Concrete Mechanics

 Introduction to concrete
 Mineral and chemical admixtures
 Structure of hydrated cement paste
 Calcium Aluminate Cement
 Cement Production quality control
 Transition zone in concrete
 Measurement of workability by quantitative empirical methods
 Concrete properties: setting and hardening
 Concrete Design mix for higher grades
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
A material other than water, aggregate, cement, used as an ingredient of concrete or
mortar added to the batch immediately before or during mixing.
There are two kinds of admixtures:
1. Chemical Admixtures
2. Mineral Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
Chemical Admixtures:
Admixtures are classed according to function.
1. Water reducers and superplasticizers
2. Retarders
3. Viscosity-modifying admixtures
4. Air-entraining admixtures
5. Shrinkage-reducing admixtures
Chemical Admixtures
1. Water reducers and superplasticizers
Water-reducing admixtures usually reduce the required water content for a
concrete mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a
water-reducing admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than
untreated concrete. The treated concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio.
This usually indicates that a higher strength concrete can be produced without
increasing the amount of cement. Recent advancements in admixture technology
have led to the development of high-range water reducers.
Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers or high-range water reducers
(HRWR), reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent and can be added to concrete
with a low-to-normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing
concrete. Flowing concrete is a highly fluid but workable concrete that can be
placed with little or no vibration or compaction.
Chemical Admixtures
2. Retarding admixtures
Retarding admixtures, which slow the setting rate of concrete, are used to
counteract the accelerating effect of hot weather on concrete setting. High
temperatures often cause an increased rate of hardening which makes placing
and finishing difficult. Retarders keep concrete workable during placement and
delay the initial set of concrete. Most retarders also function as water reducers
and may entrain some air in concrete.
Chemical Admixtures
3. Viscosity-modifying admixtures
Viscosity-modifying admixtures (VMAs) are essential to control the stability
and cohesion of modern concrete. This chapter focuses on polymeric VMAs as
they allow a higher variability of structural variations. They enhance the stability of
the mix by increasing one or several rheological parameters at the same time.
Their mechanism of action depends on the nature of the VMA and the presence
of other admixtures in the mix. In general, water retention admixtures
delay cement hydration while the influence of other VMAs on cement hydration
depends on its chemical composition. In practice, problems of incompatibility
between specific combinations of VMAs and superplasticizers must be avoided.
These could lead to a quick loss of fluidity without much improvement in the
stability of concrete. The understanding of the mechanism of action of the
different types of polymers may decrease the risk of having such problems on
Chemical Admixtures
4. Air entraining admixture
Air entraining admixture refers to the admixture that entrains a large number of uniform, stable
and closed tiny bubbles in the process of mixing concrete to reduce the segregation of concrete
mixture, improve the workability, and also enhance anti-freeze ability and durability of concrete. It
is a kind of surfactant, too. It has influences on concrete as follows:
a. It can improve the workability of concrete mixtures. The closed bubbles are like balls that
can reduce the friction among cement particles to improve the mobility. Meanwhile, the
bubble film can play a role of water conservation.
b. It can enhance impermeability and frost resistance. The closed stomata entrained by air
entraining admixture can effectively cut off the capillary porosity ducts and reduce pores
caused by segregation to enhance impermeability. Meanwhile, the closed pores
entrained can be an effective buffer for the expansion caused by water freeze to improve
frost resistance.
c. It can reduce strength. If the air content in concrete increases by 1%, its compressive
strength will decrease by 4% ~ 6%. Thus, the adding amount of air entraining admixture
should be appropriate.
Chemical Admixtures
5. Shrinkage-reducing admixtures
Shrinkage-reducing admixtures (SRAs) are used to reduce the shrinkage of
concrete, whether from drying or self-desiccation. In contrast to other concrete
admixtures, they are used in rather large amounts. This is because the interfacial
area at which they must act (liquid–vapor) increases radically in the course of
drying. Indeed, hardened cementitious materials have large internal surface area,
which when covered only by liquid films, provides a very large interfacial area
where the SRAs must remain active. More detailed considerations concerning the
working mechanisms of these admixtures have been developed by examining the
Helmholtz free energy. In this chapter, it is shown that the energy made available
by drying is used in two processes: deformation and creation of interfacial area.
SRAs increase the energy fraction used in the creation of interfacial by reducing
the surface tension of the liquid–vapor interface. It directly follows that less
energy is available for deformation and shrinkage is reduced.
Mineral Admixtures
Mineral Admixtures

Pozzolanic (Low-calcium FA)

Cementitious (Granulated iron blast-furnace slag)
Both pozzolanic and cementitious (Highcalcium FA)
Natural materials (Volcanic Ash)
By-product Material

Pozzolans

Siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possess little

or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
moisture, chemical react with Ca(OH)2 at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
The Pozzolanic Reaction

Pozzolanic Reaction
CH+S+aq CSH
Portland Cement Hydration
C3S + aq CSH + CH
The pozzolanic reaction is slow, so the rate of the strength development and the
heat of hydration associated with this reaction are low. It may be noted that the
pozzolanic reactions can be accelerated by temperature.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Diagrammatic representation of a well-hydrated portland
cement paste (left) and a portland-pozzolan cement paste (right)

A represents C-S-H
H represents CH
C represents capillary cavities or voids
CH+S C-S-H of low density.
Pozzolanic reaction converts the less dense CH phase and larger pores into denser C-S-H and smaller pore
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Fly Ash
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion
of pulverized coal in thermal power plants.
The dustcollection system removes the fly
ash, as a fine particulate residue, from the
combustion gases before they are
discharged into the atmosphere.

Class C: Containing more than 10% CaO (Normally produced from lignite or
subbituminous coal. This class of fly ash, in addition to having pozzolanic
properties, also has some cementitious properties.)
 SiO2, Al2O3, and CaO are the major constituents of most fly ashes. One of the
important characteristics of fly ash is the spherical form of the particles, which can
improve the concrete flow-ability.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Effect of fly ash on properties of fresh concrete

Concrete using fly ash is generally

reported to show reduced segregation and
bleeding and to be more satisfactory than
plain concrete when placed by pumping.

