Chemistry supporting material Science department IAES

TOPICS
ENDOTHERMIC AND
EXOTHERMIC REACTION
PATTERNS OF REACTIVITY
PREPARING COMMON SALTS
FORM 8 RATE OF CHEMICAL
REACTION

CHEMISTRY IAES
BOOKLET

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Endothermic reaction
It is the reaction in which heat is taken in. Energy is taken in from the surroundings. The
surroundings then have less energy than they started with and the temperature falls.

Exothermic reaction
It is the reaction in which heat is given out.

Heat energy is released to the surroundings. We know that because the surrounding gets warm.

 Endothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings. Exothermic reactions transfer
energy to the surroundings.
 Reversible reactions are where the products can react to remake the
original reactants. If the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse reaction
is endothermic.

Endothermic and Exothermic reactions

When a chemical reaction occurs, energy is transferred to, or from, the surroundings - and
there is often a temperature change. For example, when a bonfire burns it transfers heat
energy to the surroundings. Objects near a bonfire become warmer. The temperature rise
can be measured with a thermometer.

Endothermic reactions

These are reactions that take in energy from the surroundings. The energy is usually
transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to get colder.
The temperature decrease can also be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
endothermic reactions are:
 Melting
 Sherbet
 Heating limestone
 Photosynthesis

Exothermic reactions
These are reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings. The energy is usually
transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to become
hotter. The temperature increase can be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
exothermic reactions are:
 Burning
 Respiration
 oxidation
 hand warmers and rusting.

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 Endothermic reaction

Melting
Once the temperature of the surrounding rises above 0◦C,
ice absorbs heat energy from the air and starts to melt.
This is a reversible physical reaction.

Sherbet
It is a popular sweet.
It is made of citric acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
It feels cool when you put it in your mouth
Sherbet dissolve in the saliva and the 2 chemicals react
Word equation:
Citric acid + sodium hydrogen-carbonate → sodium citrate + water

Cooking
When foods are cooked,
heat energy they take in allows
chemical reactions to take place which change their structure and taste.

Heating limestone
 Limestone is made of calcium carbonate.
 On heating limestone it breaks down to form
calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide
 Carbon dioxide is carried away if it is left it
will react with calcium oxide and form
calcium carbonate again.
 When water is added to lime slaked lime
(calcium hydroxide) is made
Slaked lime is used to neutralise acid soils
To treat sewage and in food processing.
 Large amount of lime stone is converted into lime
in lime kiln.

Lime kiln

Calcium carbonate (limestone) → calcium oxide (lime) + water → calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)

Photosynthesis
Plants take in energy from sun light to make food in photosynthesis process
Carbon dioxide and water trap energy and make glucose
Carbon dioxide + water →glucose + oxygen

3
 Exothermic reactions
The exothermic reaction that is most familiar to everyone is combustion

When a flame is formed it is called burning “we say that a burning substance is on fire”

Burning

Substances that are burned to provide heat and light are called fuels

Such as wood coal coke, charcoal, oil, diesel, oil, petrol, natural gas and wax.

Natural gas, coke, coal and petrol are called hydrocarbons they are made of carbon
and hydrogen.

Investigating a burning candle

Candle is used to investigate

how fuels burn.

Investigation 1

Burning candle is put under a funnel

Attached in the apparatus

shown in the figure.

1. Liquid is collected in the U-tube

Is tested by cobalt chloride paper it turns from blue to pink this shows the liquid is
water.
2. Lime water turns cloudy Cloudiness indicate that carbon dioxide passed into it.

Investigation 2

1. If a beaker is placed over a burning candle, the candle burn for a while and then go out
a change has taken place in the air that make it unable of letting things burn in it!!
2. Test for oxygen is made by plunging glowing splint of wood into the gas being tested. If
the gas is oxygen the splint burns into flame.
3. When air around burnt out candle is tested the glowing splint goes out this indicate
oxygen is no longer present. It was used up by the candle to burn.

General Burning equation

Hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (complete combustion)

Burning equation of natural gas

Natural gas is a hydrocarbon called methane

Methane +oxygen→ carbon dioxide + water (complete combustion)

 Complete combustion means there is enough oxygen available.

