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Experimental  Error

Transi1on  of  metal  ion  concentra1ons  in  oceans

  Group  A   Group  B   Group  C   Group  D  

Element (1963) (1975) (1983) (1992)
       Fe 180   36      0.7    0.6
       Cu    50    8      2    2
       Ag        3    0.3      0.03    0.02
       Au        0.02    0.02      0.06    0.00015
       Pb        0.2    0.2      0.005    0.005
       Bi        0.1    0.1      0.05    0.00015
Unit:  nmol/kg

Is  the  element  changed  dras1cally  in  30  years?

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Significant  figures
Read  the  1/10  digit
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The  red  line  appears  to  be  at  27.88.
4  significant  figures

28 27.88 •  27.8  is  completely  certain.  

eye •  0.008  is  an  es1mate.

Cau1on!  
29 The  meaning  is  different:
27.8 3  significant  figures
50  mL  buret 27.88 4  significant  figures
27.880 5  significant  figures

Significant  figures  in  Arithme1c

Addi1on  and  Subtrac1on Mul1plica1on  and  Division
MnCl2
7.438        x  10-­‐5
35.453                  (Cl) ×  ) 35.6                x  1019    
+  ) 35.453                  (Cl)  
+  ) 54.938045    (Mn) 264.7928  x  1014
125.844045  
2.647928  x  1016
Not  significant Not  significant
“125.844”   “2.65  x  1016”  
•  Express  all  numbers  with  the  same  exponent   •  Limit  to  the  number  of  digits  contained  in  the  
and  align  all  numbers  at  decimal  point.   number  with  the  fewest  significant  figures.  
•  Round  off  the  answer  according  to  the  number   •  Round  off  the  answer  according  to  the  number  
of  decimal  places  in  the  number  with  the   of  decimal  places  in  the  number  with  the  
fewest  decimal  places. fewest  decimal  places.

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Logarithms  and  An1logarithms

n  =  10a Log  n  =  a

Log  (4351  x  10-­‐8)  =  -­‐5.6386 An1log  (-­‐7.09)  =  10-­‐7.09  =  8.1  x  10-­‐8

4  digits 4  digits 2  digits 2  digits
2  digits
Characteris1c  =  -­‐5  
Man1ssa  =  0.6386

Number  of  digits  in  man1ssa  of  log  a  =  number  of  significant  figures  in  n.

Accuracy  and  precision

Accuracy:  the  closeness  of  a  measured  value  to  the  true  or  accepted  value.  
Precision:  the  closeness  of  results  to  others  obtained  in  exactly  the  same  way.

Accuracy:  High   Accuracy:  Low  

Precision  High Precision  High

Accuracy:  High   Accuracy:  Low  

Precision  Low Precision  Low

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Types  of  errors

Systema1c  error  (determinate  error)
Systema1c  error  is  a  consistent  error  which  is  of  the  same  magnitude  for  
replicate  measurements  made  in  the  same  way.  
It  affects  the  accuracy  of  results.

Random  error  (indeterminate  error)

Random  error  arises  from  uncontrolled  and  maybe  uncontrollable  variables  in  
the  measurement.  Random  error  has  an  equal  chance  of  being  posi1ve  and  
nega1ve.  
It  affects  the  precision  of  results.

Gross  error
Gross  errors  occur  only  occasionally  and  are  oeen  the  product  of  human  errors.  
Gross  errors  lead  to  outliers.

Outlier:    
Results  appear  to  differ  markedly  from  all  other  data  in  a  set  of  replicate  measurements

Propaga1on  of  uncertainty  

Absolute  uncertainty:  the  margin  of  uncertainty  associated  with  a  measurement.  
The  50  mL  buret:  ±0.02  mL

Rela1ve  uncertainty:  comparison  of  the  size  of  the  absolute  uncertainty  with  the  
                                                                             size  of  its  associated  measurement.  
absolute  uncertainty
Rela1ve  uncertainty  =  
Magnitude  of  measurement
0.02  mL
=   =  0.0007  
27.88  mL

Percent  rela1ve  uncertainty:  Percentage  of  the  rela1ve  uncertainty.  

Percent  rela1ve  uncertainty  =  100  x  rela1ve  uncertainty
=  100  x  0.0007  =  0.07%

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Propaga1on  of  uncertainty  

Addi1on  and  Subtrac1on
Use  absolute  uncertainty

19.81   (±  0.06) ←  e1

＋) 20.02 (±  0.04) ←  e2
ー) 20.07 (±  0.08) ←  e3
59.90 (±  e4 )

e4 = e12 + e22 + e32

e4 = (0.06)2 + (0.04)2 + (0.08)2 = 0.108

Answer:  59.90  ±  0.11

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Propaga1on  of  uncertainty  

Mul1plica1on  and  Division
Use  percent  rela1ve  uncertainty
198.1  (±  0.63)  x  200.7  (±  0.80)
=198.6  ±  e4
200.2  (±  0.43)

198.1  (±  0.32%)  x  200.7  (±  0.40%)

=198.6  ±  %e4
200.2  (±  0.21%)

%e4 = (%e1 )2 + (%e2 )2 + (%e3 )2

%e4 = (0.32)2 + (0.40)2 + (0.21)2 = 0.55%

0.55% ×198.6 = 1.1

Answer:  198.6  ±  1.1

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Summary  of  rules  of  uncertainty  propaga1on

Func1on Uncertainty
y = x1 + x2 − x3 2
ey = ex1+ ex22+ ex3
2

y = x1 × x2 ÷ x3 %ey = (%ex1 )2 + (%ex 2 )2 + (%ex3 )2

y = xa %ey = a × %ex

ex
y = ln x ey =
x
1 ex e
y = log x ey = ≈ 0.43429 x
ln10 x x
ey
y = ex y
= ex

ey
y = 10 x y
= (ln10)ex ≈ 2.3026ex

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How  do  we  understand  the  difference?

Func1on Uncertainty

y = x1 × x2 if x1 = x2 %ey = 2 × %ex1

y = x12 %ey = 2 × %ex

Why  the  uncertain1es  are  different?

Ex)   The  product  of  two  independently  measured  numbers  that  by  chance  
happen  to  have  values  of  x1  =  6.0±0.2  and  x2  =  6.0±0.2.
x1 = 6.0 ± 0.2
x2 = 6.0 ± 0.2
The  sign  with  error  x1  can  be  the  same  or  different  from  the  sign  with  error  x2.

In  such  cases,  we  have  to  use  the  equa1on:   %ey = 2 × %ex1

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Take-­‐home  message

Significant  figures  and  errors  should  

be  considered  in  your  experiments.

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