Effect on Heat of Hydration

Replacement of cement by fly ash results

in a reduction in the temperature rise in
fresh Concrete. This is particular
importance in mass concrete where
cooling, following a large temperature rise,
can lead to cracking.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Effect of fly ash on the structural properties of hardened concrete

At early ages fly ash exhibits very little cementing

value, at later ages cementing activity becomes
apparent and a considerable Contribution to
strength may results.
Important variables influence strength development:
-properties of fly ash
-chemical composition
-particle size
-reactivity
-the temperature and other curing conditions
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Advantage in high temperature

In contrast to the loss of strength that occurs with ordinary

Portland cement, fly ash concrete show strength gains as
a consequence of heating.

Effect of fly ash on the durability of concrete

Fly ash greatly improved sulphate resistance.

Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Blast-Furnace Slag
Blast furnace slag is a by-product of pig iron manufacture. When quenched
rapidly with water or air to a glassy state and finely ground, it develops the
property of latent hydraulicity.
Blast furnace slag has chemical component similar to that of Portland cement.
Due to hydraulicity, therefore, its use contributes not only to improvement in
concrete performance, but also to resource and energy savings.
Performance of concrete containing blast furnace slag
The unit water content necessary to obtain the same slump
decreases with the increase in the slag content.
The strength development is greatly affected by the quality and
replacement ratio of blast furnace slag, and curing condition.
Heat of hydration of concrete containing slag powder decreases
with the increase in the slag power content.
Concrete containing slag as a mineral admixtures generally offers
better chemical resistance due to improved water tightness,
since the concrete texture becomes dense.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Silica Fume
Silica fume is an industrial by-product consisting of ultrafine particle(0.01μm). It is
recovered from electric furnace by means of dust collectors from the waste gas
emitted during the production of ferro-silicon metal.
Silica fume is a highly pozzolanic materials.
Difficult to handle so necessary to use (highrange) water-reducing admixture
Comparison of particle size distributions of portland cement, fly ashes, and
condensed silica fume
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Rice Husk Ash
Rice husk ash is obtained by burning rice husk.
Highly pozzolanic characteristic.
The properties are greatly affected by the burning conditions. The large amount of
unburnt carbon due to the incomplete combustion exist and make the color of rice
husk ash is black, whereas, the burning is done under enough air supply
condition the rice husk ash become gray and white.
The white rice husk ash has better quality compared to the black rice husk ash due to the
existence of carbon affecting adversely on the reactivity.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Multicomponent Blended Cement
Is developed by mixing two or more kinds of mineral admixtures with the aim of
further improving the performance of blended cement.
This cement helps provide higher fluidity, higher strength, higher density, higher
durability, lower hear evolution, and increase resistance to alkali aggregate
reaction of concrete and is mainly used for massive structure including the
foundation for piers of long, large bridges and dam.
Improved Concrete Quality with Combination of Fly Ash and Silica Fume
Adding relatively small amount of silica fume to fly ash concretes with w/c of 0.40
to 0.45, results in concretes with satisfactory strength and very low permeability at
28 days.
With concretes containing a combination of fly ash and silica fume, increasing the
early curing temperature (up to 38 C) and duration of moist-curing reduces the
chloride permeability, other conditions remaining the same.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
The three important areas of concrete performance are strength, durability and
fluidity and the materials affecting the physical properties of cement matrix are
cement, mineral admixture and chemical admixture.
The using only portland cement in concrete does not guarantee all performance
of concrete.
The utilization of by-product mineral admixtures is the best alternative for nowadays
since it not only makes the concrete accomplish the proper performance but also reduce
the concrete cost and environmental problems.
The user who can use by-product mineral admixture in large amount such as cement
factory or ready mix concrete should be the main principal consuming by-product
materials.
Mineral and Chemical Admixtures
Schematic description of the mode and nature of formation of ITZ around
aggregate
Hydrated Cement Paste
The presence of water in cement will result in the hydration process (Exothermic Reaction
- Heat Evolution). This reaction will result in hydration products of silicates and
aluminates that will bring a hard mass over a period of time. This hard mass can be called
as Hydrated Cement Paste (HCP).

Phases of Concrete
The concrete is considered to have two phase materials. They are the:
1. Paste Phase (Cement Phase)
2. Solid Phase (Aggregate Phase)
The properties and quality of the paste phase influence largely on the overall properties of
the concrete when compared with the aggregate phase. The strength, permeability, elastic
properties, durability and volume change of the concrete are highly influenced by the
paste structure.
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)

As mentioned above, even if the cement phase influence majority of the properties of
concrete, the presence of aggregate will affect the cement phase in certain means. The
cement particles in water cannot arrange sufficiently as in the case of aggregate particles.
They lose the ability to be packed closely. This will create a phenomenon called the "wall
effect", where the aggregate particle will exert some sort of shear stresses on the cement
paste during the mixing procedure. This process will result in the separation of water from
the cement particles.

The above process will result in the formation of a thin layer in between the cement and
the aggregate. This layer will have a fewer amount of cement particles but have higher
water content. This separate zone is called as Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ).
Features of Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)
The ITZ is a plane of weakness and has a greater influence on the mechanical properties
and behavior of concrete. The zone is composed of same bulk cement paste. The quality
of the cement paste is very poor in the transition zone.
The drying shrinkage reasons or temperature variation will result in the vaporisation of
the water in the zone. This will create voids in the plane. Even before the application of
external loads, these voids will break to form small micro cracks. These smaller cracks
will propagate with further load application to forms large cracks. This voids in the plane
hence will affect the overall durability of the concrete. Final bond failure will result as the
cracks go on propagating. Hence the quality of concrete will depend on the quality of ITZ.
The ITZ is:
1. Weakest Link and the critical one in the Concrete Mixture
2. Higher in Water Cement Ratio
3. Higher Porosity
4. Not Uniform in Nature- depends on the aggregate phase
5. Overall Thickness 20-40 mm
6. Larger the aggregate particles larger is the ITZ
The general properties of concrete like:
• Concrete is Weak in Tension and Good in Compression
• Concrete is Brittle in Nature
are all due to the properties of ITZ.
HCP structure in Microscopic Level
In microscopic Level, the Hydrated Cement Paste Structure Consists of the following
elements.

