern Napo uplift. See Figure 1 for location.

developed; however, the overlying B limestone is a

strong reflector that tends to mask the T sandstone. On
this basis, subtle amplitude anomalies in the western
Oriente basin are attributed to the U sandstone.
Amplitude versus offset (AVO) analysis of the U
sandstone indicates that there is no significant offset due
to hydrocarbon-bearing lithologies.

Napo T and U Sandstones

Stacked fluvial and deltaic sandstones comprise the
Napo T and U reservoirs of Shushufindi and Libratador
fields in the central Oriente (Canfield et al., 1982). These
intervals quickly thin and become separated by thicker
marine shales in Sacha and Auca fields (Canfield, 1991).
From these fields westward, both the T and U sand-
stones exhibit different lithofacies (and depositional envi- Figure 9—Composite log of Hollin and Napo formations,
ronments) than in the central Oriente. Quartzose sand- western Oriente basin.
stones occur in each of the western Oriente Napo cores
582 White et al.
Figure 10—Idealized Napo depositional package resulting
from sedimentation following sea level drop on the Napo
marine shelf.
examined. Glauconitic sandstones, laminated to
burrowed mudstones, and fossiliferous limestones are
common components of both T and U sequences. The
quartzose sandstones exhibit the following characteris-
tics: (1) abrupt basal contacts, (2) bed thicknesses from 30
cm to 1 m, (3) medium to very fine grain size, (4) large
scale planar and trough cross bedding to ripple lamina-
tion, (5) abundant clay drapes along laminations, and (6)
occasional disruption due to burrowing. The glauconitic
sandstones are similar to those of the Upper Hollin and
typically occur in the upper parts of both the T and U
successions. Cross beds commonly occur in oblique
orientations and less often in strongly oblique, or
herringbone, orientation.
Figure 10 shows a typical vertical profile through the
Napo T and U sequences. A varying complex of thin
fossiliferous limestones, burrowed silty mudstones, and
thin quartzose sandstones form an interval less than 5 m
thick that commonly occurs above the laminated shales
below both the T and U. The sandstones abruptly overlie
this complex. Stacked, fine- to medium-grained, cross-
bedded sandstones dominate the lower half of the Napo
T and U sandstone packages. In the upper half of the
profile, the sandstone beds are thinner, finer grained,
ripple laminated, and generally glauconitic. Mudstone
interbeds are intermittent within the sandstones.
Capping the T and U intervals are more burrowed
mudstone, minor sandstone (locally thicker and medium
grained), and limestone interbeds. Laminated shales
separate the sandstone intervals from thick carbonate
wackestone and mudstone (B and A limestones, respec-
tively).
Situated between thick intervals of marine limestones
and mudstones, the Napo T and U sandstone packages
show a channel-like development, locally exceeding 10
m thick, that is attributable to fluvial channel, shoreline
estuary, and subtidal shoal origin. Channels and shoals
within this setting were probably controlled by the range
of tidal energy, the shoreline configuration (embayments
and estuaries), and the physiography of the marine shelf
(de Boer et al., 1988; Terwindt, 1988). Westward-flowing
streams delivered sediment to these Napo shorelines.
The initial stacked sandstones of these prograding
channels is inferred to be of fluvial point bar or deltaic
origin.
Overlying the channel sandstones, the beds exhibit
reworking by tidal currents that progressively controlled
sand distribution seaward of the fluvial-dominated
deposition. As in the Upper Hollin, the variety of tidal
environments recognized includes tidal flat, tidal creek,
and subaqueous tidal shoals. Dimensions of these shoals
can range up to hundreds of meters in width, hundreds
of meters to several kilometers in length, and more than
5 m in thickness. Positioning of these sandstone bodies
was probably influenced by paleotopographic highs on
the Napo marine shelf. Glauconitic sandstone shoals are
mixed with quartzose shoals in the upper parts of the
Napo T and U sequences. The cycle of progradation
dominated by channel and tidal shoal sedimentation was
replaced vertically by mud-dominated marine conditions
followed by transgressive bioclastic and micritic
limestone deposition (Figure 11).
CRETACEOUS PALEOGEOGRAPHY
The four principal sandstone packages deposited in
the western part of the Oriente basin during
Aptian–Maastrichtian time were the Main Hollin, Upper
Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U intervals. The Main Hollin
is the thickest and most widespread of these intervals. It
was deposited initially on an irregular erosional surface.
The valley fill deposits smoothed this relief and created
an alluvial plain that was dominated by braided rivers.
The provenance for the Main Hollin sandstones is
believed to have been the Guyana shield and its
Paleozoic cover. Grain size decreases from east to west.
However, isolated outcrops of Hollin valley fill deposits
in the uplifts west of Puyo contain gravel- to cobble-sized
clasts of locally derived igneous basement demonstrating
the influence of possible local source areas during early
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 583