 If there isn’t enough oxygen incomplete combustion takes place.
Carbon monoxide is produce instead of carbon dioxide.
 Carbon monoxide is very dangerous gas colourless odourless, if it is breathed it
stops blood from taking up oxygen and cause death.

4
Energy changes take place during chemical reactions. Exothermic reactions give
out thermal energy and endothermic reactions take in thermal energy. These
changes can be measured experimentally or calculated before being analysed.
Knowing the amount of energy involved in a reaction can be used to ensure that
resources are used efficiently.

Measuring energy transfers

Heat energy can be given out or taken in from the surroundings during chemical
reactions. The amount of energy transferred can be measured. This is
called calorimetry.

Energy changes from combustion

The diagram shows a simple calorimetry experiment to measure the heat energy
released from burning a fuel. You should be able to recognise and label apparatus like
this.

Calorimetry
To do the experiment:
1. measure cold water into a calorimeter (a metal or glass container)
2. record the starting temperature of the water
3. heat the water using the flame from the burning fuel
4. record the final temperature of the water
The spirit burner containing the fuel is usually weighed before and after the experiment
- in this way, the mass of the fuel burned can be found. Knowing the mass of fuel burnt
and the temperature change in the water, it is then possible to calculate the energy
released by the fuel. This method also works for finding the amount of energy released
by foods.
The biggest source of error is usually heat loss to the surroundings. This can be reduced
by insulating the sides of the calorimeter and adding a lid.

5
 Respiration
It is the process in which energy is released from food glucose react with oxygen

Energy released is used in moving and to make life processes inside the body and some
of it is released as heat

Oxidation

When a substance burn it reacts with oxygen this is called oxidation reaction.

 In incomplete combustion carbon is oxidised to carbon monoxide

 In complete combustion carbon is oxidised to carbon dioxide
 In respiration carbon in glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide
 In rusting oxygen from water vapour reacts with iron or steel to form iron oxide (brown
flakes of rust)

Iron + oxygen → iron oxide

Hand warmers and rusting

 Rusting is an exothermic reaction but as the reaction is slow the heat is produced in
small amounts and quickly spread to the air so the rusting object doesn’t feel hot.

 Useful heat can be produced from rusting in hand warmers in which a mixture of iron
powder charcoal, salt water and insulating material it is packed and sealed, when it is
opened the iron reacts with oxygen and sea salt act as a catalyst to speed the process
the insulating material stops heat from escaping quickly so it is released steadily to
warm your hand.

Exercise

Which of the statements below is correct?

Exothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings.

Endothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings.

Endothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings.

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 Patterns of reactivity
Reactions of metals with oxygen
When a certain metal is heated with oxygen forming metal oxide

metal + oxygen →metal oxide

Examples

 Copper develops a covering of black powder

 Iron glows producing yellow spark and black powder (iron oxide) is left behind
 Sodium and other alkali metals only needs a little heat and it burst into yellow flames and leave white
powder (sodium oxide)
 Magnesium give bight white glow and white powder is left (magnesium oxide)
 Gold doesn’t change

Reactions of metals with water

Metals are tested with cold water if there is no reaction the test is repeated with steam
Metals react with water to produce sodium hydroxide.
metal + water →metal hydroxide +hydrogen

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 Sodium floats on the surface*fizzing sound is heard*bubbles of hydrogen produced
quickly*the gas pushes the metal across the water surface*the metal burst into flame.
 Potassium floats on water*bursts into flames immediately*hydrogen bubbles are rapidly
produced around the metal*clear solution of potassium hydroxide forms.
 Calcium sinks in cold water*bubbles of hydrogen form on its surface slowly at first.*the
bubbles then increase in number quickly *the water becomes cloudy as calcium hydroxide
forms.
 Copper sink in cold water doesn’t react in cold water nor in steam.
 Iron sinks*no bubbles of hydrogen*when heated in steam hydrogen is produced slowly.
 Magnesium sinks in water bubbles of hydrogen are produced very slowly*solution of
magnesium hydroxide is formed*when heated with steam hydrogen is produced quickly

Reaction of potassium with water

Reactivity series
Some metals are very unreactive. This means they do not easily take part in chemical
reactions. For example, platinum does not react with oxygen in the air, even if it is heated in a
Bunsen burner flame.
Some metals are very reactive. They easily take part in chemical reactions to make new
substances.