Structure of HCP
Solids in HCP
The various solids that are present in HCP are:
1. Calcium Silicate Hydrate ( C-S-H): The volume of C-S-H in HCP is 50% to 60%.
This imparts Vander walls force, which will influence the strength of HCP. This
hydration product has higher surface area. This is not a well-defined compound.
2. Calcium Hydroxide ( Ca(OH)2): This is also called as Portlandite. This constitutes
20 to 25%volume of HCP. This has a lower surface area. This is not a desirable
product from hydration. This product is soluble in water and gets leached out making
the concrete porous. This is alkaline in nature and maintains the pH value of concrete
around 13.
3. Calcium Sulfoaluminate Hydrate: This product has minor role in the HCP
characteristics. The presence of this product will result in making the concrete
vulnerable to sulphate attack. These are needle shaped plate product called
as ettringite.
Voids in HCP
The voids present in HCP are:
1. Interlayer Space in HCP
2. Capillary Voids
3. Air Voids
Water in HCP
The water present in HCP is:
1. Capillary Water
2. Adsorbed Water
3. Interlayer Water
4. Chemically Combined Water
Calcium Aluminate Cements
Calcium aluminate cements are cements consisting predominantly of hydraulic calcium
aluminates. Alternative names are "aluminous cement", "high-alumina cement" and
"Cement found" in French. They are used in a number of small-scale, specialized
applications.
The main active constituent of calcium aluminate cements is monocalcium
aluminate (CaAl2O4, CaO · Al2O3, or CA in the cement chemist notation). It usually
contains other calcium aluminates as well as a number of less reactive phases deriving
from impurities in the raw materials. Rather a wide range of compositions is encountered,
depending on the application and the purity of aluminium source used.
Calcium Aluminate Cements
Calcium aluminate cement (CAC), mainly consisting of monocalcium aluminate (CA),
has been used in the construction industry since the late 19th and early 20th centuries after
patented in 1908 by J. Bied. Although it was initially developed to enhance the resistance
to aggrieve ions (sulfates and chlorides), as an alternative to Portland cement, a rapid
strength development at early ages (within 24 hours) led to its application to military
facilities in World War I, resulting in production of the various of types of CAC.
Nowadays, the use of CAC in specific fields is involved in a wide range, including as a
fire-resistant material in refractory application, a high resistance against chemical
degradations in the industrial floor and wastewater application, rapid setting and
hardening grout in tunnel lining, and resistance to abrasion in hydraulic dam spillway. In
addition, ability in gaining the strength rapidly, even at lower temperatures below 0°C,
makes it possible to cold weather concreting. Recently, there is an increasing interest in
the use of CAC with expansive agents as a repair material.
Calcium Aluminate Cements
Despite high performance, a structural use of CAC in construction has been faced with a
critical problem, a loss of strength due to the conversion process; metastable hydration
products (CAH10 and C2AH8) are thermodynamically transformed into stable ones
(C3AH6 and AH3), depending on curing regimes and ages, as follows:
The cubic phases of C3AH6 and AH3 have the higher density in CAC hydration;
therefore, the space filled by low-density hexagonal phases of CAH10 and C2AH8, which
produces a high early strength, would be decreased after the conversion process, resulting
in a sudden reduction in the strength. Many studies reported that long-term properties of
CAC concrete exhibited a decreased strength, compared to the strength at early ages. It
has been attempted to take some precautions for avoiding/eliminating the transformation
of metastable hydrates using chemical and mineral admixtures, to overcome this anxiety
about instability to the properties over time.
Workability by Quantitative Empirical Methods
Since the early 20th century, the concrete industry has recognized the need to monitor
concrete workability to ensure that concrete can be properly placed and can achieve
adequate hardened strength.
Even with the increase in knowledge of concrete rheology, the slump test remains the
predominately used test method for measuring concrete workability.
Modern concrete production systems have not eliminated the need to monitor concrete
workability in the field. To the contrary, the advent of new so-called high-performance
concrete mixes that are susceptible to small changes in mix proportions has made
monitoring workability even more critical.
After more than 80 years of efforts, the concrete industry is still faced with the challenge
of developing a field test to measure the relevant rheological properties of concrete
quickly and accurately.
The term workability is broadly defined; no single test method measures all aspects of
workability.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI 116R-00, 73) describes workability as “that
property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease with which it can be
mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished to a homogenous condition.”
The Japanese Association of Concrete Engineers defines workability as “that property of
freshly mixed concrete or mortar that determines the ease and homogeneity with which it
can be mixed, placed, and compacted due to its consistency, the homogeneity with which
it can be made into concrete, and the degree with which it can resist separation of
materials” (Ferraris 1999, 464).
Neville (1981, 203) succinctly defines workability as “the amount of useful internal work
necessary to produce full compaction.”
The multitude of workability test methods can be divided into categories based on several
different classification schemes. Tattersall (1991) broadly splits the assessment of
workability into three classes, as shown in the Table. The majority of workability test
methods fall into Class II and Class III.
Table 1: Classes of Workability Measurement (Tattersall 1991)
Class I Qualitative Workability, To be used only in a general descriptive
Flowability, Compactability, way without any attempt to quantify
Finishability, Pumpability, etc.
Class II Quantitative Empirical Slump, To be used as a simple quantitative
Compacting Factor, Vebe Time, Flow statement of behavior in a particular set
Table Spread, etc. of circumstances
Class III Quantitative Fundamental To be used strictly in conformity with
Viscosity, Mobility, Fluidity, Yield standard definitions
Value, etc.
Similar to Tattersall’s scheme, most test methods for workability have traditionally been
split between single-point tests and multi-point tests.
The concept of single-point tests versus multi-point tests is based on the flow curve
relating shear stress and shear rate.
A single-point test measures only one point on the flow curve and, therefore, provides an
incomplete description of workability. For instance, the slump test only provides one point
on the flow curve, namely, the yield stress.
Multi-point tests, by contrast, measure additional points on the flow curve, typically by
varying the shear rate, in order to provide a more complete description of concrete
rheology.
Single-point tests generally fall into Class II of Tattersall’s scheme, whereas multi-point
tests fall into Class III. Single-point tests can provide a direct or indirect measurement of
yield stress, plastic viscosity, or some other property. Multi-point tests typically measure
yield stress and plastic viscosity, or closely related values.
Single-point workability tests are generally intended to be simple and rapid; however,
they do not provide information on both yield stress and plastic viscosity. In some cases, a
single-point test may be appropriate for a certain type of concrete mix or a certain
application even though the test does not fully measure fundamental rheological
parameters. The trade-off between single-point tests and multi-point tests is generally that
single-point tests are simpler yet less complete.
Single-Point and Multi-Point Workability Tests for Concrete
Single-Point Tests:
Angles Flow Box Test; Compaction Factor Test;Compaction Test;Cone Penetration Test;
Flow Table Test;Flow Trough Test;Free Orifice (Orimet) Test;Intensive Compaction Test;
Inverted Slump Cone Test;K-Slump Tester; Kango Hammer Test; Kelly Ball Test; LCL
Flow Test; Mixer Devices; Moving Sphere Viscometer; Powers Remolding Test; Proctor
Test; Ring Penetration Test; Settlement Column; Segregation Test; Slump Test; Soil Direct
Shear Test; Soil Triaxial Test; Surface Settlement Test; Thaulow Tester; Trowel Test; Vebe
Consistometer; Vibratory Flow Meter; Vibropenetrator; Wigmore Consistometer etc.
Multi-Point Tests:
Bertta Apparatus; BML Viscometer; BTRHEOM Rheometer; CEMAGREF-IMG;
FHPCM; IBB Rheometer; Modified Slump Test; Multiple Single-Point Tests; Powers and
Wiler Plastometer; SLump Rate Machine (SLRM); System and Method for Controlling
Concrete Production; Tattersall Two-Point Device; Vertical Pipe Apparatus; Vibrating
Slope Apparatus
Workability test methods have also been classified in terms of the type of flow produced
during the test. In an effort to establish a uniform and widely accepted nomenclature for
concrete rheology, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) divided
existing rheology test methods into four broad categories (Hackley and Ferraris 2001).
The definitions of the four categories are listed in the Table.

