FLY ASH

Fly ash is a fine, powdery material that is generated as a by-product during the
combustion of pulverized coal in coal-fired power plants. It consists primarily of
silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3), along with
small amounts of calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), and other trace
elements. The composition of fly ash can vary depending on the type of coal being
burned and the combustion process.
During the combustion of coal, the inorganic minerals and impurities present in the
coal are released as gases and become part of the flue gas. When the flue gas
passes through the power plant’s filtration system, fly ash particles are captured
and collected. These particles are then separated from the flue gas using
electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
Fly ash is often classified into two types: Class F and Class C. Class F fly ash is
produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal and typically contains low
amounts of calcium oxide. Class C fly ash, on the other hand, is generated from the
combustion of sub-bituminous or lignite coal and contains higher amounts of
calcium oxide. The classification of fly ash is important because it influences its
properties and potential applications.
Fly ash has several beneficial properties that make it a valuable resource in various
industries. Some of these properties include:
Pozzolanic reactivity: Fly ash is highly reactive when combined with calcium
hydroxide (lime) in the presence of water, forming compounds with cementitious
properties. This reactivity makes fly ash an excellent supplementary cementitious
material, commonly used in the production of concrete and cement-based
products.
Improved workability and durability: The addition of fly ash to concrete can
improve its workability, making it easier to handle and place. It also enhances the
durability and long-term performance of concrete by reducing the permeability,
increasing resistance to sulphate attack, and mitigating alkali-silica reaction.
Reduced environmental impact: Utilizing fly ash in concrete and construction
materials reduces the need for Portland cement, which is responsible for a
significant amount of carbon dioxide emissions during its production. By replacing
a portion of cement with fly ash, the environmental footprint of concrete can be
reduced.
Increased strength: Fly ash can contribute to the strength development of concrete
over time. It forms additional cementitious compounds that continue to react and
improve the compressive strength of concrete as it ages.
Waste utilization: Fly ash is a byproduct of coal combustion, and its utilization helps
reduce the volume of waste material that would otherwise be sent to landfills. By
finding beneficial applications for fly ash, its disposal is minimized, promoting
sustainability.

Fly ash is classified into two main types: Class F and Class C fly ash. These types are
differentiated based on the composition and properties of the fly ash, which can
vary depending on the type of coal burned and the combustion process.
❖ Class F Fly Ash:
Class F fly ash is produced from the burning of anthracite or bituminous coal, which
are high-carbon coals. It is typically characterized by low levels of calcium oxide
(CaO) content, usually less than 10%. Class F fly ash is known for its pozzolanic
properties, which means it can react with calcium hydroxide (lime) in the presence
of water to form cementitious compounds.
• Properties of Class F Fly Ash:
Fineness: Class F fly ash generally has a higher fineness than Class C fly ash. The fine
particles contribute to improved workability and increased surface area for
chemical reactions.
Pozzolanic activity: Class F fly ash exhibits high pozzolanic reactivity when mixed
with lime and water, forming additional cementitious compounds. This reactivity
enhances the strength and durability of concrete over time. - Low calcium content:
The low calcium oxide content in Class F fly ash makes it suitable for use in projects
where low heat of hydration is desired, such as mass concrete structures.

• Applications of Class F Fly Ash:

Concrete: Class F fly ash is commonly used as a partial replacement for Portland
cement in concrete. By replacing a portion of the cement, it improves the
workability, reduces permeability, and enhances long-term performance and
durability of concrete.
Soil stabilization: Class F fly ash can be used as a soil amendment to improve the
engineering properties of soils, such as increased compaction, reduced plasticity,
and improved shear strength.
Waste stabilization: Class F fly ash can be used to stabilize and solidify hazardous
and non-hazardous waste materials, preventing leaching and enhancing the
stability of waste containment structures.