Magnesium is very reactive. It ignites when heated and burns with a brilliant white flame
Other metals may be more reactive than magnesium, or in between magnesium and platinum.
If we put the metals in order of their reactivity, from the most reactive down to the least
reactive, we get a list called the reactivity series.

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The reactivity series for some common metals
If you want to learn the reactivity series,
you could try making up a mnemonic or
silly sentence to help. Here's one:
"Pond slime can make a zoo interesting
- the long crinkly sort goes purple."

Reactions of acids with metals

Acids react with most metals and, when they do, a salt is produced. But unlike the reaction
between acids and bases, we do not get water. Instead we get hydrogen gas.
This is the general word equation for the reaction:
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
For example, magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce magnesium chloride:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride + hydrogen
It doesn't matter which metal or which acid is used, if there is a reaction we always get
hydrogen gas as well as the salt.
However, how quickly the reaction goes depends on the metal used and how high up in the
reactivity series it is.

Examples
 Lead doesn’t react with dilute hydrochloric acid
but react with conc acid .
 zinc react quite slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid.
 Copper doesn’t react with dilute or
concentrated hydrochloric acid

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 Aluminium reacts with dil. Hydrochloric acid
producing hydrogen and aluminium chloride.
 Magnesium reacts quickly with dil.hydrochloric acid.

General equation for reaction of metals with hydrochloric acid:

Metal + hydrochloric acid → metal chloride + hydrogen

 The reaction of a metal with acids gets faster the more reactive it is
 The reactivity of metals can be compared by comparing the amount of hydrogen produced

How to collect hydrogen?

 Acid is poured in thistle flask it should reach a level above the bottom of the funnel tube.
 The Hydrogen escapes form bubbles at the surface of the solution
and pushes air out of the flask and down to the delivery tube.
 (A minute should be allowed for the air to escape from the end of the
delivery tube), and then a test tube full of water can be put over it
to collect the hydrogen.
 As the gas collects in the upturned test tube it pushes water out at the bottom.
 Note : When metal reacts with acid it displaces hydrogen

This apparatus is used to collect hydrogen

produced during the reaction

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 The lab test for hydrogen
There is a simple laboratory test to see if a gas is hydrogen. A burning wooden splint goes
pop if it is put into a test tube of hydrogen. This is because the flame ignites the hydrogen,
which burns explosively to make a loud sound.

Displacement reactions
Displacement reactions involve a metal and a compound of a different metal. In a
displacement reaction:

 a more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from its compounds
Displacement reactions are easily seen when a salt of the less reactive metal is in the solution.
During the reaction:
 the more reactive metal gradually disappears as it forms a solution
 the less reactive metal coats the surface of the more reactive metal
For example, magnesium is more reactive than copper. When a piece of magnesium is dipped
into blue copper sulfate solution:
 the blue colour fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution forms
 brown copper coats the surface of the magnesium

Here are the equations for the reaction:

magnesium + copper sulfate → magnesium sulfate + copper

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 No reaction is seen if you do things the other way round – in other words, if you put copper
powder into magnesium sulfate solution. This is because copper is not reactive enough to
displace magnesium from magnesium sulfate.

 When copper wire is suspended in silver

sulfate solution*coper dissolve
* silver comes out of solution settles on the wire.

Copper coil in silver sulphate soln. silver formed on

the wire

 If iron nail is placed in copper sulfate soln.

Iron dissolve and form pale green iron sulfate soln.

Copper comes out and coat the nail

Iron nail left in copper sulfate copper formed

on the nail.

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 Investigating displacement
You can investigate the reactivity of metals using displacement reactions. The table shows
the results from a series of experiments involving four metals and solutions of their salts. A
tick shows where there is a visible reaction and a cross shows where there is no visible
reaction.

Magnesium Zinc Iron Copper

Magnesium sulfate ✘ ✘ ✘ ✘
Zinc sulfate ✔ ✘ ✘ ✘
Iron sulfate ✔ ✔ ✘ ✘
Copper sulfate ✔ ✔ ✔ ✘
Reactions seen 3 2 1 0
Magnesium displaces three metals, zinc displaces two metals, iron displaces one metal and
copper does not displace any of the other three metals. So, the order of reactivity, starting
with the most reactive first, is:
 magnesium
 zinc
 iron
 copper
Displacement reactions can also involve metal oxides.

