2 or 3 months, there is little difference in

long-term strengths.
4. Type IV is a low heat-of-hydration
cement, typically used in massive structures
such as dams. In Types I, II, and III, heat
buildup from hydration can cause severe
thermal distress within thick sections of
concrete. Type IV has a lower early strength
than Types I, II, III, or V.
5. Type V is a sulfate-resistant cement,
used where high-sulfate soils, solutions, or
groundwater are found. Type V may have a
lower early strength than Types I, II, or III.
Types IV and V may be limited in
availability. Whenever these cements
are specified, the contractor should
confirm their availability, determine any
additional cost that might be involved,
and explore possible alternatives such as
blended cements that may be acceptable
either because of availability problems or
for economy.
Air-entraining cements contain an
interground air-entraining agent; some
manufacturers produce Types IA, IIA, and
IIIA cements. The need for air-entraining
Fig. 2.6—To determine the unit weight of concrete, weigh a level-full container of
cements has been largely replaced by
concrete, subtract the weight of the empty container, and divide by the volume of the
the use of air-entraining admixtures, and
container. (Photo courtesy of Frances Griffith.)
they are not as widely produced as they
once were.
Table 2.1
OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS Basic types of portland cement
Other materials may be combined Cement type Use
with portland cement to make up
I General purpose cement, when there are no special conditions
the total cementitious content of the
concrete mixture. These materials are II When moderate resistance to sulfate attack is needed
called supplementary cementitious III When high early strength is required
materials (SCMs) or pozzolans. With some IV When a low heat of hydration is desired; usually for mass concrete
exceptions, pozzolans are not typically V When high sulfate resistance is needed
cementitious on their own but will react IA, IIA, IIIA A Type I, II, or III cement with an integral air-entraining agent
with the portland cement to become
cementitious.
SCMs can give concrete additional beneficial properties while reducing the amount
of portland cement used in the concrete. Because the manufacture of portland cement
requires a significant amount of energy and releases a significant amount of carbon
dioxide, the use of SCMs in concrete is considered green or sustainable because most are
recycled materials.
Fly ash
Fly ash is a byproduct of coal-burning power plants and is classified as a pozzolan.
The particles of fly ash are spherical in shape and generally smaller than cement particles.
Fly ash in bulk is very similar to cement in its appearance and its physical and chemical
properties.
When used with cement in a concrete mixture, fly ash reacts with calcium
hydroxide, a chemical byproduct of cement hydration, producing the same binder as
portland cement. Through this pozzolanic reaction, fly ash becomes a part of the total
cementitious material. When fly ash is used in concrete, it replaces part of the portland
cement content. Fly ash concrete can be cheaper than non-fly-ash concrete if the fly ash
is readily available. The mixture is required to be proportioned for the specific cement
and specific fly ash being used because the reactions will vary.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The Contractor's Guide to Quality Concrete Construction 15
 Fly ash is identified in ASTM C618, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and
Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete.” Two classes of fly ash, Class C
and Class F, are used in concrete. The fly ash class depends on the source of the coal, and
different locations may have access to one class or the other. Class F fly ashes are usually
associated with lower early strengths, but with additional later strength gain and greater
chemical resistance (due to lower permeability of the concrete). Class C fly ashes will
more nearly match the rate of strength gain of a straight portland cement mixture. The
lower early strengths associated with Class F fly ash concrete can be a disadvantage for
some applications—for example, in cold weather or on a post-tensioning job where low
early strengths would delay stripping of the forms or tensioning of tendons.
The particle shape of fly ash enhances workability, especially in mixtures with low
cement content; it is also an aid in pumping concrete. Most Class F fly ashes make
concrete more resistant to sulfates and alkali-silica reactions. Fly ash usually reduces
Fig. 2.7—Finished slab section of high-
the air content in air-entrained concrete, so a larger amount of air-entraining agent is
slump silica fume concrete being placed
needed to maintain the required amount of air.
at the Florida Solid Waste Authority.
Silica fume
Silica fume, also called condensed silica fume and microsilica, is a pozzolanic material
that has been used as an addition to concrete for over 30 years. Silica fume is a byproduct
from the manufacture of silicon or ferrosilicon (ASTM C1240, “Standard Specification
for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures”). The particles are approximately
1/100th of the size of cement grains and, when dispersed through the concrete mixture,
they fill much of the space between the cement grains.
The primary benefits of silica fume are increased durability and higher strength. It
provides increased corrosion protection for reinforcement by making the concrete less
permeable, resulting in greater resistance to penetration of aggressive chemicals such as
chlorides. A major use for silica fume is in high-strength concrete, where compressive
strengths of 14,000 psi (100 MPa) or greater are required. The other common uses for
silica fume concrete are in bridges, marine structures, and parking decks where very low
permeability is desired for chloride resistance.