Figure 11—Napo regressive–transgressive cycle of sedimentation showing rapid progradation followed by sea level rise
with marine onlap.

Hollin sedimentation. The westward extent of the

shoreline during braidplain deposition is unknown
because the Andean fold and thrust belt has now
completely overprinted this area west of the Napo uplift.
The physiography conceptualized for the Main Hollin
braidplain is a very low relief, low gradient system. The
multiple river systems comprising the Hollin alluvial
plain carried a high volume of fine to very coarse sand
that was efficiently distributed over the entire alluvial
plain. The source of the quartzose sand is further
envisaged to have been a much higher relief escarpment
of Paleozoic sandstones and igneous basement. Several
examples of such settings include the valley sandur
deposits of southern Iceland (Bluck, 1974), the Scott
outwash deposits of Alaska (Boothroyd, 1972), the
Canterbury plain of New Zealand (Brown and Wilson,
1988), and the Pantanal escarpment and alluvial plain in
Brazil (Short and Blair, 1986). What these alluvial plains
have in common is a high sand supply and a braided
channel network capable of distributing the high bed
load. Regional to local tectonics and vegetation would
also have had an important impact on the resulting
depositional system. The alluvial plain gradient varies in
these examples from several meters per kilometer to less
than 0.01 m/km in the Pantanal basin.
The Aptian–Maastrichtian eustatic sea level curve
(Figure 12) records significant sea level lows that are
correlated with the regressive-transgressive para-
sequences of the Upper Hollin, Napo T, and Napo U
(Macellari, 1988). The Main Hollin coastal plain and
Upper Hollin shore zone depositional systems are Figure 12—Correlation of Napo stratigraphy with global
believed to have been deposited during the late Albian sea level change for the Early–Late Cretaceous. The T and
sea level rise that inundated the Main Hollin braidplain. U sandstone packages correspond to the significant sea
There is no evidence in the Oriente cores for a significant level lows during the Cenomanian and Turonian, respec-
sea level fall at this time. Deposition of the Upper Hollin tively.
Formation reflects gradual eastward encroachment of the
sea and progressive destruction of the delta plain to form formation of the early Andean orogenic belt. A passive
neritic tidal shoals. Figure 12 shows a more substantial margin shelf apparently received the Hollin and Napo
sea level drop in the Late Turonian at the start of Napo U sedimentation. Limited exposures of phosphatic shales
sedimentation, suggesting a marked westward shift of and cherts in the northwestern Napo uplift suggest the
the shoreline. It is envisaged that Upper Hollin and existence of a shelf slope break and Late Cretaceous
Napo deposition took place on a broad, relatively stable upwelling prior to its destruction during Andean defor-
continental shelf west of the Guyana craton and prior to mation.
584 White et al.

Figure 13—Hollin paleogeography in Albian time. (A) Braided alluvial plain. (B) Initial transgression during Main Hollin
coastal plain deposition. (C) Upper Hollin shore zone deposition in tidally influenced nearshore environments. (D) Open
marine sedimentation ending Hollin sedimentation.