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What is a chemical reaction?

A chemical reaction is a change that produces one or more new substances

from some starting materials. Usually the starting materials are two different
substances but not always. These are some examples of chemical reactions:
• a candle burning
• iron rusting
• fireworks and explosions
• frying an egg
• respiration in living cells
• photosynthesis in green plants
Rusting is a slow chemical reaction

In each example, we have starting substances that react together to make

new substances. The starting substances are called reactants and the new
substances made are called products.

Chemical reactions v physical changes

Physical changes include changes such as melting, boiling and freezing.
Chemical reactions and physical changes are quite different from each
other. It is important that you can tell them apart. The table summarises some of
the differences between them.

Chemical reactions Physical changes

 New substances are formed.  No new substances are formed

 Changes are usually not
 Changes are usually permanent permanent (they are reversible)
(they are irreversible)

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Chemical reactions make new substances but physical changes do not. For
example, when magnesium reacts with oxygen, magnesium oxide is formed.
This is a chemical reaction. When ice melts, we get water. But ice is just
frozen water, so melting is a physical change.

Chemical reactions are usually irreversible. Once magnesium oxide has been
formed in the reaction between magnesium and oxygen, it is very difficult to
split it back into magnesium and oxygen again. However, if water is chilled
enough, it will easily freeze to form ice again, so melting and freezing are
physical changes.

There are some common observations that help you know if a change is a
chemical reaction. Here are some of them:
• a change in colour
• a gas coming off (you may see fizzing or bubbling)
• a change in temperature (the reaction mixture may get hotter)
• a solid may be formed when two solutions are mixed together.
Some words used to describe the different types of reaction
These are some of the words that are often used to describe chemical reactions,
and their meanings.

Name of the
reaction What happen in the reaction
combustion a substance burns, usually in air
decomposition a compound breaks down into simpler substances, usually
when heated
displacement a metal displaces or pushes out a less reactive metal from its
compound
endothermic
energy is taken in, causing the temperature to go down
exothermic
energy is given out, causing the temperature to go up
neutralisation an acid reacts with a base or alkali
oxidation oxygen is added to a substance
reduction oxygen is taken away from a substance

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  Rate is a measure of change in a certain amount of time.
 In chemistry rate of reaction is studied by considering the rate at which
chemicals in the reaction change.
 The rate of a reaction can be measured by the rate at which a reactant is
used up, or the rate at which a product is formed.
 Chemical reactions happen at different rates. If you know how to control
the speed of a reaction, you can measure its rate. This data can be shown
by a rate graph.
 The temperature, concentration, pressure of reacting gases, surface area
of reacting solids, and the use of catalysts, are all factors which affect the
rate of a reaction.
Chemical reactions can only happen if reactant particles collide with enough
energy. The more frequently particles collide, and the greater the proportion of
collisions with enough energy, the greater the rate of reaction.
Measuring rates
Different reactions can happen at different rates. Reactions that happen slowly
have a low rate of reaction. Reactions that happen quickly have a high rate of
reaction. For example, the chemical weathering of rocks is a very slow
reaction: it has a low rate of reaction. Explosions are very fast reactions: they
have a high rate of reaction.
Reactants and products
There are two ways to measure the rate of a reaction:
1. measure the rate at which a reactant is used up
2. measure the rate at which a product is formed
The method chosen depends on the reaction being studied. Sometimes it is
easier to measure the change in the amount of a reactant that has been used up;
sometimes it is easier to measure the change in the amount of product that has
been produced.
Things to measure
The measurement itself depends on the nature of the reactant or product:
 the mass of a substance - solid, liquid or gas - is measured with a balance
 the volume of a gas is usually measured with a gas syringe, or sometimes an
upside down measuring cylinder or burette
It is usual to record the mass or total volume at regular intervals and plot a
graph. The readings go on the vertical axis, and the time goes on the horizontal
axis.