Category Definition
Confined The material flows under its own weight or under an applied
Flow Tests pressure through a narrow orifice.
Free Flow The material either flows under its own weight, without any
Tests confinement or an object penetrates the material by gravitational
settling.
Vibration The material flows under the influence of applied vibration. The
Tests vibration is applied by using a vibrating table, dropping the base
supporting the material, an external vibrator, or an internal
vibrator.
Rotational The material is sheared between two parallel surfaces, one or both
Rheometers of which are rotating.
Categorization of Concrete Workability Test Methods
Confined Flow Test Methods

The use of confined flow in measuring workability is much more extensive. Many of the
tests available for self-compacting concrete are confined flow tests. Generally confined
flow tests are not suitable for low to moderate slump concretes, which are not sufficiently
fluid to readily flow under confined conditions and produce meaningful test results. Since
vibration imparts energy into concrete and produces flow in low to moderate slump
concretes, some vibration tests feature confined flow. Such tests that incorporate both
vibration and confined flow—including the inverted slump cone test and the vertical pipe
apparatus—are classified as vibration tests.
The confined flow tests are simple to perform and provide additional information that the
slump test does not provide. However, the tests are more complex than the slump test—
though much less complex than rotational rheometers—and are not widely used.
Compaction Factor Test
The compaction factor test measures the degree of compaction resulting from the
application of a standard amount of work.
The compaction factor is defined as the ratio of the mass of the concrete compacted in the
compaction factor apparatus to the mass of the fully compacted concrete.
Advantages:
1. The compaction factor test gives more information (that is, about compactability) than
the slump test.
2. The test is a dynamic test and thus is more appropriate than static tests for highly
thixotropic concrete mixtures.
Disadvantages:
1. The large and bulky nature of the device reduces its usefulness in the field. Further,
the test method requires a balance to measure the mass of the concrete in the cylinder.
2. The amount of work applied to the concrete being tested is a function of the friction
between the concrete and the hoppers, which may not reflect field conditions.
3. The test method does not use vibration, the main compaction method used in the field.
4. Although the test is commercially available, it is used infrequently.
Free Orifice Test (Orimet Test)
The free orifice test measures the time for concrete to flow through a vertical tube and out
a smaller diameter orifice at the bottom of the tube.
The apparatus consists of a 600 mm long, 100 mm diameter pipe held in a vertical
position with a tripod. An interchangeable orifice, which narrows the diameter of the pipe,
is attached to the bottom of the pipe. The standard orifice size of 80 mm is appropriate for
concrete mixes with a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm. Other typical orifice sizes are
70 mm and 90 mm. To perform the test, concrete is placed in the pipe but not compacted.
A door on the bottom of the orifice is opened and the time for the concrete to flow
completely out of the pipe is measured.
For normal, flowable concrete mixes, the typical flow times of 1.5 to 6 seconds; however,
more cohesive concretes can have flow times greater than 60 seconds. If a mix is highly
susceptible to segregation, coarse aggregates tend to accumulate near the orifice and slow
or completely block flow. A non-continuous discharge can suggest a concrete mixture’s
susceptibility to segregation. The standard test requires approximately 7.5 liters of
concrete and should be repeated at least 2-3 times.
Advantages:
1. The test is inexpensive and simple to use. Even if the apparatus is not placed on level
ground, an accurate result can still be obtained.
2. The test quickly provides a direct result.
3. The test represents a good simulation of actual placing conditions for highly flowable
concretes.
Disadvantages:
1. The test method is only appropriate for highly flowable and self-compacting
concretes.
2. Although the test provides a good indication of cohesiveness, the results are not
expressed in terms of fundamental units.
K-Slump Tester

The K-slump tester is a small device that can be inserted directly into a mass of fresh
concrete to determine slump quickly.
Advantages:
1. The K-slump tester is simple and easier to use than the slump test. A direct result is
available in approximately one minute.
2. The test can be performed on in-situ concrete.
3. The K and W terms provide more information than just the slump.
Disadvantages:
1. The test does not fully take into account the effects of coarse aggregates.
2. The test is static and is not appropriate for low slump concrete mixtures.
Free Flow Test Methods