 ❖ Class C Fly Ash:
Class C fly ash is produced from the burning of sub-bituminous or lignite coal, which
have higher calcium content compared to Class F coal. It typically contains a higher
proportion of calcium oxide (CaO), ranging from 10% to 30%. Class C fly ash exhibits
both pozzolanic and self-cementing properties, allowing it to harden and develop
strength even without the presence of lime.
• Properties of Class C Fly Ash:
Self-cementing properties: Class C fly ash has the ability to set and harden when
mixed with water, without the need for additional lime or cementitious materials.
This property makes it suitable for use in applications where early strength
development is required.
Pozzolanic activity: Similar to Class F fly ash, Class C fly ash also exhibits pozzolanic
reactivity when mixed with lime, enhancing the long-term strength and durability
of concrete.
Higher calcium content: The higher calcium oxide content in Class C fly ash
contributes to its self-cementing properties and its ability to achieve early strength
gain.
• Applications of Class C Fly Ash:
Concrete: Class C fly ash is widely used as a partial replacement for Portland cement
in concrete. It improves the workability, durability, and early strength development
of concrete.
Soil stabilization: Class C fly ash can be used as a soil stabilizer, providing improved
strength and reduced plasticity to soils.
Road construction: Class C fly ash is often used in the construction of road
embankments, sub-bases, and stabilization of expansive soils due to its self-
cementing properties.
Any coal based thermal power station may have the following four kinds of
flyash:
Fly Ash: -This kind of ash is extracted from flue gases through Electrostatic
Precipitator in dry form. This ash is fine material & possesses good pozzolanic
property.
Bottom Ash: - This kind of ash is collected in the bottom of boiler furnace, It is
comparatively coarse material and contains higher unburnt carbon. It possesses
zero or little pozzolanic property.
Pond Ash: -When fly ash and bottom ash or both mixed together in any proportion
with the large quantity of water to make it in slurry form and deposited in ponds
where in water gets drained away. The deposited ash is called as pond ash.
Mound Ash: - Fly ash and bottom ash or both mixed in any proportion and
deposited in dry form in the shape of a mound is termed as mound ash.
It's Important to note that the classification of fly ash into Class F or Class C is based
on broad categorizations, and the specific properties and applications of fly ash can
vary depending on the coal source and combustion process
In terms of applications, fly ash is primarily used in the construction industry. It is
commonly incorporated into concrete as a partial replacement for cement,
typically ranging from 15% to 40% by mass. The specific amount of fly ash used
depends on factors such as desired properties, project specifications, and local
regulations.
Apart from concrete, fly ash can also be used in the production of bricks, blocks,
and other construction materials. It is sometimes used as a soil amendment to
improve soil properties and as a component in the manufacturing of geopolymers,
which are alternative binder materials similar to cement.
VARIOUS USAGE OF ASH:
Pulverized Fuel Ash is versatile resource material and can be utilized in variety of
application. The pozzolanic property of fly ash makes it a resource for making
cement and other ash-based products. The Geo-technical properties of bottom
ash, pond ash & coarse fly ash allow it to use in construction of embankments,
structural fills, reinforced fills low lying area development etc. The physio chemical
properties of pond ash is similar to soil and it contains P, K, Ca, Mg, Cu, Zn, Mo, and
Fe, etc. which are essential nutrients for plant growth. These properties enable it
to be used as a soil amender & source of micronutrients in Agriculture/ Soil
Amendment.
The major utilization areas of PFA are as under: -
• Manufacture of Portland Pozzolana Cement & Performance improver in
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).
• Part replacement of OPC in cement concrete.
• High volume fly ash concrete.
• Roller Compacted Concrete used for dum & pavement construction.
• Manufacture of ash bricks and other building products.
• Construction of road embankments, structural fills, low lying area
development.
• As a soil amender in agriculture and wasteland development.
In conclusion, fly ash is a valuable by-product of coal combustion in power plants.