Figures 13 and 14 show a series of block diagrams that
summarize the paleogeography during Hollin and Napo
time. The Albian braided alluvial plain was built on the
edge of the Guyana shield and covered the Oriente basin
farther west than the Napo uplift. The position of the
Albian shoreline has been obliterated by Andean defor-
mation. Inundation by a late Albian sea level rise estab-
lished fluvial, deltaic, estuary, and tidal shoal environ-
ments (Figures 13b, c, d). The delta and estuarine sand
accumulations now form excellent hydrocarbon reser-
voirs in addition to the Main Hollin. Sand sedimentation
rates are inferred to have been very rapid within the
Hollin depositional systems. Wells suggest that the
shoreline was close to the Guyana shield at the end of
Hollin deposition. The late Albian maximum flooding
event (Lower Napo Shale) essentially closed Hollin sedi-
mentation.
The Napo Formation consists of several transgressive-
regressive packages related to Late Cretaceous eustatic
sea level fluctuations (Figure 12) (Haq et al., 1988),
including the Napo T and U (Figure 14). The successive
parasequences in the Upper Hollin and Napo formations
were deposited in a basin with a ramp margin (see Van
Wagoner et al., 1988). This model implies that relative sea
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 585

Figure 14—Napo paleogeography during Cenomanian–Turonian time. (A) Early Cenomanian marine shelf deposition domi-
nating much of the Oriente. (B) Napo T sandstone deposition in the western Oriente. (C) Transgressive marine mud deposi-
tion (Middle Napo Shale). (D) Turonian marine shelf sedimentation prior to sea level lowering and deposition of the Napo U
sandstone cycle.

level did not fall below the shelf break, which precludes
lowstand sediments within lowstand fan or prograding
wedge settings. The Hollin and Napo shore zone to shelf
facies tract transgressed and regressed several times. The
quartzose sandstones of the Upper Hollin, T, U, and M
sequences were deposited after maximum sea level fall
and within depocenters (eroded valleys) created during
falling sea level. Eventually both the T and U were
inundated and covered with limestone shoals and shelf
muds during the subsequent sea level rise. The ramp
margin model permits major shifts of the shoreline, espe-
cially where the rate of sedimentation exceeded the rate
of subsidence.
RESERVOIR CHARACTERIZATION
Reservoir-Scale Heterogeneity of the Hollin
Lithofacies
The Coca-Payamino and Gacela fields in the north-
western Oriente basin have sufficient well density to
allow detailed stratigraphic correlation. Well spacings
range up to 3 km in the Gacela field and average about
1 km along the Coca-Payamino structure. The NNW-SSE
orientation of the Coca-Payamino is nearly orthogonal to
the east-west depositional pattern interpreted for the
Hollin strata. Figure 15 is a simplified cross section
586 White et al.
Figure 15—Stratigraphic cross section of the Hollin lithofacies in the Coca-Payamino field, western Oriente basin. Lithofa-
cies have been determined from cored intervals in the field. The top of the Upper Hollin is commonly a succession of thin,
fossiliferous limestones. See Figure 1 for location.
through Coca-Payamino field and illustrates the local
variation of depositional facies interpreted for each well
along the structure. Overall, the Coca #4 well contains
the thickest development of the coastal and shelf
sequences mainly because of thicker shore zone sand-
stones. A relatively thin veneer of coastal deposits is
present in each well, except in Coca #7, where the equiv-
alent interval is dominated by a braided channel. The
Main Hollin remains consistent throughout the structure.
Figure 16 shows the overall lithofacies variations
between two wells in the Gacela area immediately south
of the Coca-Payamino field. In the Gacela #1 well, both
the glauconitic sandstones of the shelf and the tidal sand-
stones of shore zone origin are thicker than their counter-
parts in the Gacela #2 well. The shelf sandstones in the
Gacela #2 are not as glauconite rich as those in Gacela #1
and have retained significant reservoir porosity. Finally,
the coastal plain deposits in Gacela #1 appear to be
absent in Gacela #2. The coastal plain facies is believed to
interfinger with braided channel lithologies.
These two field examples suggest that the Main Hollin
braided stream sandstones are remarkably consistent in
character across each field. The coastal plain, shore zone,
and open marine units, by comparison, show significant
compartmentalization that is largely a function of deposi-
tional environment. Optimum field development must
account for this lateral and vertical heterogeneity.
Sandstone Petrography
A representative suite of sandstone samples from
Hollin and Napo facies was examined using standard
petrographic techniques. From this analysis, it is
concluded that similar sandstone framework and diage-
netic characteristics occur in each of the reservoir
intervals. Two sandstone types are present: quartzose
sandstones occur in each facies, while glauconitic sand-
stones occur only in Upper Hollin and Napo intervals.
Figure 17 shows the framework and diagenetic charac-
teristics of the Hollin and Napo sandstones.
Quartzose sandstones (Figure 17a) volumetrically
dominate the arenaceous deposits. Grain size varies
substantially within a single cored interval. The coarsest
detritus in cores or outcrops occurs in the braidplain
depositional system of the Main Hollin succession. In the
Tiguino #3 core, for example, the braided stream sand-
stones contain beds dominated by coarse to very coarse
quartz grains, as well as local quartz granule conglom-
erate lag. The average grain size of the Main Hollin is
medium grained. Bimodal grain size segregation in slip-
face laminae is typical of much of the cross bedding. The
western Oriente Pungarayacu area has the finest grained
Hollin channel sandstones encountered in the Oriente
area. Excellent porosity and hydrocarbon staining occur
throughout the Oriente in the fine-grained to granule
textured lithologies. Sandstones in the Upper Hollin and
Napo successions also vary significantly in grain size, but
generally within the very fine to medium-grained size
range; they have locally excellent porosity and perme-
ability (Figure 17b).
Glauconitic sandstones of the Upper Hollin shelf
facies tract and each of the Napo intervals consist of a
framework of glauconite and quartz grains (Figure 17c).
Glauconite content varies from trace to dominant.
Typically, the glauconite grains are about 200 µm larger
than associated quartz grains. Whereas the quartz in the
shelf sand shoal facies was reworked from deltaic and
shore zone deltas, the glauconite was locally derived by
diagenetic replacement of biogenic material. Glauconite
grains are easily compacted under moderate overburden
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 587