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 For example, if 24cm3 of hydrogen gas is produced in two minutes, the mean
rate of reaction = 24 ÷ 2 = 12cm3 hydrogen / min.
Factors affecting the rate
Concentration
Particle size
Temperature
Catalysts
You will be expected to remember the factors that affect the rate of reactions,
and to plot or interpret graphs from rate experiments.

How to increase the rate of a reaction

The rate of a reaction increases if:
 the temperature is increased
 the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased
 the pressure of a reacting gas is increased
 solid reactants are broken into smaller pieces
 a catalyst is used

Rate of reaction and changing conditions

The graph above summarises the differences in the rate of reaction at different
temperatures, concentrations and particle size. The steeper the line, the greater
the rate of reaction. Reactions are usually fastest at the beginning, when the
concentration of reactants is greatest. When the line becomes horizontal, the
reaction has stopped.

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 The particle theory and rate of reaction
You will be expected to explain, in terms of particles and their collisions,
why changing the conditions of a reaction changes its rate.
Collisions
For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide. Collisions
with too little energy do not produce a reaction.
The collision must have enough energy for the particles to react. The minimum
energy needed for particles to react is called the activation energy.
Changing concentration or pressure
If the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased, or the pressure of a
reacting gas is increased:
 there are more reactant particles in the same volume
 there is a greater chance of the particles colliding
 the rate of reaction increases
Changing particle size
If a solid reactant is broken into small pieces or ground into a powder:
 its surface area is increased
 more particles are exposed to the other reactant
 there is a greater chance of the particles colliding
 the rate of reaction increases
Changing the temperature
If the temperature is increased:
 the reactant particles move more quickly
 more particles have the activation energy or greater
 the particles collide more often, and more of the collisions result in a reaction
 the rate of reaction increases

Using a catalyst
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without being used up. With a catalyst,
more collisions result in a reaction, so the rate of reaction increases. Different
reactions need different catalysts.
Catalysts are important in industry because they reduce costs.

18
 Rates of reaction
Different chemical reactions occur at different rates or speeds. Some are very
slow, like a car rusting, while others are very fast like a sudden explosion.
There are four factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction:
 temperature

 concentration
 particle size
 use of a catalyst

Temperature
Increasing the temperature a reaction takes place at increases the rate of
reaction. At higher temperatures, particles can collide more often and with more
energy, which makes the reaction take place more quickly.

Particles at low temperatures move more slowly than those at high temperatures
The graph below shows how changing the temperature affects the rate of
reaction between an acid and chalk. The magenta line represents a faster
reaction because it is steeper. Both reactions release a gas and both finish at the
same volume.

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Reactions at higher temperatures have faster rates than reactions at lower
temperatures

Concentration

If you increase the concentration of a reactant, there will be more of the

chemical present. More reactant particles moving together allow more collisions
to happen and so the reaction rate is increased. The higher the concentration of
reactants, the faster the rate of a reaction will be.

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 Particle size
By decreasing the particle size of a reactant, we are increasing its surface area.
The greater the surface area, the higher the chance of collisions, thus the faster
the rate of reaction. The smaller the particle size the faster the reaction.
Think of a cube where the length of every side is 2 cm.

The area of one face of the cube will be 2 x 2 = 4 cm2.

The cube has six faces, so the total surface area is 4 cm2 x 6 = 24 cm2.
We could cut that cube horizontally and vertically along each face so that we
have eight smaller cubes.

Each of the small cubes has a face area of 1 cm x 1 cm = 1 cm2.

The six faces give a total surface area for each smaller cube of 6cm2.
There are eight cubes so the total surface area is 6 cm2 x 8 = 48cm2.
This video clip has demonstrations with charcoal, gunpowder and steel wool
that show the effect of particle size and concentration on reaction rate.

Reactions and catalysts

A catalyst is a substance that:
 speeds up reactions

 is not used up during the reaction (its mass is the same at the start and end
of the reaction)
 is chemically unchanged after the reaction has finished
Only a very small amount of catalyst is needed to increase the rate of the
reaction between large amounts of reactants. Different catalysts are needed to
catalyse different reactions.