Its pozzolanic reactivity, improved workability, reduced environmental impact,
increased strength, and waste utilization properties make it a highly desirable
material in the construction industry. By incorporating fly ash into concrete and
other construction materials, we can enhance the performance and sustainability
of infrastructure projects.
Cement:
Cement is a binding agent that holds the concrete mixture together. In the
production of fly ash cement concrete blocks, typically ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) or Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) is used. OPC is a widely used cement
type, while PPC contains a combination of OPC and fly ash.
Concrete blocks are widely used in construction projects due to their durability,
strength, and cost-effectiveness. The primary ingredient in concrete blocks is
cement, which plays a crucial role in determining the overall quality and
performance of the blocks. This report aims to provide a detailed analysis of the
cement used in concrete blocks, including its composition, properties, and
significance.
In the production of fly ash cement concrete blocks, typically ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) or Portland pozzolana cement (PPC) is used. OPC is a widely used
cement type, while PPC contains a combination of OPC and fly ash.
• Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): OPC is the most widely used type of
cement in construction. It is produced by grinding clinker, which is a mixture
of calcined limestone, clay, and gypsum. OPC provides strength and
durability to the concrete.
✓ Chemical Composition: Tricalcium silicate (C3S) ranges from 50% to 70%,
dicalcium silicate (C2S) ranges from 10% to 25%, tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
ranges from 6% to 12%, and tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF) ranges from
6% to 10%.
✓ Fineness: Specific surface area typically ranges from 300 to 400 square
meters per kilogram.
✓ Setting Time: Initial setting time is around 30 to 45 minutes, while final
setting time is approximately 5 to 7 hours.
• Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): PPC is a blend of OPC and pozzolanic
materials such as fly ash. It offers similar strength properties to OPC but with
improved workability, reduced heat of hydration, and enhanced durability.
✓ Chemical Composition: OPC content ranges from 10% to 35%, and fly ash
content ranges from 15% to 50%.
✓ Pozzolanic Activity Index (PAI): PAI of fly ash is measured using ASTM C618
standards and is expressed as a percentage. Higher PAI indicates higher
pozzolanic activity.
The choice of cement type depends on factors such as availability, cost, and specific
project requirements
Composition of Cement Cement is a hydraulic binder composed of several key
components. The primary ingredient is Portland cement, which is produced by
heating a mixture of limestone, clay, and other materials to a high temperature in
a kiln. The resulting clinker is then ground into a fine powder, which is known as
cement.
The typical composition of cement includes:
o Tricalcium silicate (C3S): It contributes to the early strength development of
concrete blocks.
o Dicalcium silicate (C2S): It provides long-term strength and contributes to the
overall hydration process.
o Tricalcium aluminate (C3A): It contributes to the early setting and early
strength gain of cement.
o Tetra calcium aluminoferrite (C4AF): It contributes to the colour of cement
and provides limited strength development.
✓ Properties of Cement for Concrete Blocks
The properties of cement used in concrete blocks greatly influence the final
product’s quality, durability, and strength. The following are the key properties of
cement to consider:
• Fineness: Cement particles’ size affects the workability and early strength
gain of concrete blocks. Finer particles lead to improved hydration and a
denser microstructure.
• Setting Time: The initial setting time and final setting time of cement should
be well-controlled to ensure proper handling and curing of the concrete
blocks.
• Compressive Strength: Cement should have good compressive strength to
ensure the concrete blocks can withstand structural loads.
• Workability: Cement with optimal workability allows for easy mixing, placing,
and compacting of the concrete blocks.
• Heat of Hydration: The heat generated during cement hydration should be
moderate to prevent excessive temperature rise, which may lead to cracking.
• Durability: Cement with appropriate chemical and physical properties
contributes to the long-term durability of concrete blocks by resisting
moisture, chemicals, and other environmental factors.
✓ Significance of Cement Quality in Concrete Blocks
The quality of cement used in concrete blocks directly impacts the performance
and longevity of the finished structures. Poor-quality cement can result in various
issues, such as reduced strength, increased permeability, lower resistance to
environmental factors, and decreased durability. It is crucial to ensure that the
cement used in concrete blocks meets relevant industry standards and
specifications.