Free flow test methods are generally simple to perform and provide a clear, direct result.
The slump test is the best known of the free flow test methods.
Other free flow test methods represent attempts to improve on the slump test.
Free flow tests generally give a result that is closely related to yield stress.
Many of the free flow tests can be used on concretes with a wide range of workability,
none of the free flow tests features vibration.
Tests that do not include vibration may not be the most appropriate test methods for
characterizing low workability and highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.
Slump Test
The slump test is the most well-known and widely used test method to characterize the
workability of fresh concrete. The inexpensive test, which measures consistency, is used
on job sites to determine rapidly whether a concrete batch should be accepted or rejected.
Advantages:
1. The slump test is the most widely used device worldwide. In fact, the test is so well
known that often the terms workability and slump are used interchangeably, even
though they have different meanings.
2. Specifications are typically written in terms of slump.
3. The slump test is simple, rugged, and inexpensive to perform. Results are obtained
immediately.
4. The results of the slump test can be converted to yield stress in fundamental units
based on various analytical treatments and experimental studies of the slump test.
5. Compared to other commonly used concrete tests, such as for air content and
compressive strength, the slump test provides acceptable precision.
Disadvantages:
1. The slump test does not give an indication of plastic viscosity.
2. The slump test is a static, not dynamic, test; therefore, results are influenced by
concrete thixotropy. The test does not provide an indication of the ease with which
concrete can be moved under dynamic placing conditions, such as vibration.
3. The slump test is less relevant for newer advanced concrete mixes than for more
conventional mixes.
Modified Slump Test

The modified slump test is intended for use as a field test to measure both the plastic
viscosity and yield stress of concrete mixtures. The test adds the parameter of time to the
standard slump test in order to measure plastic viscosity.
Once the slump cone is removed, the time for the disk to slide a distance of 100 mm is
measured. The sliding disk comes to rest on a stop located on the vertical rod. After the
disk comes to rest, the concrete continues to subside to its final position. The final slump
measurement is recorded no later than 60 seconds after the slump cone is removed.
Advantages:
1. The test is simple to conduct and only requires slightly more equipment than the
slump test.
2. The test gives an indication of both yield stress and plastic viscosity.
Disadvantages:
1. The test is not a dynamic test and does not account for the thixotropy of concrete or
the ability of concrete to flow under vibration.
2. Further testing is required to verify the validity of the test.
Slump Rate Machine