21
 The table summarises some catalysts and the reactions they catalyse:
Catalyst Reaction catalysed

Iron nitrogen + hydrogen → ammonia

Manganese dioxide hydrogen peroxide → water + oxygen

Vanadium pentoxide sulfur dioxide + oxygen → sulfur trioxide

Catalytic converters
The exhaust systems of cars are fitted with catalytic converters. These help
reduce the release of toxic gases from the exhaust pipe. They contain platinum
and rhodium, which act as catalysts. The reactions in catalytic converters:
 convert carbon monoxide (which is toxic) into carbon dioxide

 convert nitrogen oxides (which cause acid rain) into nitrogen and oxygen

A catalytic converter reduces the release of harmful gases from vehicles

Platinum and rhodium are very expensive metals, but they are spread out very thinly in the
catalytic converter – very little is needed and they are not used up.

A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction but it is not used up in the reaction. If
a catalyst is present, the reacting particles can collide more successfully with
less energy and so the reaction can take place at a lower temperature.

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Use of a catalyst
Using catalyst in laboratories:
Example for catalyst in lab. Is manganese dioxide
Hydrogen peroxide is a liquid that breaks down very slowly into water and oxygen by
adding small amount of manganese dioxide, the reaction becomes faster, liquid fizzes and
oxygen escape.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts.

They occur naturally in the body and help with digestion.
They are used in the production of alcohol (zymase) and digestion of food
(amylase). Enzymes are specific. This means that they can only catalyse one
reaction.

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Measuring rate of reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reactants are being
used up and how fast the products are being made.
Reactions in which a gas is produced can be used to monitor the rate.
For example, hydrogen gas is one of the products released when dilute
hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc metal.
By collecting the hydrogen gas that is produced over water or in a syringe, rate
graphs can be produced. The volume of gas produced and the time taken need to
be recorded.

Two different ways to measure the volume of a gas that is produced

The rate of the same reaction could be monitored by measuring the change in
the mass of reactants as they react to form products.
If the reaction was set up on a balance as shown, the mass of the apparatus can
be monitored and recorded at time intervals throughout the reaction. As
hydrogen bubbles escape, the apparatus will lose mass.

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Rate graphs

In chemistry, graphs can be used to follow the course of a reaction. A graph can
tell us many things about a reaction.
The graph below shows two similar reactions.

The magenta line has a steeper gradient and represents conditions favouring a
faster reaction than the green line. When the reaction is finished (the end-point)
the graph goes flat as no more products are being produced.

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 1
Which of these factors will speed up a chemical reaction?
Decreasing the temperature of the reaction
Decreasing the particle size of reactants
Decreasing the concentration of reactants
2
In an experiment calcium carbonate was added to hydrochloric acid and the
volume of gas given off was measured.
This graph was drawn from the results.

Which of the following statements is correct?

Experiment A was 5g of calcium carbonate chips, B was 2.5g of calcium
carbonate powder
Experiment A was 5g of calcium carbonate chips, B was 5g of calcium
carbonate powder
Experiment A was 5g of calcium carbonate powder, B was 5g of
calcium carbonate chips
3
Cutting potatoes into smaller pieces makes them cook faster when they are boiled.
Which of the following correctly explains why this happens?
The smaller potatoes have a larger surface area
The smaller potatoes cook at a higher temperature
The knife acts as a catalyst in the reaction

26
 4
Which of the following could not be used to directly measure the volume of a gas
given off during a reaction?
A gas syringe
A balance
A trough of water and a measuring cylinder
5
When a fuel burns it reacts with oxygen and gives out heat and light energy.
How can this reaction be described?
Exothermic
Endothermic
Neutralisation

6
Which of the following reactions would be the slowest?
0.5 mol/l hydrochloric acid reacting with zinc powder
1mol/l hydrochloric acid with zinc powder
0.5 mol/l hydrochloric acid reacting with a lump of zinc
7
In which of the following reactions would hydrogen be produced the fastest?
Calcium powder and 2 mol/l hydrochloric acid
Calcium lumps and 2 mol/l hydrochloric acid
Calcium powder and 4 mol/l hydrochloric acid
8
What does a catalyst do?
Speeds up a reaction and is not used up in the reaction
Slows down a reaction and is not used up in the reaction
Speeds up a reaction and is used up in the reaction
9
Which factor is always measured when comparing the rate of reactions?
Temperature Change in volume Time

27
 10
Which line on this rate graph shows the slowest reaction?