The addition of silica fume to a concrete mixture reduces bleeding significantly
because free water is used to wet the large surface area of the very small particles.
Workability loss occurs with time with the addition of silica fume; hence, most mixtures
are designed using a high-range water-reducing admixture. Self-consolidating concrete
is frequently produced using silica fume to improve the stability of the mixture while
maintaining the flowability. Figure 2.7 shows a finished slab section of high-slump
silica fume concrete being placed at the Florida Solid Waste Authority. The authority
classification for this concrete is ultra-durable.
Granulated slag
Finely ground granulated slag (also called ground-granulated blast-furnace slag or slag
cement) can be used as a partial replacement for portland cement. While not technically
a pozzolan, it has both pozzolanic and cementitious properties in concrete mixtures and
can improve sulfate resistance, reduce permeability, and increase long-term strength. It
can also create a lighter-colored concrete.
Natural pozzolans
In some places, natural rock is mined and ground and sometimes heated in a kiln
(calcined) to be used as a pozzolan. Typically, the rock is volcanic ash. Natural pozzolans
were used by the Romans over 2000 years ago and are still available today, though rarely
used in most parts of the United States.
MIXING WATER
The quality of the water in the concrete mixture is rarely a problem. As a general rule,
water fit to drink is suitable, so water from any municipal supply should be acceptable.
Distinct taste or odor would be a warning, however, that tests should be made.
Criteria for tests for concrete made with questionable water are contained in ASTM
C1602/C1602M, “Standard Specification for Mixing Water Used in the Production
of Hydraulic Cement Concrete,” as referenced by ASTM C94/C94M, “Standard
Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete.” The primary tests are 7-day compressive
strength of mortar cubes and time of set.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
16 Chapter 2 – The Concrete Mixture
 Control of the amount of mixture water is of primary concern in ensuring the
quality of concrete desired. Water serves two purposes: to combine chemically with the
cement, and to provide needed workability. The chemical reaction of water with the
cement is called hydration. During the reaction, the cement paste gives off heat—the
heat of hydration—as it binds with the aggregate. In a normal range of mixtures, the
water required for hydration is much less than the water needed for workability. In
other words, much of the water in the mixture is excess water (sometimes called water
of convenience or free water). The highest-quality concrete will be attained when the
excess water required for workability is held to a minimum.
WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO
Cementitious materials and water make up the cement paste that bonds the aggregates
together in the hardened concrete. The stronger and less porous the cement paste, the (a)
stronger and more durable the concrete. Any water not needed for workability simply
dilutes the cement paste, weakening it and increasing its porosity. With that principle in
mind, the water-cementitious materials ratio (abbreviated w/c or w/cm) is used as a basis
for concrete mixture proportioning.
The water-cementitious materials ratio is the more correct term for what used to
be called simply the water-cement ratio, so called because portland cement was the
only ingredient in the concrete mixture that chemically reacted with water to become
the cementing agent. With the use of SCMs, the term is more correctly referred to
as the water-cementitious materials ratio. In ACI literature, the water-cementitious
materials ratio is frequently abbreviated w/cm whenever another cementitious material
or materials are employed with portland cement. Unless specially noted otherwise, this
Contractor’s Guide uses the abbreviations w/c and w/cm interchangeably to refer to the
water-cementitious materials ratio. Other common abbreviations are w/c + m, w/(c + p) (b)
for mixtures containing portland cement and pozzolan, or W/B for water-binder ratio. Fig. 2.8—Polished concrete cross sections
Because concrete is typically batched by weight, the w/cm is usually computed in show the aggregate as the filler in the
pounds of water per pound of cementitious material. If the mixture contains 300 lb mixture, bonded together by the cement
(136 kg) of water, 464 lb (210 kg) of cement, and 100 lb (45 kg) of fly ash, the w/cm paste: (a) concrete made with well-graded
would be: aggregate; and (b) concrete made with a
poorly graded aggregate. (Photos courtesy
300/(464 + 100) = 0.53 in in.-lb units of CTLGroup.)

136/(210 + 45) = 0.53 in SI units

Remember, a higher w/cm lowers the strength and adversely affects other qualities of
concrete, such as durability.
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are important to the mixture as an inert filler material. They are not a part
of the chemical reactions that cause the cement paste to harden. Aggregates have a major
effect on the quality of the concrete through the soundness of the aggregate particles
and their gradation.