Figure 16—Stratigraphic correlation in Gacela field 5 km southwest of Coca-Payamino. Thickness and lithofacies variations
are especially noticeable in the coastal plain and open marine facies.

pressure and may form a pseudomatrix that occludes the
original primary porosity. Where the percentage of glau-
conite is less than about 20% of the sandstone
framework, the quartz-dominated framework retains
much of the original porosity, resulting in significant
reservoir potential. In contrast, the dark green, laterally
equivalent glauconitic sandstones are tight due to
framework grain compaction.
Quartz dominates the detrital framework in all sand-
stones except the glauconite-rich shelf facies. The quartz
is generally monocrystalline and less commonly poly-
crystalline; it has a strong undulose extinction. Feldspars
and micas are subordinate to rare, but more abundant in
the Napo T and U sandstones. Feldspar composition
varies from sodic plagioclase to potassic feldspar. Unless
encased in early calcite cementation, most surviving
feldspar grains exhibit moderate to extensive secondary
leaching. Secondary leaching during burial diagenesis
helped reduce the feldspar content. The provenance is
believed to be the feldspar-rich granitic Guyana
basement to the east. However, the possibility of a
quartzose Paleozoic sandstone source overlying the
basement is also possible. Other components of the
sandstone include heavy minerals such as zircon and
coalified plant debris.
The burial diagenetic history of the Cretaceous
reservoir sandstones reflects several processes that
occurred in the following order:
• Limited mechanical compaction of framework
grains
• Early calcite and pyrite precipitation
• Dissolution of unstable framework grains
(feldspars)
• Precipitation of silica overgrowths
• Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals
Calcite precipitation occludes the initial porosity in
thin sandstone beds, especially adjacent to shale
interbeds where it forms small, spherulitic concretions.
These calcite-cemented sandstones show no evidence of
mechanical compaction, suggesting that protective
cementation occurred at an early stage. Pyrite precipita-
tion in the form of concretionary cements or framboids
are characteristically associated with the organic debris
trapped within the sandstones and shales. Early mechan-
ical compaction is again limited to isolated grain inter-
penetrations. Organic debris and pyrite crystals are
concentrated along stylolite-like surfaces.
Silica overgrowths are ubiquitous throughout the
588 White et al.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 17—Petrography of Hollin and Napo reservoir sandstones as seen in thin section photomicrographs and scanning
electron micrographs. (a) Plane light view of Main Hollin braidplain sandstone. (b) Quartzose sandstone of Napo U interval.
(c) Glauconitic sandstone of the Upper Hollin open marine facies. (e) Diagenetic kaolinite occupying isolated pores in thin
section. (f) Scanning electron micrograph of secondary silica overgrowths and kaolinite clay mineral.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
quartz arenites of the Hollin and Napo sequence and
provide the framework support that has preserved
porosity to reservoir depths in the Oriente basin.
Although the overgrowths (Figure 17d) make up only a
small percentage of the sandstones, they strengthen the
highly porous sandstones while only slightly reducing
overall primary porosity. Mechanical testing of these
sandstones documents the high compressive strength
required to break the strong silica-cemented framework.
The amount of porosity attributable to framework-grain
dissolution is not significant compared to the primary
intergranular porosity preserved by silica overgrowth.
Precipitation of kaolinite clay minerals followed over-
growth formation. The kaolinite typically fills small
clusters of pores, but does not seriously affect sandstone
permeability (Figure 17e). Kaolinite diagenesis
succeeded silica overgrowth formation (Figure 17f), but
preceded oil emplacement. Such relationships are
common and invariably associated with the oil–water
contact where differentially stained sandstones may
occur below the base of the oil-saturated sandstones.
Petrophysical Characteristics
Electric Log Response
The stratigraphic and sedimentologic characterization
of the Napo and Hollin reservoirs has been facilitated by
using core studies combined with electrical log evalua-
tions. Many of the mineralogic characteristics observed
in cores have a petrophysical log response. Carbona-
ceous debris on cross bed slip faces induces a stronger