A
B
C

28
 Preparing common salts

Acids and their salts

Salts are compounds that can result from the neutralization reaction of
an acid and a base.
You need to be able to work out which particular salt is made in a reaction. You
may be asked to describe how to make a salt.
The three acids that can be used to make salts are hydrochloric acid sulfuric acid
and nitric acid
The salt produced are chlorides, sulfates and nitrates.
Naming salts
The name of a salt has two parts. The first part comes from the metal in
the base or carbonate, or the metal itself if a reactive metal like magnesium or
zinc is used.
The second part of the name comes from the acid used to make it. The names of
salts made from hydrochloric acid end in -chloride, while the names of salts
made from sulfuric acid end in -sulfate.
Formation of salts
Metal Acid Salt
Sodium reacts Hydrochloric to sodium
with acid make chloride
copper reacts Hydrochloric to copper
with acid make chloride

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 Metal Acid Salt
calcium reacts sulfuric acid to Calcium
with make sulfate
zinc reacts sulfuric acid to zinc sulfate
with make
cobalt reacts Nitric acid To Cobalt nitrate
with make
Iron reacts Hydrochloric To Iron chloride
with acid make
copper reacts Sulfuric acid To Copper
with make sulphate

Ammonia forms ammonium salts when it reacts with acids. Therefore:

ammonia reacts with hydrochloric acid to make ammonium chloride

Preparing a salt from a metal and an acid

Acids react with most metals and a salt is produced. But unlike the reaction
between acids and bases we don't get any water. Instead we get hydrogen gas.
General word equation for the reaction:

metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Example preparation of zinc chloride

1- Adding zinc to hydrochloric acid 2- Filtration with a filter funnel 3- Evaporation

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 1- Granulated zinc is added to hydrochloric acid
- Bubbles of gas rise from the metal
2- Content of the flask poured into the filter paper in a filter funnel
(filtration)
3- Liquid poured in evaporating dish heated gently until solid appears,
then this mixture is filtered again. You get larger crystals if you evaporate
the water slowly.

Preparing salt from metal carbonate and acid

General word equation

acid + carbonate → salt +carbon dioxide + water
Example preparation of calcium chloride

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1. Calcium carbonate (marble chips) added to hydrochloric acid in a flask.
Bubbles produced and chips dissolve.
2. Some more chips are added and more bubbles are produced and then the
reaction stops and some chips are left in the solution.
3. Filtering contents of flask are poured into a filter paper in a filter funnel and
solution and chips are separated.
4. Mixture is left to cool and more evaporation takes place then filtered again.

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 Exercise
1. The rate of reaction increases as the temperature increases. Which of the following statements
provides the best explanation for this?

At lower temperatures the particles do not collide with each other.

At higher temperatures the particles have more energy, move faster and collide more often.

Increasing the temperature increases the number of particles, so they collide more often.

2. Which of the following statements about collisions is correct?

All colliding particles have the same amount of energy.

Only fast-moving particles collide with each other.

Reactions can happen if the colliding particles have enough energy.

3. Reactions eventually stop. What is generally the reason for this?

The catalyst has been used up.

The particles have run out of energy.

One or more of the reactants has been used up.

4. In a reaction with hydrochloric acid, powdered magnesium reacts faster than the same mass of
magnesium ribbon. Why is this?

The powdered magnesium contains more atoms than the magnesium ribbon.

The powdered magnesium is hotter than the magnesium ribbon.

The powdered magnesium has a bigger surface area than the magnesium ribbon.

5. Marble reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide. In
which of these mixtures is the rate of reaction likely to be the greatest?

1g of marble chips in 100cm3 of hydrochloric acid at 20°C.

1g of powdered marble in 100cm3 of hydrochloric acid at 30°C.

1g of powdered marble in 100cm3 of hydrochloric acid at 20°C.

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6. Manganese dioxide is a black powder that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen. Which of the following statements is correct?

The mass of manganese dioxide will stay the same during the reaction.

The catalysed reaction will produce more oxygen than the uncatalysed reaction.

The particles in the catalysed reaction will have more energy than in the uncatalysed reaction.

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 Model Exam
Q1. Davinder investigates the reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid. Magnesium
chloride and hydrogen are made.

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Q2.

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Q3.

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