Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Province of Laguna

Feedback and Control Systems

REVIEW

Introduction

Control systems exist in a virtually infinite variety, both in type of application and
level of sophistication. The heating system and the water heater in a house are systems in
which only the sign of the difference between desired and actual temperatures is used for
control. If the temperature drops below a set value, a constant heat source is switched on,
to be switched off again when the temperature rises above a set maximum. Variations of
such relay or on-off control systems, sometimes quite sophisticated, are very common in
practice because of their relatively low cost.

In the nature of such control systems, the controlled variable will oscillate
continuously between maximum and minimum limits. For many applications this control is
not sufficiently smooth or accurate. In the power steering of a car, the controlled variable or
system output is the angle of the front wheels. It must follow the system input, the angle of
the steering wheel, as closely as possible but at a much higher power level.

In the process industries, including refineries and chemical plants, there are many
temperatures and levels to be held to usually constant values in the presence of various
disturbances. Of an electrical power generation plant, controlled values of voltage and
frequency are outputs, but inside such a plant there are again many temperatures, levels,
pressures, and other variables to be controlled.

In aerospace, the control of aircraft, missiles, and satellites is an area of often very
advanced systems.

System

A system refers to a meaningful interconnection of various components that

produces an output from a given input.

x(t) SYSTEM y(t)

Open-Loop Control System

 An open-loop control system in which the output is not fed back to the input of the
system.
 Also referred to as a non-feedback control system.
 The output has no control on the control action of the system.
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r(t) Controller Process c(t)

Closed-Loop Control System

 A closed-loop control system is a system that can be automated.

 A complete path followed by a signal as it is fed back from the output of a circuit,
device, or system to the input and then back to the output.

r(t) Controller Process c(t)

Sensor

Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) System

A system is said to be linear time-invariant (LTI) if the system satisfies the following
properties:

i. If y = f(x), then ( ) ( ) ( )
ii. If y = f(x), then ( ) ( )
iii. If y(t) = f(x(t)), then ( ) ( ( ))

A system can be represented mathematically by:

a. Differential Equation
b. Transfer Function
c. State Space
d. Impulse Response

Example:

( ) ( ) ( )
The transfer function described by ( ) with x(t) as an
input and y(t) as an output is given by: (Refer to the solution to be written on the board)

( )
( )
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Write your notes here:

For Electrical Circuits:

R is R

L is Ls

C is 1/Cs
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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Transfer Function

( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
Where:

: Zeros

: Poles

k: DC gain (Steady-State Gain)

Example:

a. A system has a pair of complex conjugate poles , = -1±j2, a single real zero z = -4,
and a gain factor K = 3. Find the differential equation representing the system if the
input is r(t) and output is c(t). (Refer to the solution to be written on the board)
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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Write your notes here:

b. In the given figure shows pole-zero plot. If steady-state gain is 2, the transfer
function G(s) is

(Refer to the solution to be written on the board)

Write your notes here:

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna

Block Diagram and Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

A. Block Diagram

Block Diagram consists of:

Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled with, a transfer
function

Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by arrows – could be
voltage, velocity, force, etc.

Summing Junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed – subtraction

indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the summing junction

Standard Block Diagram Forms:

 The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:

 Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

o Cascade
o Parallel
o Feedback
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Blocks connected in cascade:

The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the product of the individual
transfer functions.

Blocks connected in parallel:

The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the sum of the individual
transfer functions.
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Laguna State Polytechnic University
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Blocks in feedback form:

The closed-loop transfer function, T(s), is

Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:

 The G(s)H(s) factor in the denominator is the loop gain or open‐loop

transfer function.
 The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the
forward path gain – here, G(s).
 In general:
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Unity-Feedback Systems

 Feedback path gain is unity

 Closed-loop transfer function is:

B. Signal Flow Graph (SFG)

 An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems.