Like the modified slump test, the Slump Rate Machine (SLRM) introduces the variable of
time to the standard slump test in order to obtain more information about concrete
rheology (Chidiac et al. 2000).
The test is based on an analytical treatment of the slump test. It can be shown
analytically that the yield stress of concrete is a function of concrete density and the
horizontal slump flow of the concrete.
Advantages:
• The test gives an indication of both yield stress and plastic viscosity.
• The test is simpler and less expensive than traditional rheometers; however, it does
provide less information about the concrete.
Disadvantages:
• The test is not a dynamic test and does not account for the thixotropy of concrete nor
does it measure the ability of concrete to flow under vibration.
• The test device is more complicated than the modified slump test and requires the use of
a computer to log data and perform calculations.
• Further testing is required to verify the validity of the test.
Kelly Ball Test
The Kelly ball test was developed as a fast alternative to the slump test. The simple and
inexpensive test can be quickly performed on in-place concrete and the results can be
correlated to slump.
The Kelly ball test provides an indication of yield stress, as the test essentially measures
whether the stress applied by the weight of the ball is greater than the yield stress of the
concrete. For a given concrete mixture, the results of the Kelly ball test can be correlated
to slump. Typically, the value of slump is 1.10 to 2.00 times the Kelly ball test reading. It
has been claimed that the Kelly ball test is more accurate in determining consistency
than the slump test.
The test is applicable to a similar range of concrete consistencies as the slump test and is
applicable to special mixes, such as lightweight and heavyweight concretes. The
precision of the test declines with the increasing size of coarse aggregate.
Advantages:
• The test is faster than the slump test and can be preformed on in-place concrete to obtain
a direct result quickly.
• It has been claimed that the Kelly ball test provides more accurate results than the slump
test.
Disadvantages:
• Like the slump test, the Kelly ball test is a static test.
• The test must be performed on a level concrete surface.
• The test is no longer widely used.
• Large aggregate can influence the results.
Vibration Test Methods
Due to the wide use of vibration in placing concrete, many test methods measure the flow
of concrete under vibration. Vibration test methods typically feature free or confined flow.
Vibration test methods are generally simple to perform; however, none has been widely
accepted. Although vibration test methods can be used for a wide range of workability,
they are most appropriate for low and moderate slump concretes that are commonly
vibrated in the field.
In evaluating the results of vibration test methods, it is important to recognize the role of
several vibration parameters in influencing the flow properties of concrete. It has been
experimentally established that vibration alters the Bingham parameters of concrete.
Ideally, the vibration applied by the test should closely match the vibration applied in the
field.
Compaction Test (Walz Test, Compaction Index Test, Degree of Compaction Test)
Like the compaction factor test, the compaction test expresses workability in terms of the
compactability of a concrete sample.
Advantages:
• The compaction test provides an indication of the compactability of concrete.
• The test device is simple and inexpensive.
• When the variable of time is added, an indirect indication of plastic viscosity is given.
Disadvantages:
• The test device can be difficult to empty, particularly when low slump concretes are
tested.
• Test results with different compaction methods cannot be compared directly.
• When the time for compaction is measured, determining the end point of the test is
difficult because the height of concrete in the container versus time is asymptotic. The use
of a computer can facilitate the readings of height versus time and the selection of the end
point of the test.
Vebe Consistometer
The Vebe consistometer measures the remolding ability of concrete under vibration. The
test results reflect the amount of energy required to remold a quantity of concrete under
given vibration conditions. The Vebe consistometer is applicable to concrete with slumps
less than 2 inches.
Since the test apparatus is large and heavy, it is inappropriate for field use. The vibrating
table must be mounted on a large and stable base of sufficient mass to absorb the table’s
vibrations. The main use for the test has been in the laboratory and in the precast
industry, where low slump concrete mixes are commonly used. The apparatus is neither
directly related to slump nor plastic viscosity.
Advantages:
• The Vebe consistometer is a dynamic test and can be used on concretes that are too dry
for the slump test.
• The test device is standardized in ASTM and identified by ACI Committee in its guide
for proportioning low slump concrete.
• Test results are obtained directly.
Disadvantages:
• Due to the need to ensure that all vibration is kept within the test device, the size of the
test device makes the Vebe consistometer generally unsuitable for field use.
• The test device only works for low slump concretes.
• No analytical treatment of the test method has been developed. Such treatment would be
complex because the shear rate declines during the duration of the test as the concrete
specimen changes shape.
Flow Table Test
The flow table test measures the horizontal spread of a concrete cone specimen after
being subjected to jolting.
The test is applicable to a wide range of concrete workability, and is especially
appropriate for highly fluid mixes that exhibit a collapsed slump. The results of the test
can be correlated to slump, although it has been suggested that the initial horizontal
spread, prior to jolting, correlates better to slump. Despite its simplicity, the test
apparatus is large and must be placed on firm, level ground. The jolting of the concrete
does not accurately simulate field practices and cannot easily be treated analytically. In
fact, the further the concrete spreads, the thinner the layer of concrete becomes and the
less this thin layer represents the bulk properties of the concrete. Research has
suggested that spread measurements for different concrete mixtures converge with an
increasing number of drops of the top plate.
Advantages:
• The test is simple and can be used in the field.
• The test quickly provides a direct result.
• The test is dynamic, making it especially appropriate for highly thixotropic concrete
mixtures.
Disadvantages:
• The test procedure does not represent actual placement conditions—concrete is typically
vibrated, not jolted.
• The test results tend to converge as the number of drops is increased. Near the end of
the test, the properties of the thin layer of concrete do reflect the bulk properties of the
concrete.
• The results are not given in terms of fundamental units. An analytical treatment of the
test would be difficult.
Rotational Rheometers
Rotational rheometers for concrete apply shear stress to concrete at different shear rates in
order to measure the fundamental rheological parameters of yield stress and plastic
viscosity. Rotational rheometers are most typically used exclusively in the laboratory.
Although some rotational rheometers have been designed to be sufficiently small and
rugged for use on jobsites, the limited availability and high cost of these devices make
them impractical for regular field use. Although different rotational rheometers measure
different ranges of workability, various devices are available to measure the full range of
workability from low workability concrete to self-compacting concrete.
Three test methods—the soil direct shear test, the mixer devices, and the fresh concrete
tester—incorporate some concepts of traditional rotational rheometers but do not
measure concrete at different shear rates. These devices only determine consistency and
provide no indication of plastic viscosity.
While traditionally rheometers have been successfully used for fine particle suspensions,
concrete presents unique challenges. Unlike traditional rheometers, concrete rheometers
must deal with the large size of coarse aggregates, concrete segregation, and time
dependence of flow properties. For instance, in order to achieve a linear flow gradient
with coaxial cylinders rheometers, the difference between the inner and outer cylinder
radii should be at least five times the maximum aggregate size. Further, the ratio of the
outer cylinder radius to the inner cylinder radius should be 1.0 to 1.1. Rheometers
constructed based on these particular requirements are generally too large to be practical.
Indeed, many of the problems with rotational rheometers have yet to be overcome.
Powers and Wiler Plastometer
The recording plastometer developed by Powers and Wiler appears to be the first attempt
to apply the concept of a coaxial cylinders rheometer to concrete. The recording
plastometer was designed to be of sufficient size to measure concrete, although it was also
used to measure paste and mortar.
Despite the presence of ribbed rubber on the walls of the plastometer, slip occurred
between the concrete and the plastometer walls after sufficient stress developed. The
stress-strain plot up to this occurrence of this slip was linear, with the slope of the line
defined as the modulus of stiffness.
Advantages:
• The recording plastometer represented one of the first attempts to use the concept of a
coaxial cylinders rheometer to measure the rheology of concrete. Although it is no longer
used, the plastometer has served as a basis for the development of more sophisticated
devices.
Disadvantages:
• The test measured stress and strain, not shear stress and shear rate.
• Slip occurred at the walls of the device.
Soil Direct Shear Test
The direct shear test used for soil can be performed with fresh concrete to assess
the cohesive strength of a concrete mixture. The results of the test are given in terms of
soil mechanics parameters, not in terms of yield stress and plastic viscosity.

Advantages:
• The test essentially determines the yield stress of the concrete.
• The test provides additional information, namely the angle of internal friction, not
available from most conventional tests.
Disadvantages:
• The results of the test are not described in terms of shear stress and shear rate. The use
of the direct shear test predates the establishment of concrete as a Bingham material. The
additional information provided by the test is not necessarily useful.
• The test does not provide a measure of plastic viscosity.
• The test is strictly a laboratory device.
Fresh Concrete Tester
Several European companies sell a hand-held impeller-type device, marketed under
various trade names, to measure the consistency of concrete in place.
FCT 101 only measures a value of consistency that is correlated to slump. The device
appears to use signal averaging to minimize the variability caused by large aggregates.
The device does not operate at multiple shear rates. The rotating hemispheres tend to
create channels within low and moderate slump concretes, making it difficult to measure
the plastic viscosity by using multiple shear rates at one location in the concrete sample.
The H-shaped impellers on the Tattersall two-point device and on the IBB rheometer
move in a planetary motion to help avoid this problem.
Advantages:
• The device allows for fast and continuous measurement of workability.
• The embedded electronic interface allows for the instant correlation of test readings to
slump and water content and for the prediction of compressive strength. The results can
be logged for documentation purposes.
Disadvantages:
• Although the impeller design of the device resembles more advanced rheometers, the
device only measures consistency and not plastic viscosity.
• The device must be calibrated for each concrete mix. Each calibration is only valid for
one particular concrete mix.
• The impeller could create a continuous channel in stiff concretes. The resulting torque
measurements would suggest an artificially high consistency reading.
Test Methods for Very Low Slump Concrete