Certain exposure conditions such as severe abrasion or sustained high temperatures
may require select aggregates. The vast majority of conditions, however, will be met
with standard materials and good construction procedures. Concrete with well-graded,
properly proportioned aggregates will require less cement paste for coating the aggregate
particles and will be more economical than a poorly graded mixture (Fig. 2.8).
The 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) sieve is the dividing point between coarse and fine aggregates
(Fig. 2.9). Fine aggregate passes the 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) sieve, and coarse aggregate is
retained on it. ASTM C33/C33M, “Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates,”
contains gradation specifications for both fine and coarse aggregates. ASTM C33/C33M
also limits materials in aggregate that may prove to be harmful to concrete, such as
organic materials and soft or highly porous particles.
While the gradation from the largest to the smallest particles is important for both
coarse and fine aggregates, the fine aggregate gradation has the greater effect on
important qualities of the concrete for placing and finishing. Oversanded mixtures or
mixtures with very fine sands require more water and may prove to be sticky and hard
to finish. Undersanded mixtures or mixtures with coarse sands may allow excessive
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The Contractor's Guide to Quality Concrete Construction 17
 bleeding or may cause harsh finishing. This
Use Clean, High-Quality Aggregate is more likely to occur with manufactured
sand than with natural sand. Air
Although the aggregate is an inert filler in the concrete mixture, it must be entrainment is helpful in overcoming the
sound to produce quality concrete. Some of the deleterious materials that are
harshness of a mixture and can compensate
limited or prohibited by the aggregate specification are:
in part for sands lacking in very fine
• Clay lumps and easily crumbled particles – Unsound particles may affect material.
the durability and workability, cause popouts, and increase water demand of Some areas of the country do not have
the mixture. a local source of well-graded coarse and
fine aggregates. Many contractors have
• Coal and lignite – Affect surface appearance, cause popouts, and cause
difficulty in air entrainment.
compensated by substituting fine sands
for 1/4 or 3/8 in. (6.4 or 9.5 mm) stone
• Material finer than No. 200 sieve – Affects bond of paste to dusty aggregate or for coarse sand. This is an extremely
and increases the mixing water demand. poor practice. Well-graded aggregates
will solve many problems related to the
• Soft particles – Reduce durability and surface hardness.
concrete mixture.
• Lightweight chert – Reduces durability and is a primary cause of popouts. The maximum size coarse aggregate is
often specified for meeting specific job
conditions. As a general rule, the maximum
size aggregate is limited to the lesser of
one-fifth of the narrowest dimension
between sides of forms, three-quarters
the space between reinforcing bars, or
one-third the depth of a slab-on-ground.
Maximum aggregate sizes are usually 3/8,
3/4, 1, or 1-1/2 in. (9.5, 19.0, 25.0, or
37.5 mm). As a general rule, a mixture
using the largest allowable size aggregate
will be the most economical, although a
(a) (b)
maximum of 3/4 in. (19.0 mm) or less is
Fig. 2.9—The gradation of both coarse and fine aggregates is measured with standard recommended for high-strength concrete.
sieves. To determine the gradation of a sand sample, the sieves would be stacked with
Because of the difference in particle
the No. 4 sieve with four openings per inch (4.75 mm sieve) on top. When the sieves are
shape, crushed stone mixtures usually
shaken, the sand particles are separated out according to size.
require a higher sand content and slightly
more water for workability than mixtures
made with rounded gravel aggregates.
In the absence of well-graded coarse
or fine aggregates, or both, use of
an intermediate aggregate should be
considered to improve combined aggregate
gradation. Many concrete suppliers stock
aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
3/8 in. (9.5 mm), and use of an appropriate
quantity of this or another intermediate
aggregate will often improve the combined
aggregate gradation.
To determine if aggregates are well
graded, it is necessary to know the
combined aggregate gradation. To
accomplish this, typical percentages
passing the following sieves need to be
determined for each aggregate: 2, 1-1/2, 1,
3/4, 1/2, and 3/8 in. and the No. 4, No. 8,
No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, No. 100, and No.
200 (50, 37.5, 25.0, 19.0, 12.5, 9.5, 4.75,
2.36, and 1.18 mm and the 600, 300, 150,
and 75 μm) and the bulk specific gravity
(saturated surface dry [SSD]) of each
aggregate. Mixtures with high percentages
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
18 Chapter 2 – The Concrete Mixture
of larger coarse aggregate and high percentages of mid-sized fine aggregates, but little in
between, are often referred to as gap-graded. Gap-graded concrete mixtures are usually
missing No. 4, No. 8, and No. 16 (4.75, 2.36, and 1.18 mm) stone, which can result in
higher shrinkage.