 Signal flow graphs consist of:

o Nodes: represent signals
o Branches: represent system blocks
 Branches labeled with system transfer functions.
 Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names.
 Arrows indicate signal flow direction.
 Implicit summation at nodes.
o Always a positive sum
o Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions

Mason’s Rule

Mason’s Rule is a method that provides a formula to calculate the same overall
transfer function.
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Province of Laguna

A. Loop Gain
Total gain (product of individual gains) around any path in the signal flow graph
 Beginning and ending at the same node
 Not passing through any node more than once

From the given figure, there are three loops with the following gains :

B. Forward Path Gain

Gain along any path from the input to the output (not passing through any node
more than once)
From the given figure, there are two forward paths with the following gains:

C. Non-Touching Loops
Loops that do not have any nodes in common
From the given figure,
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Mason’s Rule Formula:

Solution:
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SFG Terms:

 Input node: Node with only outgoing branches.

 Output node: Node with only incoming branches. In case this condition is not met,
an additional branch with unity gain can be introduced.
 Path: A traversal of connected branches as per the direction indicated by the arrow
on the branch such that no node is traversed more than once.
 Forward Path: A path connecting the input and the output node.
 Loop: A path which starts and ends at the same node.
 Non-touching loops: Loops with no common nodes.
 Path gain: Product of gains associated with each branch that is encountered in
traversing a path.

Write your notes here:

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Laguna State Polytechnic University
Province of Laguna

Time Response Analysis

 Time response of the system is defined as the output of a system when subjected to
an input which is a function of time.
 Time response analysis means subjected the control system to inputs that are
functions of time and studying their output which are also function of time.
 A control system generates an output or response for given input.
 The input represents the desired response while the output is actual response of
system.
 Divided into two parts:
a. Transient Response – The output is changing with respect to time.
b. Steady-State Response – The output is almost constant.
A. First Order Control System

A first order control system is defined as a type of control system whose input-
output relationship (also known as a transfer function) is a first-order differential
equation. A first-order differential equation contains a first-order derivative, but no
derivative higher than the first order. The order of a differential equation is the order of
the highest order derivative present in the equation.

As an example, let us look at the block diagram of the control system shown below.

The transfer function (input-output relationship) for this control system is defined as:

Where:

 K is the DC Gain (DC gain of the system ratio between the input signal and the
steady-state value of output)
 T is the time constant of the system (the time constant is a measure of how quickly a
first-order system responds to a unit step input)
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Rise Time:

Settling Time:

Notes here (for examples):

Second Order Control System

The type of system whose denominator of the transfer function holds 2 as the
highest power of ‘s’ is known as second-order system. This simply means the maximal
power of ‘s’ in the characteristic equation (denominator of transfer function) specifies the
order of the control system. The order of the system provides the idea about closed-loop
poles of the system.

The block diagram of the second-order system with unity feedback is given below:

Where:
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The open-loop gain of the second-order system is given as:

We know that the transfer function of a closed-loop control system is given as:

So, the closed-loop gain of the control system with unity negative feedback will be:

On simplifying, we get,

This is the transfer function of a standard 2nd order system. Thus the characteristic
equation will be:

Settling Time:

Rise Time:

Peak Time:

Damped Frequency Oscillation: √

Percent Overshoot: where: ( )

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Steady State Error

The difference between the input and the output of a system after the transient
response has decayed to zero.

State Error Coefficients

1. Static Position Error Coefficient: ( )

2. Static Velocity Error Coefficient: ( )
3. Static Acceleration Error Coefficient: ( )

Stability Analysis

Stability: Introduction of feedback in a system may lead into stability issue. We need to
ensure that the system is stable.

Absolute Stability

 If all poles lie on the LHP, then the system is stable.

 Even if a single pole lies on RHP, the system is unstable.
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 When a pair of complex conjugate poles lies on the imaginary axis, the system is
marginally stable.
 When there is a repeated pair of poles in the imaginary axis, then the system is
unstable.
 When two different pairs of complex conjugate poles lie on the imaginary axis, then
the system is marginally stable.
 For 1st and 2nd order system, if all coefficients of the characteristic equation have the
same sign, then the system will always be stable.
 For higher-order systems, the above condition is necessary but not sufficient; in that
case, use the Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion.

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion

Consider an nth order characteristic equation (CE):

The necessary conditions so that the CE does not have any root on the RHP are:

1. All the coefficients must of the same sign; and

2. None of the coefficients must be missing.

For sufficient conditions, we need to solve the ROUTH ARRAY:

LHP: Left Hand Plane

RHP: Right Hand Plane

Reference: Feedback Control Systems by John Van de Vegte