Very low slump concretes are typically too stiff to be measured with test methods that
consider the ability of concrete to flow. Instead, tests for very low slump concretes
generally attempt to simulate the actual placement conditions for low slump concretes and
measure more relevant properties like compactability. The proctor test and the Kango
hammer test utilize vibration to compact samples whereas the intensive compaction test
uses compression and shear forces.
These tests are generally simple to perform, although none can be used as a simple field
quality control device.
Proctor Test
The proctor test used for soils can also be used for lean, dry concrete mixes. The test
procedure for concrete is the same test procedure commonly used for soils.
Advantages:
• The test is appropriate for low slump concrete mixtures that cannot be tested with
conventional workability tests.
• The test is simple and well known.
Disadvantages:
• The test does not incorporate vibration, which is commonly used to compact low slump
concretes.
• The test is time consuming: performing the test requires four to six samples to be
prepared to define the unit weight versus moisture content curve.
Kango Hammer Test
The Kango hammer test attempts to measure workability by simulating the effect of
vibration and pressing on low-slump concretes.
Advantages:
• By using both vibration and pressure, the test accurately simulates field placement
conditions.
• The test is simple and easy to perform.
Disadvantages:
• The particular hammer is not specified, making comparisons of the test results difficult.
• The apparatus is larger than the proctor test and requires electricity.
Workability Test Methods for Self-Compacting Concrete
Self-compacting concrete (also self-leveling, super workable, or self-consolidating
concrete) presents new challenges for the measurement of workability. Since self-
compacting concrete is capable of flowing readily under its own weight, its yield value is
near zero. Therefore, in measuring the workability of self-compacting concrete, yield
stress is a less important parameter than it is for conventional concrete. Although the yield
stress of self-compacting concrete is still evaluated, other properties related to plastic
viscosity and segregation resistance must also be examined.
Workability tests for self-compacting concrete can be broadly split into three categories:
filling ability tests, passing ability tests, and segregation resistance tests. Each test
described below fits into one or more of these categories. In accordance with the NIST
classification scheme, the tests for self-compacting concrete typically fit into the
confined flow and free flow test categories. As previously discussed, many rotational
rheometers are capable of measuring selfcompacting concrete. In addition to the test
methods described below, the free orifice (orimet) test can be used for self-compacting
concrete.
V-Funnel Test
The V-funnel test is used to measure the filling ability of self-compacting concrete and
can also be used to judge segregation resistance. The test method is similar to the concept
of the flow cone test used for cement paste.
Slump Flow Test
The simplest and most widely used test method for self-compacting concrete is the slump
flow test. The test, which was developed in Japan, was originally used to measure
underwater concrete and has also been used to measure highly flowable concretes.
J-Ring Test
The J-ring test extends common filling ability test methods to also characterize passing
ability.
L-Box Test

The L-box test measures the filling and passing ability of self-compacting concrete.
Originally developed in Japan for underwater concrete, the test is also applicable for
highly flowable concrete.
U-Box Test
The U-box test measures filling ability and is similar to the L-box test. The U-box test
was developed in Japan and is sometimes referred to as the box-shaped test. Like other
workability tests for self-compacting concrete, the U-box test is also applicable to highly
flowable concretes and underwater concretes.
Fill Box Test
The fill box test measures the passing ability and segregation resistance of self-
compacting concrete.
Wet Sieving Stability Test
The wet sieving stability test as developed by a French contractor to measure the
segregation resistance of self-compacting concrete.
Although the test results are valuable and accurate, the test is slow and requires an
accurate scale, making it unsuitable for field use. Additionally, poor repeatability of the
test results has been reported.
Penetration Test for Segregation
The penetration test for segregation measures the penetration resistance of highly fluid
and self-compacting concretes.
The test method is simple and inexpensive; however, little data exists to relate test
results to actual field performance.
Workability Test Methods for Pastes and Grouts