✓ Testing and Quality Control
To ensure the desired quality of cement, manufacturers conduct various tests,
including:
• Chemical Analysis: Determines the chemical composition of cement,
including the content of major compounds like C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF.
• Fineness Test: Measures the fineness of cement particles using specific
sieves and devices.
• Setting Time Test: Determines the initial and final setting time of cement by
monitoring the cement paste’s stiffness.
• Compressive Strength Test: Evaluates the strength development of cement
mortar or concrete cubes over time.
• Soundness Test: Assesses the volume stability of cement by subjecting it to
autoclave conditions.
• Heat of Hydration Test: Measures the heat released during cement
hydration.
• Consistency and Workability Test: Determines the cement’s flowability and
ease of mixing and placing.
Conclusion
The selection and quality of cement used in concrete blocks significantly influence
the blocks’ performance, durability, and structural integrity.

• Aggregates:
In some cases, coarse aggregates such as crushed stone or gravel may be added to
the concrete mixture to enhance its strength and reduce shrinkage. However, for
certain lightweight concrete blocks, aggregates may be omitted to achieve a lower
density. Coarse Aggregates: The size of coarse aggregates used in concrete blocks
typically ranges from 10 to 20 millimetres.
Shape and Grading: The aggregates should have a well-graded particle size
distribution, with a balance of different sizes to optimize packing density and
reduce voids.
Concrete blocks are widely used in construction due to their strength, durability,
and cost-effectiveness. The aggregate is a crucial component of concrete blocks, as
it constitutes a significant portion of the mixture. This report aims to provide a
detailed analysis of the aggregate used in concrete blocks, including its types,
properties, and importance in determining the quality and performance of the
blocks.
✓ Types of Aggregate
Aggregates used in concrete blocks are classified into two main types: fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate.
Fine Aggregate: Fine aggregate consists of natural or manufactured sand particles.
It is typically composed of particles smaller than 5 mm in diameter. Fine aggregate
improves the workability of the concrete mixture and fills the voids between the
larger particles, enhancing the block’s strength and cohesion.
• Coarse Aggregate: Coarse aggregate consists of crushed stone, gravel, or
recycled concrete particles. It is typically composed of particles ranging from
5 mm to 20 mm in diameter. Coarse aggregate provides bulk and stability to
the concrete blocks, contributing to their overall strength and load-bearing
capacity.
✓ Properties of Aggregate for Concrete Blocks
The properties of aggregate significantly influence the quality and performance of
concrete blocks. The following are the key properties to consider:
• Gradation: The distribution of particle sizes in the aggregate affects the
workability, strength, and density of the concrete blocks. A well-graded
aggregate with a balanced distribution of particle sizes provides better
compaction and reduces voids in the mixture.
• Shape and Texture: The shape and texture of aggregate particles influence
the workability and strength of the concrete blocks. Angular and rough-
textured particles offer better interlocking and improve the mechanical bond
between the aggregate and cement paste.
• Strength: The strength of the aggregate directly affects the compressive
strength and durability of the concrete blocks. Strong and durable aggregate
ensures the blocks can withstand structural loads and resist deterioration
over time.
• Absorption and Moisture Content: The absorption capacity and moisture
content of the aggregate affect the workability and drying shrinkage of the
concrete blocks. Excessive moisture content can lead to volume changes and
potential cracking.
• Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of aggregate determines the density of
the concrete blocks. A higher specific gravity aggregate results in denser
blocks with improved strength and durability.
Importance of Aggregate Quality in Concrete Blocks
 ❖ The quality of aggregate used in concrete blocks is crucial for several reasons:
• Strength and Durability: High-quality aggregate contributes to the overall
strength and durability of the concrete blocks, ensuring they can withstand
structural loads and resist environmental factors.