shaly gamma ray response than would be expected from
core examination. A clean gamma ray deflection is
typical of a clean sandstone, but a higher gamma
response may indicate relatively clean sandstones conta-
minated with carbonaceous laminae, shaly sandstone, or
carbonaceous limestone or marl. Glauconite and pyrite
reduce the resistivity. The glauconite-rich sandstones
result in some of the lowest resistivity responses on
observed logs. Pyrite is locally abundant as a dissemi-
nated replacement fabric or as concretions in all litholo-
gies. Dolomitic shales tend to have higher resistivity than
nondolomitic shales due to carbonate cementation of
pore space. These shales are the most resistive clastic
lithofacies in the Oriente basin.
Fluid chemistry is also reflected in log response, and
its effects limit the usefulness of resistivity or SP curves
for facies correlation. Low salinities within the Main
Hollin succession limit the reliability of the SP curve and
also moderately affect the resistivity curve. The presence
of oil is noticeable regardless of lithology.
Porosity–Permeability Relationships, Pore
Geometry, and Capillarity
Multiple rock types occur in the Hollin formation
because of variations in depositional environment. The
most important factors affecting porosity preservation
are lithology, compaction, and diagenesis. Porosity and
permeability generally correlate in the Upper Hollin
despite significant mineralogic differences throughout
589
this interval. In the quartz-dominated Main Hollin,
sediment texture is the primary factor controlling pore
geometry and connectivity.
Figure 18a shows the porosity–permeability data for
the entire Upper Hollin in a single Coca-Payamino well.
Permeability ranges over six orders of magnitude, and
no distinct trends are discernible in the overall data set.
The poorest permeabilities are associated with glau-
conitic sandstones and clay-rich interbeds. Figures 18b
and 18c illustrate the wide range of measured porosity
and permeability in this highly heterogeneous
formation. Quartz-rich zones are of high reservoir
quality and comparable to those found in the Main
Hollin. Median values for porosity and permeability are
8.6% and 1.67 md, respectively. A histogram of grain
density (Figure 18d) further demonstrates the diversity
of minerals present in this interval.
Mercury injection extended range capillary pressure
data were generated to examine reservoir rock quality,
determine size and sorting of pore throats, and evaluate
seal capacity. Shales within the Upper Hollin (Figure 19)
are microporous and considered to be effective seals.
Because of inhibiting diagenetic effects, glauconitic sand-
stones have bimodal pore throat size distributions and
complex pore geometries (Figure 20). Further reduction
in reservoir quality can result from extensive diagenetic
pyrite and the abundance of detrital clay drapes and
coalified plant debris.
Figure 21a shows the porosity-permeability data for
the Main Hollin Formation in a single Coca-Payamino
well. A clear cluster of data in the 15–20% porosity range
and greater than 100 md permeability demonstrates
excellent reservoir quality. The Main Hollin is a “clean”
uniform sandstone, although thin, impermeable clay-rich
interbeds are not uncommon. Figures 21b, c, and d illus-
trate the quartz-dominated nature of the Main Hollin.
Median values for porosity and permeability are 18.6%
and 1013 md, respectively. Mercury injection data
(Figure 22) show unimodal well-sorted and well-
connected pores, further substantiating high reservoir
quality. Most pore throat radii are larger than 1 µm, with
most pores greater than 10 µm in width.
Anisotropy within the Main Hollin causing direc-
tional preferences in permeability is minimal. Horizontal
and vertical permeabilities were measured on full-
diameter core to determine the potential for reservoir
fluid coning. In the quartz-rich zones of the Main Hollin,
horizontal and vertical permeabilities are almost equal
(Figure 23). This indicates that cross bedding and other
sedimentologic features do not create anisotropy in this
sand body.
Rock Mechanics
Uniaxial and triaxial compression testing was
performed on four lithologies from the Hollin formation:
shale, limestone, glauconitic sandstone, and quartzose
sandstone. These data were critical in the assessment of
borehole stability and other engineering evaluations
useful for horizontal drilling parameters (Ramirez and
Rodas, 1992). Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria were estab-
lished under triaxial load on four samples for each
590 White et al.