ADMIXTURES
Admixtures, when properly used, can increase early strength, increase ultimate
strength, accelerate or retard setting time, increase workability, improve uniformity,
reduce permeability, and improve durability. The specifications governing chemical
admixtures, chemical admixtures used to produce flowing concrete, and air-entraining
admixtures are ASTM C494/C494M, “Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures
Fig. 2.10a—A batch plant control room
for Concrete”; ASTM C1017/C1017M, “Standard Specification for Chemical where the operator can monitor the
Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing Concrete”; and ASTM C260/C260M, batch weights of solid materials and the
“Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete,” respectively. These volumes of liquids, including admixtures
admixtures are usually added at the batch plant (Fig. 2.10). They are dispensed into and water.
the batch in measured amount in a liquid form. Some admixtures are also available as
dissolving packets that can be added to the concrete at the jobsite while it is still in the
mixer. The addition of admixtures to concrete for slabs at the jobsite should be carefully
considered and controlled.Varying dosages and timing of addition can impact setting
behavior and make finishing difficult. Admixture performance sometimes depends on
having a minimum amount of water in the concrete. For example, a high-range water-
reducing admixture may not be effective when added to zero-slump concrete.
Water reducers
Water-reducing admixtures enhance the workability of the concrete, making it
possible to reduce the water by 5 percent or more. Because the strength is governed by
the w/c, the cement content can be reduced by the same percentage as the water while
retaining the same workability and the same strength. Mid-range water reducers that
offer a 5 to 18 percent water reduction provide for excellent workability, pumpability,
and finishability.
Some water reducers have a tendency to increase the air content in air-entrained
concrete; therefore, the air-entraining agent must be adjusted accordingly (typically
reduced by approximately one-third). Some water reducers also cause minor retardation
of the set time. Retardation and water reduction, or acceleration and water reduction, are
often combined in the same admixture.
High-range water-reducing admixtures Fig. 2.10b—Batch plant control room
Commonly known as superplasticizers, high-range water-reducing (HRWR) software, where the operator can monitor
admixtures may reduce the amount of water in the mixture by over 30 percent (Fig. the batch weights of solid materials
2.11) while keeping the slump constant. They provide the convenience of high-slump and the volumes of liquids, including
concrete without the penalty of lower strength, long waiting time for finishing, or admixtures and water. (Photo courtesy of

segregation that would occur if water were added to the mix. Although mixtures can be Concrete Materials Company.)
designed for extended slump retention, the increase in slump is often only temporary;
the mix gradually loses slump after batching. To get the maximum benefit, the contractor
should be ready to place concrete as soon as possible after dosing the superplasticizer.
The addition of the superplasticizer typically turns a 2 in. (50 mm) slump into a 7 to 9
in. (175 to 225 mm) slump. Even higher slump flow is routinely attainable in some areas.
Superplasticizers are available for jobsite addition or for addition at the batch plant.
Retarders
A retarder is usually used in hot weather to extend setting time, allowing more time
for placement and finishing, and often causing a reduction in early strength. An overdose
of a retarder, especially with fly ash mixtures, can cause extreme retardation (overnight or
longer). There are admixtures that can effectively stop the hydration and another that can
restart setting.
Accelerators
An accelerator is used to shorten setting time or to produce high early strengths. Its
use is usually a cold-weather measure because cold concrete will set more slowly.
Calcium chloride is the least costly and most efficient accelerator. However, serious
questions have been raised about its contribution to corrosion of steel embedded in
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The Contractor's Guide to Quality Concrete Construction 19
 concrete. Its use in nonreinforced concrete
is not usually challenged. It is prohibited
from use in prestressed concrete. ACI
318, “Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete and Commentary,”
restricts its use based on the allowable
chloride ion content in concrete.
Carefully examine any project
specification before using any accelerator
or water reducer containing chlorides.
Nonchloride accelerators are readily
available. They are more costly, however,
and are typically less effective than
calcium chloride. Also, they are likely to
be less effective than Type III cement in
(a) (b)
producing high early strengths. Additional
Fig. 2.11—This photograph illustrates the difference in slump: (a) before; and (b) after cement is another way to secure high early
adding high-range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizer). (Photo courtesy of strength.You can see that it is important
Portland Cement Association.) for the concrete provider to have access to
the project specifications that pertain to
ASCC Position Statements concrete. ASCC Position Statement #31,
Acceptable Use of Calcium Chloride in Concrete,
The American Society of Concrete Contractors (ASCC) was formed by and addresses the use of calcium chloride in
for concrete contractors and others who provide services and goods to the concrete.
concrete construction industry. It is an organization of contractors who share
the same goals—to improve their businesses and roles as contractors. Members Air-entraining agents
include contracting firms, manufacturers, suppliers, designers, and other Air-entrained concrete is essential for
professionals. resisting freezing-and-thawing damage
(scaling or spalling) to exterior concrete
The ASCC Technical Committee regularly produces position statements that
flatwork. It is added to result in the air
cover topics of major interest regarding building with concrete to those in the
concrete industry. Many of the positions ASCC has taken relate to actual jobsite
content listed in Table 2.2. A reasonable
issues within the concrete industry. ASCC’s position statements have received tolerance for the air content is ±1.5
widespread distribution in the concrete industry. The information in these percent. Testing to assure the specified air
position statements is not exhaustive or exclusive to all circumstances that may content (as noted earlier in this chapter) is
occur when building with concrete. important.