Flow Cone Test

Turning Tube Viscometer

Wuerpel Device
Mini-Slump Test

Mini-Flow Test

Vicat Needle Test

ViscoCorder
Summary
Based on the advantages and disadvantages of the existing workability test methods described in this
document, criteria for the creation and evaluation of future test methods can be developed.
Any new test method should measure workability more fully than the slump test is capable of doing
and be competitive with the slump test in terms of cost and speed. The criteria for any new
workability test method are described as follows:
• Parameters Measured: Any new test method must measure dynamic properties of
moderate and low workability concretes and must appropriately measure concretes that exhibit high
thixotropy. To accomplish this, the test must add energy to the concrete, such as with vibration. The
test should directly or indirectly measure yield stress and plastic viscosity.
• Ruggedness: Any new test device must be sufficiently rugged to be used regularly on a jobsite.
Depending on the accuracy of the device, it may also be used in the lab for research and mix
proportioning.
• Workability Range: Any new test method should be able to measure the widest possible range of
workability. The wider the range of workability, the more versatile the device will be and the greater
the chance that the device will be adopted widely. In reality, no device can measure all concretes,
from zero-slump to self-compacting concretes.
• Aggregate Size Restrictions: The device must feature proper geometry to allow testing of concretes
with a wide range of aggregate sizes. Based on existing tests, such as the slump test, the device
should measure concretes with a maximum aggregate size of up to 1.5 inches.
• Cost: The cost of any device, when mass-produced, must be competitive with simple, currently
available devices, most notably the slump test.
• Sample Size: The sample size should be kept to a minimum while still being sufficiently large to
accurately determine rheology parameters.
• Test Speed: The speed with which the test can be conducted must be minimized. The slump test
can be performed in several minutes. Other tests allow workability to be monitored continuously
with little interruption of construction operations.
• Complexity/Training: Any new test device must be sufficiently simple to be performed and
interpreted by field workers. Although the test may report results in terms of yield stress and
plastic viscosity, field personnel not familiar with concrete rheology must be able to interpret these
values and make quick decisions. The use of nomographs or an embedded electronic device can
facilitate the interpretation of results in the field.
• Data Processing: The results of the test should preferably be obtained directly without any
calculations or processing. When data processing is required, an embedded electronic device
should perform all calculations and display simple results that can be used directly.
• Size and Weight: The device must be small and light so that one person can easily move it around
on a jobsite.
• Number of People Required to Perform Test: One person should be able to perform the test
method quickly. This one person should also be able to perform other duties on the job site, instead
of only monitoring workability.
• Electricity: Although any new test device should preferably be able to operate without electricity,
devices requiring power should not be eliminated. Many construction sites have power readily
available. Alternatively, batteries can be used.
Concrete properties: setting and hardening
The properties which determine the quality of the hardened concrete broadly fall into the
following three groups :
1. Strength.
2. Durability.
3. Dimensional stability.
Properties of Hardened Concrete:
Characteristic strength, drying shrinkage, creep, modulus of elasticity, permeability and
resistance to chemical attack are hardened and time-dependent properties of concrete that
may influence structural performance.
1. STRENGTH
In simple language, the strength of concrete means the maximum amount of load which it
can handle. In common practice, it is the power of the concrete which is considered its
most valuable property. In fact, high-strength concrete is synonymous with good quality
concrete. The Strength of Concrete can be determined by the compressive strength and
tensile strength.
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH:
It may be defined as the maximum compressive load that can be taken by concrete per
unit area. It has been shown that with special care and control, concrete can be made to
bear as high loads as 800 kg/sq.cm or even more. In practice, however, concrete with
compressive Strength between 200-500 kg/sq.cm can be easily made on the site for the
common type of construction. The compressive strength is also called the crushing
strength, and it is determined by loading axially cube-shaped (or cylindrical shaped, in the
USA) specimens made out of the concrete. The tests are carried out in 3 days, 7 days and
28 days after the casting of the samples. It has been observed that the compressive
(crushing) strength of concrete is influenced by a huge number of factors.
Some of the most important factors are:
1. Type of Cement
2. Nature of Aggregates
3. Water-Cement Ratio
4. Curing Conditions
5. Weather Conditions
6. Admixtures
7. Method of Preparation
Tensile Strength:
Plain concrete (without steel reinforcement) is quite weak in tensile strength which may
vary from 1/8th to 1/20th of the ultimate compressive strength. In plain concrete, tensile
strength depends largely on the same factors as of the compressive strength. The Tensile
strength of concrete becomes a valuable property when it is to be used in road making and
runways. It is determined by using indirect methods.
In one of such methods, it is deduced from the flexural strength test. In this test, a beam
of concrete is cast in standard dimensions depending upon the nominal size of the
aggregate. Then, the beam is properly cured and tested after 28 days.
In the second indirect method, called the split-cylinder method, the cylinder of specified
dimensions is made to fail under tension by applying compressive load across the
diameter. This is termed as Splitting Tensile Strength. The testing machine is adjusted to
distribute the load along the entire, length of the cylinder; From the load at failure, tensile
strength is calculated.
Durability:
Durability is the second most important quality of hardened concrete. It may be defined as
the capacity of hardened concrete to withstand all the forces of deterioration that are
likely to act on it, after setting, in a given environment.
Among these forces, the following are more likely to act.
1. Frost action.
2. Abrasive forces.
3. Chemical action.
4. Alkali-aggregate reaction.
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:
CREEP; This defines the behavior of concrete under loads. It is now well established that
concrete is not a truly elastic material. Also, it is not entirely plastic material. When
hardened concrete is loaded, it deforms.
1. partly as a result of elastic strain (which is recovered on the removal of the load);
2. partly as a result of plastic strain (a permanent deformation).
This latter non-elastic time dependent deformation is a typical property of concrete and is
commonly referred as CREEP.
Among the various causes of creep, the following may be mentioned:
1. Closure of the void-structures of concrete on the application of load;
2. Squeezing of water from within the cement gel when the concrete is loaded,
3. The flow of cement-water paste, in a viscous state, causing a permanent shrinkage
under load;
4. Readjustment of aggregates under load.
It is believed that the proportion of mix and the type of cement used in concrete have a
profound influence on the rate of creep.
Concrete mixes with higher water-cement ratio will also show higher creep rates.
Creep is thought to be beneficial in some cases and harmful in other cases.
In reinforced concrete, it helps in transferring stresses to the reinforcement and, thereby
reducing chances of failure by stress-concentration.
SHRINKAGE:
Hardened Concrete undergoes in three types of shrinkage that are important with respect
to its dimensional stability:
1. Plastic shrinkage.
2. Drying shrinkage.
3. Thermal shrinkage.
i. Plastic Shrinkage.
This is the shrinkage that the freshly placed concrete undergoes till it sets completely. It
may also be called initial shrinkage.
Such a volumetric change is due to loss of water from the fresh concrete due to
evaporation, bleeding, seepage, and soaking by formwork.
Excessive shrinkage at initial stages may develop extensive cracking in the concrete on
the setting. Therefore, all precautions should be taken to avoid excessive loss of water due
to evaporation.
ii. Drying Shrinkage :
As the concrete has completely set and hardens, some further shrinkage may result
because of contraction of gel-structure due to further loss of moisture, or drying (against
the term evaporation used in the first type of shrinkage).
This kind of shrinkage is practically an essential and irreversible property of concrete. It
has to be met with by careful design of reinforcement to avoid its ill effects (cracking of
hardened concrete).
iii. Thermal Shrinkage.
This may be due to fall in temperature of concrete from the time it is laid till it sets
completely.
Thus, when concrete laid at 30°C cools down to 15°-18°C, some shrinkage may be
expected. It may be negligible on its own account.
But when added to drying shrinkage, it becomes necessary.
EXPANSION:
Concrete may expand on hardening due to the following two reasons:
Thermal Expansion: In massive concrete works, when the upper layers are laid before
the lower layers have completely set, there can arise a phenomenon of thermal
expansion in the lower layers.
This is because the heat of hydration gets accumulated in those layers and may attain
magnitudes beyond acceptable limits.
Chemical Reactions: Alkali-aggregate reactions are known to cause a definite
expansion in the concrete.
The reaction between amorphous silica of aggregates and oxides of potassium and
sodium – from the cement used in aggregate yield crystalline structures of bigger
volumes.
This change becomes harmful because these gel-structures are not as stable and strong
as those formed by reaction between calcium oxide and silica.
They become the cause of cracking and quicker deterioration of hardened concrete.
Thank You