Figure 18—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Upper Hollin Formation. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to nitrogen
at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of all lithofacies of the Upper Hollin.
(c) Porosity histogram of all lithologies. (d) Grain density histogram for the Upper Hollin.

lithology. Compressive strengths were measured at
9520–25,170 psi for shale, 16,700–28,040 psi for limestone,
8370–27,550 psi for low-percentage glauconitic
sandstone, and 5100–16,870 psi for clean sandstone
(Figure 24). Tensile strengths ranged from 1760 psi for
shale to 660 psi for clean sandstone.
Wettability
Both the Upper and Main Hollin demonstrate inter-
mediate to oil-wetting tendencies based on qualitative
and quantitative indicators. Localized development of
mixed wettability or preferentially oil-wet characteristics
can be mineralogy specific, that is, glauconite-rich rocks
tend to show stronger oil-wet conditions. Complex pore
geometries formed by small, irregular pore throats lead
to high immobile saturation of the wetting phase. Irre-
ducible water saturation tends to be low, with an average
of 15%, and residual oil saturation ranges from 25 to 40%
based on “fresh state” water-oil relative permeability
measurements. Wettability indices in the Upper Hollin
support the theory of intermediate to slightly oil-wet
conditions. Asphaltinic oils (up to 15.2% asphaltene by
weight) are common near the oil–water contact. Hollin
wetting tendencies could have significant impact on
production (fluid flow characteristics) and reservoir
development scenarios, such as water flood potential.
CONCLUSIONS
Core descriptions have shown that four depositional
systems comprise Hollin stratigraphy: braidplain and
coastal deposits of the Main Hollin Sandstone, and shore
zone and open marine shelf facies in the Upper Hollin
Formation. This reconstruction enlarges on previous
interpretations of marine-influenced Hollin fluvial depo-
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 591

Figure 19—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin shales. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b) Pore size
distribution of reservoir seals in the Upper Hollin.
592 White et al.