In addition to being essential for
The ASCC position statements are provided in Appendix B.
durability, entrained air benefits concrete
in other ways. The microscopic air
bubbles distributed throughout the
cement paste make the concrete more
workable, allowing a reduction in water
content. The mixture holds together
better, is more uniform, and segregation
is reduced. Entrained air reduces bleeding,
makes harsh mixtures easier to finish,
improves pumpability, and contributes to
impermeability of the hardened concrete.
Although entrained air is generally
beneficial to concrete, too much air can
lower concrete strength and make it less
durable. The specification writer should
address performance requirements for
permeability and shrinkage to ensure
that the appropriate amount of air in
the concrete is specified. Air-entrained
normalweight concrete must not be
used for interior flatwork that is to be
hard-troweled because this can lead
to delamination of the surface (ASCC
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
20 Chapter 2 – The Concrete Mixture
Position Statement #1, Hard Trowel Finish
on Air-Entrained Concrete). Air for trowel-
finished floors should not exceed 3 percent
and should always be tested, even if the
concrete is not air entrained. This can
prevent major problems with finishing
unintentionally air-entrained concrete.
Other admixtures
Various types of admixtures are
available for specific applications and
concrete properties, such as shrinkage-
reducing admixtures, viscosity-modifying
admixtures, or corrosion-inhibiting
admixtures. Manufacturers should be
consulted for recommendations.
CONCRETE MIXTURE DESIGN
The simplest procedure for mixture
proportioning (also referred to as mixture
design) referenced in most specifications
is ACI 211.1. The step-by-step procedure
that is followed allows the mixture to be
proportioned to meet the requirements for
basic concrete.
The mixture proportions will reflect
requirements for:
• Compressive strength (based on w/cm)
• Durability (including requirements
for air entrainment, compressive
strength, w/cm, and cement type)
• Slump (based on minimum
workability requirements for method
of placement)
• Maximum aggregate size (limited
by section dimensions and
reinforcement spacing)
If shrinkage is a concern, less cement
and larger aggregate should be used. The
contractor should specifically discuss this
with the architect/engineer.
It is important for the contractor to
know the variety of mixtures that are
available to do the same job, and to
recognize the adjustments that can be
made in a mixture to improve placing and
finishing conditions.
Mixture #1 in Table 2.4 is a typical
example of a laboratory-proportioned
mixture using the ACI 211.1 procedure.
The batch weights of the laboratory-
proportioned mixture will usually be
determined for saturated surface-dry
(SSD) aggregates, where the aggregates
have absorbed all of the moisture they
can absorb, but no free moisture is on the
surface of the aggregate particles. That is
important as a control measure.
In the field, where that SSD condition
doesn’t exist, the free surface moisture on
Table 2.2
Recommended air contents for concrete resistant to freezing and
thawing*
Maximum aggregate Average air content, percent†
size, in. (mm) Severe exposure‡ Moderate exposure§
3/8 (9.5) 7-1/2 6
1/2 (12.5) 7 5-1/2
3/4 (19.0) 6 5
1 (25.0) 6 4-1/2
1-1/2 (37.5) 5-1/2 4-1/2
2 (50) 5 4
3 (75) 4-1/2 3-1/2
*
There is conflicting opinion on whether air contents lower than those given in the table should be permitted
for high-strength (more than approximately 6000 psi [41 MPa] concrete). The committee believes that, where
supporting experience and experimental data exist for particular combinations of materials, construction
practices, and exposure, the air contents can be reduced by approximately 1 percent. For nominal maximum
aggregate sizes over 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm), this reduction applies to the fraction of the mixture passing the
1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) sieves.
†
A reasonable tolerance for air content in field construction is ±1-1/2 percent.
‡
Outdoor exposure in a cold climate where the concrete may be in almost continuous contact with moisture
before freezing, or where deicing salts will be used. Examples are pavements, bridge decks, sidewalks, and water
tanks.