• Workability: Properly graded and shaped aggregate improves the
workability of the concrete mixture, making it easier to mix, place, and
compact. This enhances the productivity and efficiency of the block
manufacturing process.
• Density and Insulation: Well-graded aggregate with appropriate particle
sizes helps achieve higher block densities, improving thermal insulation and
soundproofing properties.
• Aesthetics: The appearance of the aggregate affects the visual appeal of the
concrete blocks. The selection of aggregate with desirable color, shape, and
texture can enhance the aesthetic value of the finished structures.
✓ Testing and Quality Control
To ensure the desired quality of aggregate, various tests are conducted, including:
Gradation Analysis: Determines the particle size distribution of the aggregate
sample.
o Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV): Measures the resistance of the aggregate
to crushing under compressive loads.
o Aggregate Impact Value (AIV): Evaluates the toughness and impact
resistance of the aggregate.
o Absorption Test: Determines the moisture absorption capacity of the
aggregate.
o Specific Gravity Test: Measures the specific gravity of the aggregate particles.
o Particle Shape and Texture Analysis
FINE AGGREGATE
Fine aggregate is a crucial component in the production of concrete blocks,
contributing to their strength, durability, and workability. This report aims to
provide a comprehensive analysis of the fine aggregate used in concrete blocks,
including its properties, types, and significance in determining the quality and
performance of the blocks.
Sand: Sand is a fine aggregate used in concrete blocks to fill the voids between the
larger aggregate particles and bind the mixture together. It should be clean, well-
graded, and free from impurities such as clay, silt, and organic matter. The sand
used should have a particle size distribution suitable for achieving the desired
workability and strength of the concrete.
 o Particle Size: The particle size distribution of sand used in concrete blocks
typically ranges from 0.15 to 4.75 millimetres.
o Fineness Modulus: Fineness modulus is a measure of the fineness or
coarseness of the sand. It is calculated based on the cumulative percentages
of sand retained on different sieves. The desired fineness modulus for
concrete blocks generally falls between 2.2 and 3.0.
Types of Fine Aggregate
The fine aggregate used in concrete blocks is typically natural or
manufactured sand. It is composed of small particles with diameters ranging from
0.075 mm to 5 mm. The two primary types of fine aggregate are:
Natural Sand: Natural sand is obtained from riverbeds, seashores, or quarries. It is
formed through the erosion and weathering of rocks and has varying particle
shapes and sizes based on its source. Natural sand is commonly used in concrete
block production due to its availability and compatibility with cement.
Manufactured Sand: Manufactured sand, also known as crushed sand or artificial
sand, is produced by crushing rocks and stones. It is specifically manufactured to
meet the desired particle size distribution and shape requirements. Manufactured
sand offers advantages such as consistent quality, better gradation control, and
reduced environmental impact.
✓ Properties of Fine Aggregate for Concrete Blocks
The properties of fine aggregate significantly influence the quality and
performance of concrete blocks. The following are the key properties to consider:
• Gradation: The particle size distribution of fine aggregate affects the
workability, strength, and density of concrete blocks. A well-graded fine
aggregate with a balanced distribution of particle sizes ensures proper
compaction and reduces voids in the mixture.
• Shape and Texture: The shape and texture of fine aggregate particles
influence the workability and strength of concrete blocks. Angular or rough-
textured particles provide better interlocking and improve the mechanical
bond between the aggregate and cement paste.
• Fineness Modulus: Fineness modulus is a measure of the fineness of fine
aggregate and indicates the distribution of particle sizes. It affects the
workability and cohesion of the concrete mixture.
• Absorption and Moisture Content: The absorption capacity and moisture
content of fine aggregate impact the workability and drying shrinkage of
concrete blocks. Excessive moisture content can lead to volume changes and
potential cracking.
 • Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of fine aggregate determines the
density of concrete blocks. Higher specific gravity results in denser blocks
with improved strength and durability.