Figure 20—Petrophysical properties of Upper Hollin glauconitic sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection
pressure. (b) Pore size distribution.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador 593

Figure 21—Porosity–permeability relationships of the Main Hollin quartzose sandstones. (a) Porosity versus permeability (to
nitrogen at an estimated net effective reservoir pressure of 2250 psi). (b) Permeability histogram of quartzose sandstone. (c)
Porosity histogram for sandstones. (d) Grain density histogram for the principal reservoir sandstones.

sition. Sandstones in overlying Napo strata in the
western Oriente basin are also divided into two
sequences (T and U intervals).
The Hollin braidplain depositional system is a
sandstone-dominated unit that comprises most of the
Hollin succession. It is also the most prolific reservoir
zone in the western part of the basin. The braided fluvial
sandstone units have excellent continuity and connec-
tivity, as shown by analysis of closely spaced wells.
However, shale interbeds and thicker channel abandon-
ment mudstones adversely influence local permeability.
It is believed that the braidplain deposits are most
productive in structural traps where there is limited
stratigraphic trapping potential.
The coastal plain depositional system consists of
braided and meandering river sediments, overbank
floodplain strata, and deltaic-estuarine deposits. Even
between closely spaced wells, sandstone–shale ratios
may be variable. Similarly, the overlying shore zone
depositional system of the Upper Hollin succession has
variable sandstone distribution, with local good quality
reservoir development. The capping open marine sand-
stones are moderately prospective, especially where
glauconite content is low. Stratigraphic trapping
potential is implied by the heterogeneity of these litho-
facies.
Fluviodeltaic Napo sandstones are prolific producers
of oil from fields in the central part of the Oriente basin.
These stacked channel and shore zone sandstones have
reservoir characteristics similar to the underlying Hollin
fluvial sandstone reservoirs, albeit with local hetero-
geneities. Toward the west, the Napo sandstones occupy
valley-like, topographic lows; these sandstones have
locally significant reservoir potential.
A better understanding of the Hollin and Napo
stratigraphy and distribution of reservoir quality sand-
stones will help to optimize wellbore placement during
field development. This understanding has been further
594 White et al.

Figure 22—Petrophysical relationships of the Main Hollin sandstones. (a) Mercury saturation versus injection pressure. (b)
Pore size distribution from mercury injection data.
 Reservoir Characterization, Hollin and Napo Formations, Oriente Basin, Ecuador
Figure 23—Full diameter core permeability measurements
(horizontal and vertical) for the Main Hollin sandstones.
enhanced by detailed petrophysical analysis of the
reservoir sandstones, which has provided the appro-
priate data for accurate reservoir simulation. The Oriente
basin of Ecuador is a proven oil province that has
tremendous potential for future production.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the
Direccion Nacional de Hidrocarburos (DNH) and Petroe-
cuador for permission to publish this paper and for their
invaluable assistance in making Hollin and Napo cores
available. The core examination in Ecuador (Quito and Lago
Agrio) was undertaken by the principal author, Ed Robbs and
Felix Ramirez (Oryx Energy, Dallas), and Mariana Lascano
(Petroecuador). Acknowledgment is given for their assistance
in collecting the initial core data for the project. Harold Illich
(Oryx Energy, Dallas) contributed substantially to the Hollin
outcrop study and our understanding of the Oriente basin
burial history. Further acknowledgment is given to Tim
Martin (Oryx Energy, Dallas), Cliff Thomson (Oryx
Ecuador), Oryx Energy (Dallas), and our partners for permis-
sion to publish this paper, and to the Oryx Graphic group for
preparation of the illustrations.
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Figure 24—Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria for the Main and Upper Hollin lithologies. (a) Upper Hollin shale. (b) Upper Hollin
limestone. (c) Glauconitic sandstone (high quartz content, Upper Hollin). (d) Main Hollin reservoir sandstone.

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Authors’ Mailing Addresses
Howard J. White
Felix A. Ramirez Guido Bonilla
Oryx Energy Company Petroecuador
13155 Noel Road J. Leon M y Av. Orellana
Dallas, Texas 75240-5067 Quito
U.S.A. Ecuador