§
Outdoor exposure in a cold climate where concrete will be only occasionally exposed to moisture before
freezing, and where no deicing salts will be used. Examples are exterior walls, beams, girders, and slabs not in
direct contact with soil or accumulated snow.
Note: Table 2.2 is adapted from Table 4.1 in ACI 201.2R, “Guide to Durable Concrete.”
The Right Mix for the Job
Take an example of a mixture designed for a specific purpose—a floor slab for a
commercial building, not subjected to heavy wear or to freezing and thawing. If
the concrete is placed without vibration, ACI 211.1 recommends a maximum slump
of 4 in. (100 mm). The maximum aggregate size is limited to one-third the depth
of the slab. If the slab has a thickness of 5 in. (125 mm) or more, a 1-1/2 in. (37.5
mm) maximum size aggregate may be used.
Because freezing and thawing is not a problem, the w/c is based on the
compressive strength required for non-air-entrained concrete. For this example,
suppose the specified strength is 4000 psi (28 MPa). Project specifications may
dictate performance requirements of the mixture design, such as permeability
and drying shrinkage, as well as compressive strength, which will influence
the mixture components. Note that 4000 psi (28 MPa) is higher compressive
strength than would normally be specified for a slab-on-ground. Higher-strength
concretes have more cement and therefore tend to shrink more, so the lowest
acceptable strength should be used.
The table from which the w/c is selected is based on average strength. With
excellent control, the average strength required to meet a 4000 psi (28 MPa)
specification would be approximately 4500 psi (31 MPa). Poorer control (a wider
range of strength test results) increases the average strength required. From
Table 2.3, the maximum w/c for a 4500 psi (31 MPa) average strength would be
0.53.
From ACI 211.1, an estimate may be made of the mixing water needed per cubic
yard for crushed stone or gravel aggregates and various slumps. For a 4 in.
(100 mm) slump, using 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) crushed stone aggregate, that would
be 300 lb (136 kg). The cement content would then be 300/0.53 = 566 lb/yd3
(136/0.53 = 257 kg). ACI 211.1 provides for similar estimates to be made of the
coarse and fine aggregate batch weights.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The Contractor's Guide to Quality Concrete Construction 21

Fig. 2.12—The concrete mixture batch
quantities for aggregates and water
must be adjusted to account for
free moisture on the aggregates. In
this example where sand with 3%
free moisture is being batched, the
theoretical amount of sand must be
increased and the theoretical amount
of water must be decreased to arrive at
the quantities used for batching. (Note:
1 lb = 0.454 kg)
Table 2.3
Relationship between water-cement ratio and compressive strength of
concrete (all other ingredients remain constant)
Compressive strength
at 28 days, psi (MPa) Non-air-entrained concrete
6000 (40)
5000 (35)
4000 (28)
3000 (21)
2000 (14)
22 Chapter 2 – The Concrete Mixture
the aggregate becomes a part of the mixture water. The batch weights of the aggregates
must be increased to account for the extra water that is on the surface of the aggregates.
Also, the batch weight of the water must be decreased by the same weight to compensate
for the free moisture on the aggregates. (The opposite adjustment would be made in
situations where the aggregates are so dry they absorb moisture from the mixture.)
The free moisture in aggregates (FMA), particularly sand, can vary significantly, and
the use of incorrect moisture contents in the batching of loads is a prime reason for
slump variation. In Fig. 2.12, the effect of FMA on batching of the sand and water for
a mixture is illustrated for a mixture requiring 1000 lb (454 kg) of SSD sand and 300
lb (136 kg) of water. The sand stockpile free moisture has been measured at 3%. As
illustrated in Fig. 2.12, the actual weight of moist sand that would need to go into the
batch is 1000 lb/(1 – 0.03) = 1031 lb [454 kg/(1 – 0.03) = 468 kg] of moist sand. This
1031 lb (468 kg) of moist sand is equal to 1000 lb (454 kg) of SSD sand and 31 lb (14
kg) of free water. The 300 lb (136 kg) of water called for in the mixture proportions
needs to be reduced to account for the 31 lb (14 kg) of water in the moist sand, so only
300 lb – 31 lb = 269 lb (136 kg – 14 kg = 122 kg) of water would be required for the
batch. This adjustment also needs to be performed if there is free water on the coarse
aggregate. Accurately measuring the FMA and making these adjustments will keep
the w/cm at the value the mixture was
designed for, which will in turn keep the
strength and slump at the desired levels.
Water reducer (Table 2.4,
Mixture #2)
When a water reducer is used, a given
slump can be obtained with less mixture
water, depending on the type and dose of
admixture or admixtures.