✓ Significance of Fine Aggregate Quality in Concrete Blocks
The quality of fine aggregate used in concrete blocks is crucial for several reasons:
o Workability: Properly graded and shaped fine aggregate improves the
workability of the concrete mixture, making it easier to mix, place, and
compact. This enhances the productivity and efficiency of the block
manufacturing process.
o Strength and Durability: High-quality fine aggregate contributes to the
overall strength and durability of concrete blocks, ensuring they can
withstand structural loads and resist environmental factors.
o Density and Insulation: Well-graded fine aggregate with appropriate particle
sizes helps achieve higher block densities, improving thermal insulation and
soundproofing properties.
o Bonding and Surface Finish: The shape and texture of fine aggregate
particles affect the bonding between the aggregate and cement paste,
influencing the surface finish and overall appearance of the concrete blocks.
✓ Testing and Quality Control
To ensure the desired quality of fine aggregate, various tests are conducted,
including:
▪ Gradation Analysis: Determines the particle size distribution of the fine
aggregate sample.
▪ Fineness Modulus: Calculates the fineness of the fine aggregate based on
the cumulative percentage retained on specific sieves.
▪ Specific Gravity Test: Measures the specific gravity of fine aggregate
particles.
Absorption Test: Determines the moisture absorption capacity of the fine
aggregate.

❖ GRADATION
The grading or particle size distribution of aggregates is classified into various
zones. Understanding the characteristics of each zone is essential for optimizing
the performance of construction materials.
➢ Zone1: Particle Size Range: 40 mm (1.5 inches) to 20 mm (0.75 inches)
▪ Properties: Coarse, large-sized particles
▪ Benefits: High strength and load-bearing capacity
 Suitable for heavy-duty applications like road bases and large-scale
concrete structures
▪ Disadvantages: Limited workability due to large particle sizes,Higher water
demand for concrete production
➢ Zone2: Particle Size Range: 20 mm (0.75 inches) to 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve)
▪ Properties: Intermediate particle sizes
▪ Benefits: Good balance between strength and workability, Ideal for general
construction purposes, including sidewalks and building foundations
▪ Disadvantages: May require additional fine aggregates for improved
workability
- Not suitable for decorative applications due to the presence of larger
particles
➢ Zone3: Particle Size Range: 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve) to 150 microns
▪ Properties: Fine, well-graded particles
▪ Benefits: Enhanced workability and cohesiveness in concrete mixtures
- Suitable for decorative purposes and architectural finishes
▪ Disadvantages: Reduced load-bearing capacity compared to coarser zones
- Increased risk of shrinkage and cracking in large-scale structural elements
➢ Zone4: Particle Size Range: 150 microns to 75 microns (No. 200 sieve)
▪ Properties: Fine particles
▪ Benefits: Improved surface finishes and aesthetic appeal
- Ideal for thin overlays and high-strength architectural components
▪ Disadvantages: Lower strength and load-bearing capacity
- Higher water demand and potential for segregation in concrete mixtures
✓ Comparative Analysis:
▪ Strength: Zones 1 and 2 offer higher strength and load-bearing capacity
compared to Zones 3 and 4.
▪ Workability: Zones 2 and 3 provide a better balance between strength and
workability
▪ Aesthetic Considerations: Zones 3 and 4 are suitable for decorative purposes
and architectural finishes.
▪ Durability: Zones 1 and 2 exhibit better durability due to larger particle sizes
and improved interlocking.
▪ Cost: Zones 3 and 4 aggregates may be more expensive due to processing
requirements.
Conclusion:
Selecting the appropriate aggregate zone depends on specific project
requirements and desired characteristics of the construction material. Zones
1 and 2 are suitable for heavy-duty applications, while Zones 3 and 4 are
better suited for decorative and specialized purposes. Understanding the
properties, benefits, disadvantages, and advantages of each zone aids in
making informed decisions to achieve the desired performance and
aesthetics in construction projects.