In Table 2.4, Mixture #2 incorporates
a water-reducing admixture that allows
a reduction in the water content of 8
percent. The table shows the effect on
cement, aggregate, and water to produce
a mixture with similar absolute volume,
w/c, and slump as Mixture #1. The 28-
day cylinder strength of Mixture #2 may
exceed that of Mixture #1, and the set
time may be longer. If use of an accelerator
is contemplated, consider the use of
Mixture #1 after verifying that it will
produce adequate strength.
Fly ash (Table 2.4, Mixture #3)
Because fly ash is generally less costly
than cement, the concrete cost may be
reduced if fly ash is substituted for a
portion of the cement. A water reducer is
generally incorporated in mixtures having
fly ash. If fly ash is used, the fly ash to total
cementitious material should generally be
between 15 and 30 percent.
In Table 2.4, Mixture #3 incorporates a
Water-cement ratio, by weight water-reducing admixture and fly ash. The
Air-entrained concrete fly ash content is 28 percent of the total
cementitious material. The table shows the
0.41 —
effect on the quantity of cement, aggregate,
0.48 0.40 and water to produce a mixture with
0.57 0.48 similar absolute volume, w/cm, and slump
0.68 0.59 as Mixtures #1 and #2. In this discussion,
0.82 0.74 it is assumed that the water reductions for
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Table 2.4
Concrete mixtures used for discussion
Mixture #1 Mixture #2 Mixture #3
Specific Absolute Ingredients, Absolute Ingredients, Absolute Ingredients,
gravity volume, ft3 (m3) lb/yd3 (kg/m3) volume, ft3 (m3) lb/yd3 (kg/m3) volume, ft3 (m3) lb/yd3 (kg/m3)
Cement 3.15 2.88 (0.082) 566 (336) 2.65 (0.075) 521 (309) 1.98 (0.056) 390 (231)
Fly ash 2.40 0 0 0 0 1.00 (0.028) 150 (89)
Sand, SSD 2.65 7.5 (0.212) 1240 (736) 8.12 (0.230) 1343 (797) 7.79 (0.221) 1288 (764)
Stone, SSD 2.60 11.54 (0.327) 1872 (1111) 11.54 (0.327) 1872 (1111) 11.54 (0.327) 1872 (1111)
Water 1.00 4.81 (0.136) 300 (178) 4.42 (0.125) 276 (164) 4.42 (0.125) 276 (164)
Air†
— 0.27 (0.008) — 0.27 (0.008) — 0.27 (0.008) —
Water-reducing
— 0 31.3 oz. (926 ml) 32.4 oz. (958 ml)
admixture‡
Mixture
— 3978 lb/yd3 (2360 kg/m3) 4012 lb/yd3 (2380 kg/m3) 3976 lb/yd3 (2359 kg/m3)
weight
Density — 147.3 lb/ft3 (2360 kg/m3) 148.6 lb/ft3 (2380 kg/m3) 147.3 lb/ft3 (2359 kg/m3)
w/cm — 0.53 0.53 0.51
†
Entrapped air = 1 percent. Adjust weights to correct yield based on measured density.
‡
Dose assumed to produce 8 percent water reduction.

Mixtures #2 and #3 are similar, although the use of fly ash often allows additional water
reduction at a given slump. This means that you can get the same slump with less water
by using fly ash.
The 28-day cylinder strength of Mixture #3 may be similar to that of Mixtures
#1 and #2, and the set time may be longer. The early in-place strength and set time
of fly ash mixtures should be tested for compatibility with the application. In cool
or cold weather, the reduced cement content and inherent characteristics of many
water reducers and fly ashes can cause excessive retardation. If use of an accelerator
is contemplated, consider the use of Mixture #1 after verifying that it will produce
adequate strength.
Incorporation of fly ash, especially Class F fly ash, increases the difficulty of producing
concrete with relatively consistent air content if carbon content (loss on ignition) is
inconsistent and not controlled by the manufacturer. Frequent measurement of density,
in addition to air content, is necessary to monitor air content and make necessary
changes to the dose of air-entraining agent.
If uniformity of concrete color is a concern, the consistency of color and
dependability of supply from the fly ash source should be guaranteed prior to use.
Fly ash will generally improve workability, pumpability, and finishability, especially in
lean mixtures, and also sulfate resistance (with Class F ash) and resistance to alkali-
aggregate reaction.
Adjusting for air entrainment
Air-entrained mixtures are proportioned using the same procedures as non-air-
entrained mixtures. Table 2.3 relates w/cm to strength and Table 2.5 relates w/cm to
exposure conditions for air-entrained concrete.
An air-entraining agent is used to increase air content. This increases slump and
volume (yield) and lowers unit weight (density). To correct mixture yield and restore
slump, it is necessary to reduce sand and water content. The reduction in water, if air
content has been increased from 1 percent to 6 percent, is approximately 25 lb/yd3
(15 kg/m3), and the reduction in sand is approximately 150 lb/yd3 (89 kg/m3), compared
with Mixture #1 (Table 2.4).
Entraining air in concrete without adjusting the mixture generally reduces strength.
The reduction in water content to restore slump compensates in part for loss in strength,
particularly in lean mixtures having a strength of up to approximately 3500 psi (24 MPa).
Above 3500 psi (24 MPa), it is generally necessary to increase cement content and,
particularly if the specified strength exceeds 4000 psi (28 MPa), more closely control
air content.
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
The Contractor's Guide to Quality Concrete Construction 23
 Table 2.5
Maximum permissible water-cementitious materials ratios for concrete in various exposures
Maximum Minimum fc′,
Category Class Condition w/cm* psi (MPa)
F0 Concrete not exposed to freezing-and-thawing cycles N/A 2500 (17)
F1 Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing cycles with limited exposure to water 0.55 3500 (24)
Freezing and thawing Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing cycles with frequent exposure to
(F) F2 0.45 4500 (31)
water
Concrete exposed to freezing-and-thawing cycles with frequent exposure to
F3 0.40† 5000 (35)†
water and exposure to deicing chemicals
Water-soluble sulfate (SO42–) in soil,
Dissolved sulfate (SO42–) in water, ppm§
percent by mass‡
S0 SO42– < 0.10 SO42– < 150 N/A 2500 (17)
Sulfate (S)
S1 0.10 ≤ SO42– < 0.20 150 ≤ SO42– < 1500 or seawater 0.50 4000 (28)
S2 0.20 ≤ SO 4
2–
≤ 2.00 1500 ≤ SO 4
2–
≤ 10,000 0.45 4500 (31)
S3 SO42– > 2.00 SO42– >10,000 0.45 4500 (31)
Concrete dry in service. Concrete in contact with water and low permeability is
In contact with water W0 N/A 2500 (17)
not required
(W)
W1 Concrete in contact with water and low permeability is required 0.50 4000 (28)
C0 Concrete dry or protected from moisture N/A 2500 (17)
Corrosion protection C1 Concrete exposed to moisture but not to an external source of chlorides N/A 2500 (17)
of reinforcement (C) Concrete exposed to moisture and an external source of chlorides from deicing
C2 0.40 5000 (35)
chemicals, salt, brackish water, seawater, or spray from these sources
*
The maximum w/cm limits in ACI 318-14, Table 19.3.2.1, do not apply to lightweight concrete.
†
For plain concrete, the maximum w/cm shall be 0.45 and the minimum fc′ shall be 4500 psi (31 MPa).
‡
Percent sulfate by mass in soil shall be determined by ASTM C1580.
Concentration of dissolved sulfates in water, in ppm, shall be determined by ASTM D516 or ASTM D4130.
§

Changes in the properties of cementitious materials, aggregate, and admixtures may

promote significant increases in air content of the concrete. Monitoring of air content
should be continual, regardless of whether concrete is air entrained. This is important
because, as previously discussed, strength reduction may result from an increase in air
content. A simple method of monitoring air content is to weigh cylinders prior to
capping and breaking, and record the results on cylinder strength reports.
For a concrete mixture with given ingredients, there is a direct relationship between
air content and unit weight (density). Concrete suppliers should understand this
relationship. If there is no indication that the batching process was flawed, concrete
should not be rejected for high or low air content unless the measured density verifies
that the measured air content is reasonable. If the relationship between density and air
content indicates a problem, the air content should be remeasured after calibration of
the air meter. A convenient way to measure unit weight (and thus be able to calculate
density) is to fill and weigh a calibrated air meter bucket before measuring the
air content.
WATER ADDITION AT THE JOBSITE
When water is added at the jobsite, be certain that the maximum specified w/cm is
not exceeded. This is the number-one restriction on water addition because it is directly
related to strength. The w/cm should not be exceeded even if the slump when the
concrete is delivered is lower than specified. Adding water to adjust slump should be
closely monitored. As a rule of thumb, adding 1 gal. of water per cubic yard (5 L of water
per cubic meter) of concrete will increase the slump by approximately 1 in. (25 mm)
and will reduce compressive strength by approximately 150 psi (1.0 MPa), along with
increasing shrinkage.
Most specifications allow water to be added only once on the job—prior to discharge
and when the slump is less than specified. The water added is limited to the amount
required to increase the slump to the level specified in the mixture design. During
discharge, workability may be restored only by remixing without the addition of water
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
24 Chapter 2 – The Concrete Mixture